ICCAD 1997 Tutorial

Design Technology for Building

Wireless Systems

Rajesh Gupta
University of California, Irvine
rgupta@ics.uci.edu

Mani Srivastava
UCLA
mbs@ee.ucla.edu
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Copyright 1997  Rajesh Gupta & Mani Srivastava

Phenomenal Growth in Wireless Voice & Data Services

● 35-60% annual growth in PCS users

● By 2000, one in three phones will be
mobile (42% in US)
● Nordic countries: 10 mobile phones
being added for every wireline phone
● Japan: number of users doubled from
10M to 21M from March to october 1996
● 600M mobile phone users by 2001
● $17B in PCS license auctions
● 300% growth in wireless data from 1995
to 1997

Big demand for portable computers:

● 2m ($290M) in 1988 to 74M ($54B) in 1998

● 20% of all computers sold are laptops

2
 “Anytime Anywhere Anyform” Information Systems

PCS & Multimedia

Messaging on the road

Fax & email on the beach

mani <1>

UCLA
Wireless Sensors
Multimedia wireless LANs & PBXs
in offices, schools, hospitals, homes Networked sensors everywhere

Size & Battery Life are Critical in Wireless Devices

● Battery technology is a key hurdle - no Moore’s Law here!

Battery Rechargeable? Gravimetric Density (Wh/lb) Volumetric Density (Wh/l)
alkaline-MnO2 (typical AA) NO 65.8 347
silver oxide NO 60 500
Li/MnO2 NO 105 550
zinc air NO 140 1150
NiCd YES 23 125
Li-Polymer YES 65-90 300-415

40
Nominal Capacity
(Watt-hours / lb)

NiMH
30

20
NiCd
10

0
65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Year

4
 Where does the Battery Power go?

Laptop + Personal
Cellular
Laptop Wireless Wireless
Phone
Adapter Terminal
Microprocessor 1-4 W 1-4 W
Memory 1W 1W
Logic 2W 2W 0.3 W
Hard Disk 1W 1W
Display 2-6 W 2-6 W 0.185 W
Programmable DSP 0.5 W
RF Transceiver 2/4W 0.6 / 1.8 W 0.6 / 1.8 W
Commn. Processing 2.5 W 2.5 W
Sound/Audio I/O ? ? 0.085 W
● Typical laptop: 30% display, 30% CPU + memory, 30% rest
● Wireless devices: increasing communication & multimedia processing
Low power VLSI are a key to wireless
5

Wireless Systems Design: Key Driving Forces

● Increasing integration of communication & multimedia system

components due to advances in semiconductor technology & circuits
- RF CMOS circuits
- MEMS structures
RF components, display

● Relentless digitization continues

- high speed digital circuits & A/D converters
IF and even RF processing in digital domain
direct conversion techniques
- complex communication algorithms favor digital implementation
- increasing CPU MIPS make even a “software radio” possible

A wireless-system-on-a-chip is becoming possible

6
 Building a Wireless System on a Chip

RF & IF Transceiver

Baseband Processing

Custom Algorithm DSP Core

ASIC Acceleration
Coprocessors RAM/ROM
Logic

Wireless
Network Protocol RAM
Processor ROM
(Microcontroller) DRAM

Application RAM/ROM
Processor DRAM

Network/Host/Peripheral Interface

Challenge to VLSI & CAD

RF & IF Transceiver Computer with Radios

Baseband Processing analog circuits that minimize

special analog process steps

Custom Algorithm DSP Core

ASIC Acceleration maximize digital and
Logic Coprocessors RAM/ROM minimize analog computation

Wireless
reusable communication &
Network Protocol RAM multimedia modules
Processor ROM
(Microcontroller) DRAM

energy efficient embedded

software synthesis
Application RAM/ROM
Processor DRAM
low cost & low power
protocol processor cores
Network/Host/Peripheral Interface

8
 Tutorial Goals

Present basics of wireless systems,

and VLSI design issues, techniques, and tools
for building integrated wireless systems

This tutorial will NOT describe:

- detailed CAD algorithms for solving system design problems
- theory of radio and communication systems design
- detailed architecture of any wireless communication systems

Tutorial Outline

● Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems

- system and medium characteristics
- technological evolution in the design of wireless communication systems
● Wireless Systems Design
- digital communications: modulation, coding, multiple access
- example designs
● VLSI Circuits for Wireless Systems
- micro-architecture for wireless systems-on-a-chip
- direct-conversion for digital communications using VLSI
● Design technology for Wireless Systems
- design entry, validation, and analysis tools
● Pre-designed Core Blocks and IP Issues for Wireless
● Future Outlook and Conclusions

10
 Part 1:

Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems

Wireless Spectrum
Frequency in Hz
104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 1024

MF VHF UHF IR UV Cosmic

LF X-Ray
HF Rays
Light

Radio

46 49 824-849 869-894 902-928 1850-1990 2400-2483 5.15 - 5.35 & 5.725 - 5.825 GHz
Cordless Cellular ISM PCS ISM U-NII
(CT-1) (AMPS, IS-136,
IS-95) Frequency in MHz

12
 Diversity of Applications in Wireless Communications
Information
Content (Mbps)
Video teleconferencing
Interactive Data

100.0
Wireless
ATM
10.0
Wireless
LAN: IEEE 802.11
1.0

Cordless: Mobile Wireless Multimedia

Low Voice

0.1 DECT, PHS, PACS, WLL

Cellular: GSM, IS95, IS54, PDC,
Data
Rate

0.01
Wireless Data: Mobitex, CDPD, pACT, GPS

Office Building Stationary Walking Vehicular

Indoors Outdoors
Environment
● Multimega bits/sec throughput for robust, reliable multimedia networking
over wide range of environments.

13

Characteristics of Wireless Systems

● Wireless
- limited bandwidth, high latency
- variable link quality (noise, disconnections, other users) more
- heterogeneous air interfaces signal
processing
- easier snooping necessitates encryption

● Mobility
- user and terminal location dynamically changes more
- speed of terminal mobility impacts wireless bandwidth protocol
- easier spoofing necessitate authentication processing

● Portability
higher
- limited battery capacity, computing, and storage energy
- small dimensions efficiency

14
 Time Varying Wireless Environment

LOS

R
No LOS!
S
D D

● Available wireless resource undergoes dramatic & rapid changes

- multipath reflection, doppler fading, frequency collisions
● Rapid signal fades & distortions as the receiver moves
- e.g. noise-like Rayleigh Fading when multipath signals are summed

15

Simplified View of a Digital Radio Link

Source antenna
Coder
Sources

Multiple Channel Power

Multiplex Access Coder Modulator Amplifier
Source
Coder

carrier fc transmitted
symbol stream

“Limited b/w” RADIO

“Highly variable b/w” CHANNEL
“Random & Noisy”
“Spurious disconnections”
received (corrupted)
symbol stream

antenna
Destinations

Source
Decoder
Multiple Channel Demodulator RF
Demultiplex Access Decoder & Equalizer Filter
Source
Decoder

carrier fc

16
 Propagation of Radio Waves

● Line of Sight (LOS)

- free space P r = ( P t G t G r λ 2 ) ⁄ ( ( 4π ) 2 d 2 L )

● Reflection (with Transmittance and Absorption)

- radio wave impinges on an object >> λ (30 cm @ 1 GHz)
- surface of earth, walls, buildings, atmospheric layers
- if perfect (lossless) dielectric object, then zero absorption
- if perfect conductor, then 100% reflection
- reflection a function of material, polarization, frequency, angle

● Diffraction
- radio path obstructed by an impenetrable surface with edges
- secondary waves “bend” around the obstacle (Huygen’s principle)
- explains how RF energy can travel even without LOS, a.k.a “shadowing”

● Scattering (diffusion)
- when medium has large number of objects < λ (30 cm @ 1 GHz)
- similar principles as diffraction, energy reradiated in many directions
- rough surfaces, small objects (e.g. foliage, lamp posts, street signs)

17

Log-normal Shadowing Path Loss Model

● Assume average power (in dB) decreases proportional to log of distance

PL ( d ) = PL ( d 0 ) + 10n log  -----
d
 d 0
● Path-loss exponent, n, depends on propagation environment
Environment n
Free Space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.7 - 3.5
Shadowed urban cellular radio 3 to 5
In-building LOS 1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building 4 to 6
Obstructed in factories 2 to 3

● Problem: “Environment clutter” may differ at two locations at same d

● Measurements show that at a given d path loss has a normal distribution

PL ( d ) = PL ( d 0 ) + 10n log  ----- + X σ

d
 d 0
- X σ is a zero-mean Gaussian r.v. (in dB) with standard deviation σ (in dB)
- σ says how “good” the model is

18
 Example Link Budget Calculation

● Maximum separation distance vs. transmitted power (with fixed BW)

Given:
- cellular phone with 0.6W transmit power
- unity gain antenna, 900 MHz carrier frequency
- SNR must be at least 25 dB for proper reception
- receiver BW is B = 30 KHz, and noise figure F = 10 dB
What will be the maximum distance?

Solution:
N = -174 dBm + 10 log 30000 + 10 dB = -119 dBm
For SNR > 25 dB, we must have Pr > (-119+25) = -94 dBm
Pt = 0.6W = 27.78 dBm
This allows path loss PL(d) = Pt - Pr < 122 dB
λ = c/f = 1/3 m
Assuming d0 = 1 km, PL(d0) = 91.5 dB
For free space, n = 2, so that: 122 > 91.5 + 10*2*log(d/(1 km))
or, d < 33.5 km
Similarly, for shadowed urban with n = 4, 122 > 91.5 + 10*2*log(d/(1 km))
or, d < 5.8 km

19

Small-Scale Fading

● Fading manifests itself in three ways

1. time dispersion caused by different delays limits transmission rate
- replicas of signals with different delays (reflection, diffraction etc.)
2. rapid changes in signal strength (up to 30-40 dB) over small ∆x<λ or ∆t
3. random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts
● In urban areas, mobile antenna heights << height of buildings
- usually no LOS from basestation
● Mobile receiver may stop in a deep fade (null)
● Moving surrounding objects also cause time-varying fading
Fading affects available channel data rate

20
 Error Bursts due to Raleigh Flat Fading

● Received signal a sum of contributions from different directions

- random phases make the sum behave as noise (Rayleigh Fading)
- “fades”: intervals of increased BER, or reduced channel capacity

Good In Fade
BER = 10-5 BER = 10-1

● Function of speed of mobile as well as other objects, e.g.,

- a 50 kmph car in 900 MHz band: 1 ms long >20dB fade every 100 ms
- a 2 kmph pedestrian in 900 Mhz band: 25 ms long >20dB fade every 2.5s

● Also, a function of frequency, and fade depth

● Diversity techniques help

- multiple antennas, multiple frequencies

21

Data Rate Limitation in Frequency Selective Fading

● “Frequency selective fading” results in inter-symbol interference

0.1
maximum data rate without significant errors = ------------------------------
delay spread
- e.g. GSM has a bit period of 3.69 µs, or a rate of 270 kbps

● Data rate can be improved by “equalization”

- equalizer is a signal processing function (filter)
cancels the inter-symbol interference
usually implemented at baseband or IF in a receiver
- must be adaptive since channel is unknown & time varying
training, tracking, and re-training during data transmission

● GSM example
- with its equalizer, GSM can tolerate up to 15 µs of delay spread
- otherwise, with 15 µs of delay spread, GSM would be limited to 7 kbps

22
 Combating the Wireless Channel Problems

● Increase transmitter power

- counters flat fading, but costly and greatly reduces battery life

● (Adaptive) Equalization
- compensates for intersymbol interference

● Antenna or space diversity for “multipath”

- usually, two (or more) receiving antennas, separated by λ/2
- selection diversity vs. scanning diversity vs. combining diversity
- “adaptive antenna arrays” or “smart antennas”

● Forward error correction

- transmit redundant data bits - “coding gain” provides “fading margin”
- not very effective in slowly varying channels or long fades

● Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) protocols

- retransmission protocol for blocks of data (e.g. packets) in error
- stop-and-wait, go-back-N, selective-repeat etc.

23

A Digital Radio Link

Source antenna
Coder
Multiple Channel Power
Multiplex Access Coder Modulator Amplifier
Source
Coder

carrier fc transmitted
symbol stream

“Limited b/w” RADIO

“Highly variable b/w” CHANNEL
“Random & Noisy”
“Spurious disconnections”
received (corrupted)
symbol stream

antenna
Destinations

Source
Decoder
Multiple Channel Demodulator RF
Demultiplex Access Decoder & Equalizer Filter
Source
Decoder

carrier fc

24
 Evolution of Mobile & RF Wireless Systems

● First Generation: Analog - Voice

- analog modulation
- cellular phone (AMPS) with manual roaming
- cordless phones
- packet radio networks

● Second Generation: Digital - Voice & Data

- digital modulation
- cellular & PCS phones with seamless roaming, integrated paging
(IS-54, IS-95, IS-136, GSM etc.)
- digital cordless, multi-zone cordless, wireless PBXs
- wireless data LANs (802.11), MANs (Metricom), WANs (CDPD, ARDIS,
RAM)

● Third Generation: Digital - Multimedia

- unified digital wireless access anytime, anywhere
- voice, data, images, video, music, sensor etc.

25

Tutorial Outline

● Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems

- system and medium characteristics
- technological evolution in the design of wireless communication systems
● Wireless Systems Design
- digital communications: modulation, coding, multiple access
- example designs
● VLSI Circuits for Wireless Systems
- micro-architecture for wireless systems-on-a-chip
- direct-conversion for digital communications using VLSI
● Design technology for Wireless Systems
- design entry, validation, and analysis tools
● Pre-designed Core Blocks and IP Issues for Wireless
● Future Outlook and Conclusions

26
 Part 2-A:

Wireless Systems Design:

Basics

Simplified View of a Digital Radio Link

Source antenna
Coder
Sources

Multiple Channel Power

Multiplex Access Coder Modulator Amplifier
Source
Coder

carrier fc transmitted
symbol stream

“Limited b/w” RADIO

“Highly variable b/w” CHANNEL
“Random & Noisy”
“Spurious disconnections”
received (corrupted)
symbol stream

antenna
Destinations

Source
Decoder
Multiple Channel Demodulator RF
Demultiplex Access Decoder & Equalizer Filter
Source
Decoder

carrier fc

28
 Digital Modulation & Demodulation - A “User’s View”

● Modulation: maps sequence of “digital symbols” (groups of n bits) to

sequence of “analog symbols” (signal waveforms of length TS)
● Demodulation: maps sequence of “corrupted analog symbols” to
sequence “digital symbols” - e.g. maximum likelihood decision
TS-long analog symbol
corrupted
n-bit digital symbol
best effort output
...(0110) (0111) (0000)...
MOD CHANNEL DEMOD
...(0110) (0111) (0000)...

noise, fading, etc.

S1

S2
Set S = {S1, S2,... SM} of M waveforms of length TS
e.g. obtained by distinctively modifying the phase
and/or frequency and/or amplitude of a carrier
M=2 is “binary modulation”
Otherwise, M-ary modulation
n = floor(log2 M)
SM

t=0 t=TS

29

Commonly Used Digital Modulation Techniques

Coherent Non-Coherent
Phase-shift keying (PSK) FSK
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) ASK
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) Differential PSK (DPSK)
Continuous phase modulation (CPM) CPM
Hybrids Hybrids

● Coherent or Synchronous Detection: process received signal with a local

carrier of the same frequency and phase
● Noncoherent or Envelope Detection: requires no reference wave

30
 Selecting a Modulation Schemes

● Provides low bit error rates (BER) at low signal-to-noise ratios (SNR)
● Occupies minimal bandwidth
● Performs well in multipath fading
● Performs well in time varying channels (symbol timing jitter)
● Low carrier-to-cochannel interference ratio
● Low out of band radiation
● Low cost and easy to implement
● Constant or near-constant “envelope”
- constant: only phase is modulated
may use efficient non-linear amplifiers
- non-constant: phase and amplitude modulated
may need inefficient linear amplifiers

No perfect modulation scheme - a matter of trade-offs!

31

Metrics to Evaluate Modulation Schemes

● Power Efficiency (or, Energy Efficiency) η P

- ratio of signal energy per bit to noise power spectral density required
required at the receiver for a certain BER (e.g. 10-5)
ηP = Eb ⁄ N 0
- measures ability to give low BER at low signal power levels
- impacts battery life!

● Bandwidth Efficiency η B
- ratio of throughput data rate to bandwidth occupied by modulated signal
η B = R ⁄ B bps/Hz
- measures ability to accommodate data within a given bandwidth

● Often a trade-off between power and bandwidth efficiencies, e.g.

- adding redundancy (FEC) reduces bandwidth efficiency, but reduces the
received power required for a given BER
- modulation schemes with higher values of M decrease B but increase E b
for a given BER

32
 Choice of a Modulation Scheme

● At 0.001% BER and a fixed transmission bandwidth:

Power Bit-Rate Energy

M Penalty Gain Penalty
Factora Factora Factora
2 1 1 1
4 2 2 1
8 4.7 3 1.56
16 10 4 2.5
32 20.7 5 4.1
64 42 6 7
a. Relative to BPSK (M=2)

● BPSK and QPSK has the same energy efficiency but QPSK has two times
more bandwidth efficiency (bit rate gain factor) than BPSK.
● The drawback of using QPSK is in the poor achievable energy efficiency
in practice => use GMSK to achieve a bandwidth efficiency of 1.25 with
BT = 0.3.

33

A Geometric View of Modulation

● Signal set S = { s 1(t), s 2(t), …, s M(t) } represents points in a vector space

● Vector space defined by a set of N ≤ M orthonormal (i.e. orthogonal and

with unit energy) basis signals { φ j(t) j = 1, 2, …, N }
- N is the dimension of the vector space

● Every s i(t) can be expressed as a linear combination of basis signals

● Example: BPSK signals s 1(t) = 2E b ⁄ T b cos ( 2π f c t ) 0 ≤ t ≤ T b and

s 2(t) = 2E b ⁄ T b cos ( 2π f c t + π ) can be represented as:

φ 1(t) = 2 ⁄ T b cos ( 2π f c t )

s 1(t) = E b φ 1(t)

s 2(t) = – E b φ 1(t)

34
 The Constellation Space

● Geometric representation of S is called the Constellation Diagram,

e.g. for BPSK:
Q

I
– Eb Eb

● Bandwidth occupied by the modulation scheme decreases as the

number of signal points / dimension increases
- a densely packed modulation scheme is more bandwidth efficient
- however, bandwidth increases with dimension N

● Probability of bit error is a function of the distance between the closest

points in the constellation diagram
- a densely packed modulation scheme is less power efficient

35

Some Examples...

● M-ary QAM
Q

d
I
6
d 2 = --------------E s
M–1
M=16

● M-ary PSK
Q

I
d
π
d = 2 E s sin -----
M=4 M

36
 Comparison of Several Modulation Methods

● Ref.: Wireless Information Networks by Pahlavan & Levesque, 1995

37

Simplified View of a Digital Radio Link

Source antenna
Coder
Sources

Multiple Channel Power

Multiplex Access Coder Modulator Amplifier
Source
Coder

carrier fc transmitted
symbol stream

“Limited b/w” RADIO

“Highly variable b/w” CHANNEL
“Random & Noisy”
“Spurious disconnections”
received (corrupted)
symbol stream

antenna
Destinations

Source
Decoder
Multiple Channel Demodulator RF
Demultiplex Access Decoder & Equalizer Filter
Source
Decoder

carrier fc

38
 Multiple Access

● Fundamental problem

How to share the Time-Frequency space

among multiple co-located transmitters?
Frequency

Shared Time-Frequency Subspace

Allocated
Spectrum

Time

39

Basestation versus Peer-to-Peer Models

Basestation Peer-to-Peer
(infrastructure - centralized) (ad hoc network - fully-connected vs. multihop)

40
 Approaches to Wireless Multiple Access

Sharing of Time-Frequency Space

Slotted-time
vs. Non-slotted time

Static (Fixed) Assignment Demand-based Assignment

e.g. Time-division &
Frequency-division
Contention-based
“Connection Oriented”
Conflict-free
e.g. Token-passing &
Random Access Scheduled Access Polling
e.g. ALOHA, PRMA e.g. DQRUMA
Carrier-sensing

Controlled Random
“Packet Oriented” Access

41

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

● Assign different frequency bands to individual users or circuits

- frequency band (“channel”) assigned on demand to users who request service
- no sharing of the frequency bands: idle if not used
- usually available spectrum divided into number of “narrowband” channels
symbol time >> average delay spread, little or no equalization required
- continuous transmission implies no framing or synchronization bits needed
- tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent band interference
- costly bandpass filters at basestation to eliminate spurious radiation
- usually combined with FDD for duplexing

f2

f 2’ f1 f2’
Frequency

f1’
f1’
f2
f1

Time
42
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
● Multiple users share frequency band via cyclically repeating “time slots”
- “channel” == particular time slot reoccurring every frame of N slots
- transmission for any user is non-continuous: buffer-and-burst
digital data & modulation needed, lower battery consumption
- adaptive equalization is usually needed due to high symbol rate
- larger overhead - synchronization bits for each data burst, guard bits
guard bits for variations in propagation delay and in delay spread
- usually combined with either TDD or FDD for duplexing
TDMA/TDD: half the slots in a frame used for uplink, half downlink
TDMA/FDD: identical frames, with skew (why?), on two frequencies
Sync Data Guard
slot 2

slot 6 slot 1
Frequency

slot 5

1 2 56
frame i-1 frame i frame i+1
Time

43

Some TDMA Systems

GSM IS-54 DECT PHS

Bit rate 270.8 kbps 48.6 kbps 1.152 Mbps 384 kbps
Carrier spacing (b/w) 200 kHz 30 kHz 1.728 MHz 300 kHz
Time slot duration 0.577 ms 6.7 ms 0.417 ms 0.625 ms
Slots/frame 8 (or 16) 3 (or 6) 12 4
FDD or TDD? FDD FDD TDD TDD
% payload in time slot 73% 80% 67% 71%
adaptive equalizer adaptive equalizer system control
training overhead training overhead overhead
Modulation GMSK π/4 DQPSK GMSK π/4 DQPSK
Adaptive equalizer required required none none

● GSM handles time dispersion widths up to 18-20 µs... i.e. 5 bits of ISI
- transmission bandwidth >> channel coherence bandwidth

● IS-54 handles time dispersion up to 40 µs... i.e. 2 symbols might interfere

- less complex equalizer needed than GSM|

● Need equalization indoors at rates > 2 Mbps (DECT is only 1.152 Mbps)

44
 Hybrid FDMA/TDMA
● “Pure” TDMA with single frequency band is undesirable
- require tight timing tolerances

● Most TDMA systems actually employ hybrid FDMA/TDMA

- multiple carriers with multiple channels per carrier
- channel == (frequency band, time slot) tuple
- may do “frequency hopping” on a frame-by-frame basis to combat
multipath interference (Time Division Frequency Hopping: TDFH)
increases system capacity

(f5, t1)
t1 t2 t3 t4
(f1, t1) f6
f5
(f3, t4) Frequency
f4
f3
(f2, t3) f2
f1

frame i-1 frame i frame i+1

45

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

● Multiplexing in the Code Space

- multiple transmitters occupy the same frequency-time space
- transmissions encoded with codes with very low cross-correlation
- receiver retrieves a specific transmission with its corresponding code

● CDMA may be combined with TDMA or FDMA

Frequency
Code

c1

c5
c3
c2

46
 Spread Spectrum Signalling

● Spread Spectrum is the most common CDMA encoding technique

- originally developed for military communication systems
- “spread” the signal over a much larger bandwidth than the minimum
- signal appears pseudo-random with noise like properties
- uniform small energy (W/Hz) over a large bandwidth hides the signal
⇒ Note: use of spread-spectrum does not imply use of CDMA
● Spreading is done using a unique code
● Receiver does the “despreading” by using a time-synchronized
duplicate of the spreading code
● Inefficient for a single user, but multiple users can share band
● Inherent interference rejection capabilities (e.g. narrowband interferers)
● Resistant to multipath effects
- delayed versions appear as uncorrelated noise
- can even exploit multipath signals by combining them

● Processing Gain: Gp = Bspread / Bsignal

- indicates improvement in signal-to-interference ratio due to spreading

47

What is Spread Spectrum Communication?

spectral density
interference
Ai
spread signal
Aspread

frequency
fspread

TRANSMIT RECEIVE
Spreading Code run-
ning at f spread .

spectral density spectral density

Adata Adata despread signal

unspread signal spread interference
Ai,received
frequency frequency
fdata fdata

Wide Band
Anti-jam -> high capacity CDMA f spread
Combats multipath -> diversity PG = ---------------------
LPI -> Privacy
f bit
LPD -> low power density

48
 CDMA Using Direct Sequence (DS) Spread Spectrum
● Spread the narrowband data by multiplying with a wideband pseudo-
random code sequence
- bits sampled, or “chipped”, at a higher frequency (e.g. 1.228 Mcps in IS-95)
- signal energy is “spread” over a wider frequency (e.g. 1.25MHz in IS-95)
- code sequences have little cross-correlation (orthogonal)
- code sequences have little correlation with shifted versions of self

● Received signal multiplied by synchronized replica of the code sequence

● Energy of each “chip” is accumulated over a full data bit time

X =
transmitted signal
01101011 01101011 Recovered signal
PN Sequence (code)
Intended receiver
X
X =
Chip 10110010
Noise - can be low pass filtered
digital data Other receivers

49

CDMA Using Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

● Transmission frequency is periodically changed
- available spectrum divided into bands with central frequencies as carriers
- sequence of data bursts with time-varying pseudo-random carrier frequencies
- time duration between hops is the hop duration or hopping period Th
- bandwidth of a frequency band in the hopset is the instantaneous b/w B
- bandwidth of spectrum over which hopping occurs is total hopping b/w Wss
- processing gain is Wss/B

● Fast frequency hopping: more than one hop during each transmitted symbol
● Slow frequency hop: one or more symbols transmitted in a hop
channel #2 channel #1

f6
f5
Frequency

f4
f3
f2
f1

50
 Contention-based Multiple Access

● Many transmitters access a channel with no or minimal coordination

● Transmission in bursts of data
● Collisions may happen: need ACK or NACK with retransmission
- delays induced
- lower spectral efficiency

● Three categories: random access, scheduled access, hybrid access

Transmitter # 1 Packet B Packet C

Transmitter # 2 Packet A

One Packet
Time (τ) Time
Vulnerable Period (2τ)

51

Contention-based Multiple Access in Wireless Systems?

● Ethernet uses contention-based medium access...

● Following attributes make contention-based multiple access interesting

with wireless:
- “carrier sensing” is much costlier in wireless
20-30 µs

- can’t listen while transmitting

therefore cannot detect collisions

- what matters is the collision at a receiver

... but the transmitter can’t sense the channel at the receiver!

- effects of spatial distribution of wireless nodes

hidden terminal problem
exposed terminal problem
near-far problem (capture effect)

52
 IEEE 802.11 MAC
● Support for multiple PHYs: ISM band DSSS and FHSS, IR @ 1 and 2 Mbps
● Efficient medium sharing without overlap restrictions
- multiple networks in same area and channel space
- Distributed Coordination Function: using CSMA /CA
- based on carrier sense mechanism called Clear Channel Assessment (CCA)
● Robust against interferers (e.g. co-channel interference)
- CSMA/CA+ACK for unicast frames with MAC level retransmission
● Protection against Hidden Terminal problem: Virtual Carrier Sense
- via parameterized use of RTS/CTS frames with duration information
● Provision for Time Bounded Services via Point Coordination Function
● Configurations: ad hoc & distribution system connecting access points
● Mobile-controlled hand-offs with registration at new basestation
ad hoc network distribution system

infrastructure network

53

IEEE 802.11 MAC (contd.)

● CSMA/CA: direct access if medium free for > DIFS, else defer & back-off
DIFS
DIFS contention
PIFS
source window
DATA

other SIFS DATA

select slot & decrement
defer access back-off as long as idle
● CSMA/CA + ACK: receiver sends ACK immediately if CRC okay
- if no ACK, retransmit frame after a random back-off
DIFS contention
window
source DATA
SIFS
receiver ACK

other DIFS DATA

select slot & decrement
defer access back-off as long as idle

● RTS/CTS with duration: distribute medium reservation information

- also used in the defer decision

54
 Cellular Systems

MSC PSTN
Pre-Cellular Post-Cellular

● Replace single high power transmitter covering the entire service area
with lots of low power transmitters (basestations) each covering a
fraction of the service area (cell)
- mobiles in sufficiently distant basestations may be assigned identical
channel (frequency, time slot, & code)
- system capacity may be increased without adding more spectrum

● Major conceptual breakthrough in spectral congestion & user capacity

- required relatively minor technological changes
frequency reuse & co-channel interference
channel allocation
hand-offs

55

Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

● Control radiated energy for each user in space

- spot beam antennas (sectorized antennas)
- different areas served by different antenna beams may use same
frequency (CDMA, TDMA) or different frequencies (FDMA)
- in future, adaptive antennas

56
 Part 2-B:

Wireless Systems Design:

Standards, Design Issues, and Examples

The Un-wired World

Wireless Communications

Amateur Industrial Consumer Business Military/Aero Long-Haul

Automotive Monitoring
- IVHS - AMR
- GPS - Control

Cordless Cellular Paging WPABX WLAN PMR/SMR Mobile Data

- POSCAG - DECT - 802.11 - ARDIS
- ERMES - CT-2 - DECT Conv - Mobitex
- SSB - PHP - HIPerLAN - Omnitracs
- USCT - ISM - Cellular/CDPD
Analog Digital Analog Digital - ISM ESMR - Metricom
- CT-0 - DECT - AMPS - GSM - MIRS
- CT-1 - CT-2 - ETACS - IS-54 - TETRA
- CT-300 - PHP - NMT450 - IS-95 PCN/PCS
- USCT - NMT900 - IS-136
- ISM - NMT-0 - RCR-27 - FPLMTS
- Comvik - DCS1800
- PHP - UMTS
- JTACS - RACE
- LEO

58
 Evolution of PCS Technologies, Systems, and Services

Macro-cellular Satellites?
Cellular
Micro-cellular
High-tier PCS
Messaging ?
Paging

Phone point
Cordless PABX
Low-tier PCS

? Grand
Cordless Unification?

Wide Area Data Micro-cells ?

Macro-cells ?

WLANs WLANs WLANs

PAST PRESENT FUTURE

59

AMPS System (First Generation Analog)

● Two 25 MHz bands: 824-849 MHz upstream, 869-894 MHz downstream
● Divided into 30 MHz frequency bands - pair needed for a duplex channel
● FDD+FDMA: 834 duplex channels
● 7-way frequency reuse (18 dB min. signal-to-co-channel interference)
● Two types of channels: control and voice channels
● Network controlled handoff - MSC becomes a bottleneck
● Capacity constraints - 40-50 connections per cell
● No on-air privacy, fraud a major problem
Proprietary SS7
AMPS Common
Air interface
BS
OMC MSC
(MTSO)
mobility
management
BS
MS MSC
BS (MTSO) PSTN

BS

BS HLR VLR AUC

BS databases

60
 GSM System (Second Generation Digital)
● Two 25 MHz bands: 890-915 MHz upstream, 935-960 MHz downstream
● Divided into 200 KHz frequency bands - 125 in each direction
● FDD+TDMA+FH: 8 slots/4.615 ms frame, 270.833333 kbps raw, 22.8 kbps/user
● Frequency hopping to combat multipath problems
● Two types of logical channels: traffic channels and control channels
● Mobile assisted handoff - BSC reduce the load on MSC
● Features: subscriber identity module and on-air privacy
● Services: telephone, data or bearer, short messaging
GSM Radio
Air interface
BTS
OMC MSC
(MTSO)
BSC
BTS
MS MSC
BTS (MTSO) PSTN

BTS
BSC
BTS HLR VLR AUC
BTS Abis Interface A Interface databases SS7

61

Cellular Data Packet Network (CDPD)

● Packet data network overlay on AMPS - same 30 KHz channels

● Data packets are sent over unused voice channels
● Channel hopping ensures non-interference with voice
● Raw data rate is 19.2 kbps Reed-Solomon coded - real rate much less
● Broadcast downlink, Data Sense Multiple Access (DSMA) MAC on uplink
● Variety of connection-less, connection-oriented, and multipoint services
● Reliable and unreliable classes - handling over radio link
● In particular, IP (Internet Protocol) datagram connectivity
● Mobile controlled handoff, registration at basestation to reduce paging
● “Home MD-IS” tunnels incoming traffic to current MD-IS

MD-BS
MD-IS MD-IS
MD-BS IS IS M-ES
M-ES mobility connection-less
management router
Data n/w
MD-BS
(internet)
MD-BS F-ES

62
 Designing Mobile Wireless Multimedia Systems

PSTN
BASE STATION
WIRED NODE
PHONE
WIRELESS http://www.
N
NODE

http://www.
N
modem

• antenna ethernet
• RF + A/D transceiver
• digital transmitter/receiver
• channel codec
• source codec
• network protocols ETHERNET

63

Generic Mobile & Wireless System Architecture

Partitioning
Application & Services Source Coding & DSP
Context Adaptation

Disconnection Mgmnt.
OS & Middleware Power Management
QoS Management
Rerouting
Network Impact on TCP
Location Tracking
Multiple Access
Data Link Link Error Control
Channel Allocation

Modulation Schemes
Radio, IR Channel Coding
RF/Optical Circuits

64
 Radio Design Challenges

● High speed digital processing

● High performance in Eb/N0
● Low complexity
● Energy efficient (mW/MSps or nJ/OP)

Algorithm Fixed Point

RF Front-end Digital Modem

Architecture IC Architecture

Partition

65

Partition between Analog and Digital Processing

Analog RF Analog IF Baseband Digital Baseband

Analog-to-Digital
Signal Processing Transceiver Signal Processing
Converter

Analog RF IF Digital IF Digital Baseband

Analog-to-Digital
Signal Processing Transceiver Signal Processing
Converter

● Advantages
allows for adaptability with little component replacements
achieves Eb/N0 performance close to optimum (coherent BPSK)
parameterizable to provide ease of redesign and upgrade

● Challenges
digital circuits operate at IF signal rate rather than baseband rate
digital implementation can be more complex to minimize loss in Eb/N0

66
A Direct-Sequence Spread-Spectrum Radio Modem

CODE PROCESS
SELECT GAIN Carrier Detect TX Data
POWER CONTROL

PN Spread Data
PN TX
Acquisition LPF VGA AMP
GENERATOR
LOOP

BPF
FREQ CNTRL
FREQUENCY
SYNTHESIZER
CLOCK CARRIER
RECOVERY RECOVERY AGC LPF LNA
A/D
LOOP LOOP 6

Decision
Ack.: C. Chien & R. Jain, UCLA
To SIR Est. Recv. Data

● Low complexity, high speed, adaptable, and energy efficient

transceiver in a single-chip

67

Transceiver Chip Design Issues

● Challenge: Implement a complete coherent receiver on a single chip

● Circuit Design Issues

finite wordlength
parameterizability
critical path optimization
complexity reduction

● System Design Issues

maintain stability in three feedback loops.

68
 Costas Loop Filter Optimization

INPUT Ec/N0= -17 dB

20
30
Eb/N0 (dB) 0

25
−20
10 dB
−40 20

9 dB 0 dB

N2
−60
15
−80
40
10
30 -10 dB
N2 20
35 5
10 25 30
15 20
0
0 5 10 N1
5 10 15 20 25 30 N1
Coefficient as powers of two shifts:
–N 1
C1 = 2 C1
–N 2
C2 = 2
C2
D

Optimization Criteria:
min ( max ( N 1, N 2 ) ), E b ⁄ N 0 ≥ 10 ± 0.5
Ack.: C. Chien &
R. Jain, UCLA

69

IF Wordlength Optimization
40 300 150 Multiplier Sample Rate (MHz)
10 dB
Complexity Increase (%)

Complexity increase in receiver

Sample rate through the multiplier
Output Eb/N0 (dB)

30 50.8 MHz sample rate requirement

200 100
0 dB
20
-11 dB 100 50
10
-17 dB

0 0 0
0 5 10 15 4 8 12 16
IF Input Quantization Size (Bits) IF Input Quantization Size (Bits)

❥ Minimize IF quantization size reduce complexity and power

dissipation at required throughput. N
N
DDFS

min ( N ), E b ⁄ N 0 ≥ 10 ± 0.5 N

Ack.: C. Chien &

R. Jain, UCLA

70
 PN-Acquisition: Complexity/Performance Trade-off

● PN acquisition: correlation between the incoming bits and the P/N

sequence of the desired transmitter

Serial Acquisition

Received Energy Clock ❥ 800 Gates

Slope Timing
PN Detection Generation

PN-Code
Generator

Match Filter Acquisition

Timing

Received N-Tap Energy Clock

Matched Generator ❥ Nc * Nif * 12 Gates + 800
PN Filter Detection Generation PN-Code
Nc = #chips/bit

Nif = IF Quantization
❥ 10 000 Gates with Nc =
127 and Nif = 6

71

A Single-Chip 1.2 Micron CMOS DSSS Radio Modem

DIGITAL BASEBAND TRANSMITTER

DATA DIFFERENTIAL
SPREAD
INPUT ENCODER
DATA

GOLD CODE
GENERATOR
(PNGEN)

DIGITAL IF RECEIVER

50.8 MHz 12.7 MHz (100-800) kHz

DATA
DIFFERENTIAL OUT
INTEGRATE INTEGRATE
DUMP I1 DUMP I2 DECODER
100 kHz -12.7 MHz
DDFS

IF LOOP PHASE PN-ACQUISITION

SIGNAL FILTER DETECTOR LOOP
LATE PN
EARLY PN
PN TRACK CONTROL

IF SAMPLING CLK

INTEGRATE INTEGRATE
DUMP Q1 DUMP Q2

COSTAS LOOP

Performance
INTEGRATE
DUMP I1 + ❥ Low Complexity -- 51 K Transistors
CHIP LOOP
DELAY
INTEGRATE
-
FILTER NCO
❥ High Power Efficiency -- 21.7 mJ/MSample
DUMP Q1

CLOCK ❥ Maximum Chip Rate -- 12.7 Mchips/sec

RECOVERY

50.8 MHz 12.7 MHz 406.4 MHz

❥ Scalable Performance -- Data Rates and
Processing Gain: 100, 200, 400, 800 kbps at
12, 15, 18, 21 dB, respectively
Ack.: C. Chien & R. Jain, UCLA

72
 Integration of Radio into a System

Custom Frame
Grabber Video Codec
Camera
FPGA

DT Frame
Grabber
CPU

Proxim
Keyboard RangeLAN2
Single-chip DSSS
Modem IC
Memory and Mass
Storage
Adaptive Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum Radio

DSSS IF modem, RF Front-end

Packet Interface,
Adaptation Interface,
Analog-Digital Conversion

Ack.: C. Chien & R. Jain, UCLA

73

Example 1: UCLA’s Wireless Multimedia Node

Video
Capture

16-bit Control Frame

YUV Buffer

Video Video VGA

Buffer Codec 12-bit RGB Controller

Compressed Host
Data Interface Interface
PC-104 Bus

Network Interface Chip Host

CPU

Serial Data Host

Interface Interface
Packet Wireless
Buffer Modem
Channel

74
 Example 2: Bell Labs’ SWAN Wireless ATM System

Connection Switching BASESTATION

Mobility Management CPU
SYSTEM S/ W
Mobile
ETHER WA RE

Drivers for Adapter Cards Notebook

BusInterface
Bus Interface mani <1>
Host Interface Host Interface
FAWN

Peripheral
Interface
Peripheral
Interface

Peripheral
Peripheral
Flexible

Interface
Interface
CPU
CPU Adapter
MAC BACKBONE CPU For CPU
Lucent
ATM Wireless
PHY ADAPTER Networking Personal
XCVRInterface
XCVR Interface
CARD XCVR Interface XCVR Interface Multimedia
FHSSRFRFXCVR
FHSS XCVR Terminal
FHSS RF XCVR FHSS RF XCVR

To Antenna
Personal
Communicator

BASESTATION MOBILE END-POINTS

ATM SWITCH

75

FAWN Reconfigurable Wireless Adapter

to host ARM
processor CPU

Peripheral
PCMCIA Interface

PCMCIA RF Modem
Interface
ADC
Dual Port Dimensions 10.8 cm (W) x 1.9 cm (H)
RAM
Modem
x 11.4 cm (D)
Controller Power Consumption 2.0 W
SRAM of FAWN
UART
Power Consumption 0.6 W (receive)
Control
of radio transceiver 1.8 W (transmit)
PAL Firmware resources 20 MIPS, 4 MByte
Reconfigurable 10000 Gates equivalent
hardware resources

76
 Example 3: Personal Mobile Terminal

microphone

LCD display Soft keys

Personal Terminal 6808

SCANNER
↓ PRESS TO SCAN ↓

Scanner switch Bar code scanner

● Simple hardware
- peripheral card + FAWN adapter

● Multimedia interface
- audio, graphics, soft keys, bar code

● Dumb end-point for “network-hosted mobile services”

77

Example 4: Berkeley’s Infopad Project

● Infopad: low power wireless multimedia terminal

- no local general purpose processing (“dumb terminal” model)
- speech and pen controlled user interface
- audio, video, and text/graphics streams to the terminal
● Infonet: network infrastructure for Infopads
- based on cell, pad, and type servers
● Medley Gateway: transport & coding of video, audio, & graphics to Infopad
● http://infopad.eecs.berkeley.edu/

78
 Infopad Terminal Architecture

250 Kbps
Subsystem mW
Proxim
Uplink Radios 1490
Radio
RX/TX ARM
Interface Subsystem ARM 877 - 2475
1 Mbps Plessey
Downlink Custom H/W 137 - 297
Radio
B&W LCD 550 - 3800
Low Power Infopad Bus
Color LCD 3900
Pen Digitizer 150
LCD PEN AUDIO VIDEO
IF IF IF IF Codec 50
ucb <1>
Voltage Converters 2411
Color Crystals 75
Infopad
Test H/W 629
● References: Total 9.9W - 15W
1. http://infopad.eecs.berkeley.edu/research/terminal
2. [Narayanaswamy96] Narayanaswamy et. al., “Application and
Network Support for Infopad,” in IEEE Personal Communications, April ‘96

79

Example 5: Xerox PARCTAB

● Extremely portable mobile unit
- 7.8x10.5x2.4 cm3, 215 gm, 6.2x4.5 cm2 & 128x64x1 touch screen, 3 buttons
- IR communication at 19.2 kbaud with CSMA MAC, PWM modulation
- 12 MHz Signetics 87C524/528 CPU, 128K memory
● Basestation transceiver (on ceiling of a room nanocell)
- IR with variable data rate: 9.6K, 19.2K, 38.4K; CSMA MAC
- 38.4K serial link up to 30m with 10 unit daisy chain capability
- performs coding/decoding, buffering, link level protocol checks
- connected to LAN via serial port of nearby workstations
● Remote host based applications, proxy agents (per tab),
and gateways (datagram service to tab)
● http://www.ubiq.com/parctab

Tab Basestation
80
 Design Trade-offs in Wireless Nodes

Laptops

Terminal Complexity
Notebooks

ge Palmtops
ra
Sto
PDAs
n Terminals
tio
uta
mp
Co

Communication Needs &

Infrastructure Dependence

● Computation-communication trade-off affects:

- terminal cost
- service cost

81

Design Issues

● Adaptive process gain improves throughput

● Multipath fading requires equalization

● Bit rate limited by equalizer complexity

Throughput can be improved by physical layer processing

82
Adaptive Process Gain Improves Throughput

100
Desired PG = 12 dB

80
Throughput (kbps)

60
PG = 15 dB

40 Achieved

20 PG = 21 dB

0
−15 −10 −5 0 5

Signal-to-Interference Ratio (dB)

83

RF Processing: Power Dissipation

Top Bottom
Transmit
Control
Freq. Synth.

AGC Receive Power Reg.

Total RF Power = 5.75W

Total IF Power = 6.118 W

Total Radio Power = 11.87W

84
 IF/Baseband Processing: Power Dissipation

Top Bottom

DSSS

Analog IF

Control Packet Interface Power Regulation DSSS

Total IF Power = 6.12W

Total RF Power = 5.75 W
Total Radio Power = 11.87W

Note: Power budget figures includes power dissipation from regulation inefficiencies.

85

Multipath Fading Requires Equalization

Transversal
equalizer
10-1 Mobile
} Wireless
1
0 Linear
feedback Channel
2 5 equalizer
3
t Transversal
0 t0 t2 t1 t3
Linear equalizer
2
τ feedback
equalizer
Probability of error

10-2
• τ > Its / 10 ⇒ ISI causes degradation in BER and will
require equalization 5

• τ is a function of transmit power and cluttering in the

Linear 31 taps in transversal equalizer
feedback
2 equalizer
environment 16 feedforward and 15 feedback
taps in linear feedback equalizer
10-3 No Transversal
interference equalizer
5
γ = ------- ∑ f k
1 2
No k
2

10-4 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
SNR, db (10 log γ)

Dense Foliage Urban Clutter

86
 Bit Rate Limited by Equalizer Complexity

● Improved performance using MLSE over DFE/FFE

1

MlSE simulation
10-1

Probability of error
Destination-feedback
10-2 equalizer
Correct bits
fed back

10-3 No Detected bits

interference fed back
MlSE
bounds

10-4
0 5 10 15 20 25

SNR, dB (10 log γ)

- short training sequence O(100) vs. O(1000) bits

● But, MLSE has high complexity and processing requirements

- complexity ∼ O (4 τ Rs M τRs)
- e.g. M=2, τ = 3ms, Rs = 2 Mbaud = 2 Mbps
then, complexity ~ 1600 operations ~ 30k gates
processing ~ 1600 * 2MHz = 3.2 GOPS

87

Physical Layer Processing to Improve Throughput

preamble header DATA

Tdata
throughput =
Tpreamble + Theader + Tdata

max(throughput) ⇒ min(Tpreamble), min(Theader)

capture-time accumulates
Theader is protocol dependent in multihop networks
• TCP/IP header
• ATM header
• MAC/link layer header

Tpreamble is physical layer dependent

• time to acquire / capture packet
Aggressive signal
• settling time of LO frequency processing can
reduce this!

88
 Understanding Energy Efficiency

P = α C V2 f

“Event-Driven”
“Continuous” Latency is Important
Only Throughput is (Burst throughput)
Important

Reduce V Make f low or 0

Increase h/w and Shutdown when
algorithmic concurrency inactive
e.g., Speech Coding e.g., X Display Server
Video Compression Reduce αC Disk I/O
Energy efficient s/w Communication
System partitioning
Efficient Circuits & Layouts

89

Voltage-Parallelism Trade-Off for Low Power

7.0 7.0 Ideal Speedup

Normalized Delay

5.0 5.0
Speedup

3.0 3.0

1.0 1.0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Supply Voltage, V Parallelism, N
● Increased parallelism & reduced voltage can increase energy efficiency
- more processors or functional units or pipelining
- compiler techniques are the key

● Architectural bottlenecks:
- degradation of speed-up
- capacitance overhead due to increased communication

90
 Energy Efficiency is not just an Architecture Issue!

● Radios consume a significant fraction of node power

Lucent’s WaveLAN: 23 dBm 915MHz radio network interface
transmit = 3W
receive = 1.48W
sleep = 0.18W
GEC Plessey DE6003: 20 dBm, 2.4GHz radio transceiver
transmit = 1.8W
receive = 0.6W
sleep = 0.05W
Newton PDA
active = 1.2W
sleep = 0.164W
Magic Link PDA
active = 0.7W
sleep = 0.3W

Radios need to be actively managed for low power

via energy efficient wireless link protocols.

91

Low Power Design for Wireless

• Hardware has been addressed

Display • Low power CMOS,
HDD • Displays,
• Hard drives, etc.

• Low power protocols remain

µProc

Link Layer
Protocols
DSPs
MAC Layer
Protocols
Radio
Modem

92