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Definition:

Ocean waves are undulations of the water's surface resulting from the transfer of energy. The disturbance is
propagated by the interactions of disturbing (e.g. wind) and restoring (e.g. gravity) forces. The energy in most ocean
waves originates from the wind blowing across the water's surface. Large tsunami or seismic sea waves are generated
by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or large marine landslides. On the other hand, Tides, largest of all ocean waves
result from the combined gravitational force exerted on the oceans by the sun and the moon.

Wave spectrum and the classification of waves

Waves can be classified according to whether the waves pass through the body of a material or move
along an interface.
Body waves (Examples: secondary and primary seismic waves)
Surface waves (Examples: Rayleigh waves and Love waves) Water waves are Rayleigh-type surface waves
characterized by an orbital motion.

Components of a surface wave

Length (L): Distance from equivalent points

on a wave (e.g. crest to crest)

Height (H): Distance from the crest to the

trough.

Period (T): The time it takes a complete

wave to pass by a fixed point

Parts of a wave by Edward A. Zobel

Internal waves: Waves formed at the interface between two layers that differ in density.

The spectrum of ocean surface wave shown below categorizes waves according to wave period, or frequency. The
period is the length of time it takes for an entire wave to pass a point. Frequency is the inverse of the period (1/T).
Ocean waves with the longest periods are tidal wave produced by the gravitational forces exerted on the Earth by
the Moon and Sun. Tides move sediment perpendicular to the shore and controls the daily movement of the surf up
and down the foreshore. Wind generates the ocean waves we sea breaking in the surf zone. Breaking waves produce
the longshore currents that transport sediment parallel to the shore.

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Approximate distribution of ocean surface wave energy (after Kinsman 1965)

Water waves are classified by the disturbing and restoring forces involved

Wind waves (wind is the disturbing force and gravity is the restoring force)
(Estimating wind speed - Beaufort scale and more form Almanac online)
Tides (transtidal waves-gravitational pull of the moon and sun is the disturbing force)

Capillary waves (small waves where wind is often the disturbing force and surface tension of the water is the
restoring force)

Other terms used to describe waves

Throughout the literature the following terms often appear. Any other terms can typically be found in the
USAC dictionary
Periodic: Essentially all waves are periodic, which means that the motion (e.g. crest-trought-crest) is
repetitive over a time. The period is the time it takes for one cycle, or repetition to occur.
Progressive: Any wave that propagates through or across the surface of a material.
Translatory: A wave in which both the wave form and water move forward. Breakers are translatory. The
water particles are significantly transported forward with the wave.
Standing wave: The wave form appears to oscillate in one place; standing waves are the product of two
progressive waves moving in opposite directions. Standing wave formed by reflection (applet) A kelvin
wave is a rotating standing wave.
Oscillatory: wave form travels forward but water remains stationary; the wave orbitals close as one
complete wave passes. Most waves are not purely oscillatory. A small forward movement of the water
does take place and is referred to as wave drift or mass transport.
Forced wave: a wave that exists as long as the disturbing force is acting on it (e.g. tides)
Irrotational: The individual particles of water do not spin when a wave moves.
Classification based on water depth relative to wavelength. The orbital motion of water decreases
exponentially with depth. At depths greater than .5L the orbital motion is minimal and the wave no longer
feels bottom. Waves that don't feel the bottom are deepwater waves.

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Intermediate (.5>d or
The orbital motion of water decreases
L<.05) and shallow water
exponentially with depth. At depths greater than
waves (d/L <.05) deform in
one half the wave length the orbital motion is
response to interactions
minimal and the wave no longer feels bottom.
with the sea floor. Shoaling
Deep water waves are those where the depth is
waves are waved that are
greater than .5 the wave length.(1 d/L >.5 or
deforming in response to
d>.5L)
decreasing depth.

Wave theories:

Different wave theories are used to predict and describe wave shape and wave behavior:

Airy Wave theory: sinusoidal waves (Linear wave applet by Dalrymple)

most accurate for low amplitude waves in deep water
less accurate for predicting wave behavior in shallow water
most commonly used wave theory because it is the least mathematically complex
does not take into account the effects of wave height in determining wave velocity
Stokes Wave theory: trochoidal waves
can be used for deep-, intermediate- and shallow-water waves
mathematically complex
Takes into account the effects of wave height on velocity
more accurately describes orbital velocity asymmetries
Solitary wave theory: (Solitary wave calculator applet by Dalrymple)
an isolated crest moving in shallow water
none oscillatory progressive waves (translatory)
use only to describe shallow-water waves (breakers)
Most equations used here are based on the Airy Wave theory

Wave Parameters
Wave Length

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the horizontal distance between successive wave crests

generally difficult to measure. But can be measured from air photos.
most commonly calculated from wave period (T)

r = kd

k (wave
number) =
(2∏)/L

d =depth

Note: when d/L>.5, as for deepwater waves, tanhr approaches kd, and when d/L<.5, as for shallow
water waves, tanhr approaches 1.

Wave Height (H)

the vertical distance from crest to trough
measurements are made with a staff in the surf zone or from a pier
Wave height is equivalent to the diameter of deep-water wave orbitals
The energy of an individual wave is proportional to the square of the wave height.

Significant Wave Height (H3): The average of the highest 1/3 of the waves from a wave spectrum. An
observer standing on the shore is incapable of measuring all waves that approach the shore and typically
records those that are larger. According to Komar (1998, p. 143) such visual measurements of wave
height roughly corresponds to the significant wave height.
Period (T)
the time (t) it takes for an entire wave (L) to pass a given point. T=L/t
field measurement: time the passage of 11 wave crests and divide by 10
The wave period for the significant wave (highest 1/3) can be measured in the surf
Period does not change from deep to shallow water
Frequency (F) - cycles or waves per unit time
Number of waves to pass a point per unit of time (F=1/T)
Wave steepness (H/L)
If a wave steepness exceeds 1/7 then the wave breaks and reforms
Relative depth (d/Lo )
Used to distinguish between deep-water, intermediate, and shallow-water waves.
Celerity (C=L/T): Phase velocity = speed of an individual wave. The second equation below is known as the
dispersion equation and shows that waves of different periods travel at different velocities, which is
why waves become sorted as they move beyond the influence of the generating wind.

Group Speed (Cg): the speed of the wave train, not the individual wave
Cgo = .5 Co for deep water
Cg = C for shallow water (phase velocity decreases in shallow water)
Amplitude

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Vertical distance between the crest or trough and the still-water level. (1/2H)
Generation of waves

(Read Davis and Dolan, 1993)

Important factors governing the formation of wind waves

storm duration
wind speed
Fetch: restricts the time during which individual waves can be influenced by the wind. Fetch is
controlled by
basin size
storm diameter
The amount of energy obtained from wind and stored in waves controls the dimensions of
the various wave parameters.
Forecasting wind-generated waves (see Gardiner and Dackombe, 1983)

Fetch- and and depth-limited Wave Calculation applet (Chris Sherman)

Mechanisms of wave formation by the wind
Energy transfer by tangential shear
Differential pressure forces
turbulent velocity eddies
sheltering effect
Storm surges
High water levels that accompany storms that are the result of
Low pressure system produces a bulge in the water's surface
Wind blowing on shore: Surface currents and increased mass transport the results in water to
piling up on shore

Deep-water waves: Sea and swell

(Lo, Do, To etc: d is greater than .5L, waves are not affected by the bottom)
Sea: Waves found within the area of generation. Wave are chaotic and the spectrum is broad.
Characteristics:
waves are typically steep and chaotic; Ho, Lo, and To are variable
breaking waves reform into broader waves with longer periods and
A fully developed sea contains the largest waves capable of being formed under the prevailing set
of conditions (fetch and wind speed)
Swell are broad crested, sinuous waves that have traveled out of the area of generation. Swell waves are
uniform in length and period and have a narrow spectrum. This transformation is the result of dispersion,
the sorting waves according to period (C=1.56T).
Changes which occur when waves reach shallow water
Shoaling (changes in size, shape and speed of waves) resulting from interactions of the wave with the
bottom
Wave orbitals become elliptical
H increases
L and C decreases
T remains constant
H/L increases to 1/7 and the wave breaks
Breakers
waves change from oscillatory waves to translator waves (breakers) and a shoreward mass
transport of water occurs. Breaking waves are responsible for most of the suspension and
transportation of sediment.

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Factors causing waves to break:

Wave will break when the water velocity (U) in the crest exceeds the wave celerity, or
velocity at the trough.
According to the solitary wave theory wave velocity is dependent on the water depth plus
the instantaneous wave height
These conditions occur when the angle of the wave crest exceeds 120°, this occurs when
Ho/Lo > 1/7 or Hb=.78d

Energy is expended when waves break. Much of the energy is used in the suspension of sediment.

Breaker types:

breaker Phase
slope d/H Dispersal of Energy
type difference
1 Energy is dissipated over a
spilling <3° >1
(high) broad distance
Energy is concentrated
plunging 3-11° .9-1
where waves break
1-.5
Energy is released along
collapsing 11-15° .8-.9
the beach face
Large amount of energy is
surging >15° <.8 <.5
reflected
phase difference = Tswash/Twave

Table 1. Breaker type, conditions and dispersal of energy.

phase difference = Tswash/Twave

swash/backwash cycle completed before

<.5 low phase
next bore
swash cycle is interrupted causing
.5-1 medium
turbulence (hydraulic jump visible)
>1 high no backwash; overlapping swash

Table 2. Phase difference between swash and backwash.

Significance of breaker type:

As shown in table 1, breakers distribute wave energy differently depending on type.

Plunging breakers concentrate energy in one location, usually at the step or where the
water gets suddenly shallower. Spilling waves distribute energy over a broad region
of shoaling.

How breaker-type and height (Hb) influence suspension and transportation of sediment

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Longshore current velocity increases with Hb

The height to which sediment is suspended increases with Hb
Height of swash increases with Hb

Wave phenomena

Wave interference

An increase or decrease of wave energy resulting from the superposition of wave forms. (See
Dalrymples wave superposition applet)
Constructive interference: increase in wave height results from the superposition of waves in
phase
Destructive interference: interactions of waves that are out of phase cancel each other out
Partial reinforcement or cancellation can occur if waves are partially out of or in phase
When you're lying on a beach with your eyes closed you can hear a rhythmic pounding or beat
produce by the interference of waves having different frequencies or periods. Explore surf beat
with this applet by B. Surendranath Reddy. Another beat applet by Walter Fendt

Wave refraction

bending of wave crests resulting from differential reduction in wave speed (C) as portions of the
wave reach shallow water at different times
Wave refraction diagrams: Illustrate the shoreward transmission and distribution of wave energy
Wave refraction is caused by the interaction of waves with:
the sea floor
shoals and islands
currents (e.g. tidal current from an inlet)

Terms:

orthogonal (wave ray): line showing the direction of wave propagation. Drawn perpendicular
to wave crests.
Procedure for drawing a wave-refraction diagram from airphotos
Draw a series of evenly spaced orthogonals along the crests of a set of deepwater waves
Extend the lines shoreward into shallow water. The orthogonal must always be perpendicular
to wave crests
assumptions: the Energy contained along a wave crests between two wave rays is equal
Interpretation:
Where orthogonals converge E is concentrated
Where they diverge E is dissipated
Energy is concentrated on headlands and spread out along embayments
Local erosion may be governed by variations in offshore topography that my not be
reflected by the shape of the coast
Scripps Canyon wave refraction diagram

Wave diffraction:

The lateral transmission of energy along the crest of a wave (how does this phenomena conflict
with the assumptions given above?)
Importance: Energy is transmitted into the shadow zones behind islands and breakwaters
diffracted waves typically experience refraction as energy varies along the crest

Wave reflection

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waves are commonly reflected from seawalls, steep beach faces, breakwaters, etc. with little loss
in energy
results in the formation of standing waves which form offshore bars and some beach cusps
reflection of waves from the foreshore may result in the formation of edge waves (standing waves
in which the node and antinodal line are oriented perpendicular to the shoreline)

Local photos of wave phenomena

Sites to Explore

Java Applets
Demonstration Sediment-Transport Applets, Chris Sherwood, USGS Woodshole
Linear wave calculations (wavenumber and orbital velocity)
Dalrymples Coastal Engineering Java Page: Prof. Robert A. Dalrymple, Center for Applied Coastal
Research,University of Delaware
Wave Calculator: Using incident deep water wave data, it calculates the local wave variables in
shallower water. It includes solving the dispersion relationship and Snell's Law.
Linear Wave Kinematics: Given wave properties, the orbital motions of the water particles are
shown graphically.
Wind-induced Surge in a Basin: The effect of a steady wind stress on a constant depth body of
water.
Superposition of Waves: Up to four waves can be superimposed to show wave groups and standing
waves.
Edge Waves on a Planar Beach: The first three edge wave modes on a planar beach of given slope.
Depth of Closure: Determine the depth of closure for a sandy beach, given wave height and
period.
Sand Transport Calculator: Calculates sand transport and diffusitivity parameter, given
shallow water values.
Academic Sites
Water Waves: M.S. Krammer
Waves: Bob Sica University of Ontario
Ocean of waves in the world of Physiscs Coastal Carolina University
Wave Refraction at Jaws, Maui : Katie M. Fearing and Robert A. Dalrymple Center for Applied Research
Coastal University of Delaware
Shoaling, refraction and defraction of waves
Animation
Numerical Models For 1960 Chilean Tsunami
Velocities under water waves, Robert A.Dalrymple
Wave animation, Science Websites: Virtual Labs and Simulation
Java Applets on Physics by Walter Fendt
Other
Radar imaging of waves: Miguel A Tenorio-Gonz&aacutelez, South Hampton University, UK
Southern California Swell Model: USAC Coastal Data Information Program
National Data Buoy Center
Northeast
Noaa Wave Watch Center
How are spectral wave data derived from buoy motion measurements?
Oceanweather
NOAA/NCEP WAVEWATCH III Plots

1
* some authors (e.g. Komar, 1998 and Pethick, 1984) use d>.25L to define deep water waves

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Lindley Hanson/email /Gls214
Department of Geological Sciences, Salem State College, Salem, MA
last updated 7/19/03

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