Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 140 (2011) 454–461

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Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/agee

Olive orchard irrigation with reclaimed wastewater: Agronomic and

environmental considerations
Eran Segal a , Arnon Dag a , Alon Ben-Gal a , Isaac Zipori a , Ran Erel a , Shoshana Suryano b , Uri Yermiyahu a,∗
a
Gilat Research Center, Agricultural Research Organization, M.P. Negev 85280, Israel
b
Institute of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, P.O.B. 6, Bet-Dagan, Israel

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The olive (Olea europaea) oil industry is experiencing a transition from traditional rain-fed to intensively
Received 12 August 2010 managed irrigated orchards. Moreover, since fresh water resources in typical olive cultivation regions are
Received in revised form 12 January 2011 often scarce, alternative water sources, often marginal in quality, are increasingly used for the irrigation
Accepted 14 January 2011
of olives. Utilization of reclaimed wastewater (RWW) increases the susceptibility of olive trees to osmotic
stress and augments the potential of groundwater contamination by nutrients and salts. The objective
of this study was to evaluate tree growth and productivity and to quantify nitrate and chloride (Cl)
Keywords:
losses in an olive orchard irrigated with RWW. A four year field study compared two olive tree varieties,
Reclaimed wastewater
Olive tree
‘Barnea’ and ‘Leccino’, and three treatments: (i) fresh water application with commercial fertilizer at
Salinity recommended rates (Fr), (ii) RWW application with commercial fertilizer at recommended rates (Re) and
Nitrate (iii) RWW application with commercial fertilizer reduced according to the amounts of the nutritional
constituents in the wastewater itself (Re−). No significant difference was found in nutrient and mineral
accumulation in diagnostic leaves and no differences in trunk growth, fruit production or oil yields were
observed between treatments. In spite of this, lower measured Cl concentration in diagnostic leaves of
‘Barnea’ and higher Cl concentrations in its root zone relative to ‘Leccino’ suggested that ‘Barnea’ trees
better controlled Cl uptake. While similar amounts of water were applied, the Re and Re− treatments
loaded the soil profile with 1.75 times more Cl then the Fr treatment. Additionally, significantly more
nitrates were transported out of the root zone in the Re treatment compared to Fr and Re− for both
cultivars. We conclude that RWW used for irrigating olive oil orchards had no effect on vegetative growth
and productivity but increased salt loads into and beyond the root zone. The nutritional constituents in the
RWW used to irrigate olives should be accounted for in order to increase fertilizer application efficiency
and minimize the transport of nutrients into groundwater.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Fresh water scarcity in semi-arid environments and lack of
options for disposal of domestic liquid waste have inspired a global
agricultural move towards utilization of treated domestic wastew-
ater (reclaimed wastewater – RWW) for the irrigation of crops
(Pedrero et al., 2010). In Israel, for instance, 32.7% of the irrigation
water in 2007 originated from RWW (Statistical abstract of Israel,
2009). Similar trends of RWW replacing fresh water for irrigation
are occurring in the USA and other countries (Hamilton et al., 2007).
The olive oil industry is particularly relevant and important regard-
ing RWW utilization for a number of reasons: (i) it has concurrently
experienced a transition from traditional rain-fed to modernized
intensive cultivation practices, where water and fertilizer appli-
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +972 8 9928649; fax: +972 8 9926485.
E-mail address: uri4@volcani.agri.gov.il (U. Yermiyahu).
cation have become inherent to olive oil production (Connor and
Fereres, 2005); (ii) the olive tree is considered relatively tolerant
to salinity (Chartzoulakis, 2005) and (iii) olive fruits are not eaten
fresh but only consumed after processing, thus decreasing the risk
from direct exposure to pathogenic microorganisms presented in
RWW (Palese et al., 2009). Additionally, fresh water scarcity in the
Mediterranean region, where olive oil production is concentrated
(Vossen, 2007), has promoted the utilization of RWW to irrigate
olive orchards (Bedbabis et al., 2009; Charfi et al., 1999; Al-Abasi
et al., 2009).
Reclaimed wastewaters are domestic liquid wastes typically
treated by screening, oxidation, sedimentation and biological
digestion at designated plants. The composition of RWW includes
soluble minerals and organic matter which depend quantitatively
and qualitatively on the original source of the water and the types
and levels of treatment (Pescod, 1992; Pedrero et al., 2010). Typi-
cally, RWW is defined as brackish water (Na and Cl as major ions)
containing major plant nutritional constituents such as nitrogen

0167-8809/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.agee.2011.01.009
 E. Segal et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 140 (2011) 454–461 455

(N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K). On one hand, RWW appli-

(mg kg−1 )

13.9 (3.7)
4.5 (1.8)
1.7 (0.3)
cation can positively affect plant growth conditions by increasing
plant water availability and soil fertility (Da Fonseca et al., 2007).
On the other hand, excess amounts of these minerals as well as

Ph
other dissolved salts can adversely affect plant development as a

0.051 (0.008)
0.044 (0.009)
0.049 (0.002)
result of salt accumulation in the root zone (Biggs and Jiang, 2009)
and can also increase the potential for groundwater contamination

Total N
by salts and nutrients due to leaching below the root zone (Kass

(%)
et al., 2005).
Although the olive tree is defined as a crop “moderately tolerant”
to salinity (Maas and Hoffman, 1977; Aragues et al., 2004), high soil

0.48 (0.01)
0.32 (0.05)
0.20 (0.04)
O.M.g (%)
salinity has a negative effect on its photosynthetic activity, vegeta-
tive growth, and fruit and oil production (Chartzoulakis, 2005). In
principle, the effects of irrigation water salinity can be minimized
by maintaining a leached root zone by frequent water applications

CaCO3 (%)

13.3 (2.8)
14.1 (2.6)
13.6 (1.1)
and by applying quantities in excess of plant consumption. Practi-
cally, such water management is not always feasible or desired for
reasons of controlling tree growth and oil quality.

(meq L−1 )1/2

The mineral nutrition of olive trees has mainly been studied

3.9 (1.5)
5.5 (1.3)
7.7 (1.5)
on rain fed orchards. Recommended N application amounts for

SARf
traditional orchards range between 0.45 and 2 kg tree−1 year−1
(Freeman et al., 2005; López-Villalta, 1996; Jasrotia et al., 1999).
Similar amounts, 0.5–1 kg tree−1 year−1 were recommended for

0.36 (0.23)
0.16 (0.04)
0.16 (0.02)
(meq L−1 )
application of K by Hussein (2008) and Morales-Sillero et al. (2007,
2009). Due to its extensive root system and the symbiosis with

K
mycorrhizal fungi, the olive tree takes up P very efficiently (López-

(meq L−1 )
Villalta, 1996; Therois, 2009; Freeman et al., 2005). Therefore, P

7.6 (4.1)
8.6 (0.9)
9.6 (0.8)
deficiency in olives is rare and P fertilization is often not rec-

Na
ommended or practiced (López-Villalta, 1996; Fernández-Escobar
et al., 1999; Freeman et al., 2005; Therois, 2009). As olive cultiva-

7.8 (0.2)

8.2 (0.1)
8.0 (0.1)
Chemical properties
tion moves to more arid environments and nutrient poor soils, and
Soil physical and chemical properties prior to experimental treatments. Values represent average and standard deviation.

as intensive management leads to significantly increased yields,

pH
P fertilization is becoming more necessary and common. Erel et al.
(2008) showed that fruit yield can be severely limited by P availabil-
(dS m−1 )

1.6 (0.8)
1.4 (0.1)
1.4 (0.1)
ity as flowering intensity and fruit set of ‘Barnea’ olives increased
ECe e

as a function of P in irrigation water. On the other hand, the inten-

sive management might result in over application of N, which was
found to have a negative effect on olive oil quality indices, including
(mm)
A.W.d

58.7
58.8
58.1

polyphenol and free fatty acid contents (Fernández-Escobar et al.,

2006; Dag et al., 2009).
(cm3 cm−3 )

The agronomic importance of considering the nutritional con-

stituents of RWW in fertilizer management has been studied
 wp c

0.18

0.19
0.20

on several crops including bermudagrass (Adeli et al., 2003),

grapevines (Paranychianakis et al., 2006) and cotton (Mandal et
(cm3 cm−3 )

al., 2008). Regarding olives, Al-Abasi et al. (2009) found no sta-

ECe is the electrical conductivity of the extracted soil saturated paste.

tistical differences in leaf mineral concentrations between trees

0.33
0.34
0.34
 fc b

irrigated with RWW and fresh water. However, the N concentra-

tion of the two water sources in those studies was alike and much
 wp is the soil water content under wilting point conditions.
 fc is the soil water content under field capacity conditions.
69.4 (4.5)
69.2 (8.5)
75.3 (1.8)

lower than recommended application amounts (20% for RWW and

14% for fresh water). In spite of findings that indicate nutrients in
SPa

RWW are available for crop mineral nutrition in most forms, it is

still common practice for growers of crops including olives to follow
50.7 (2.5)
54.3 (6.4)
55.7 (3.1)

the standard fertilizing recommendations, without considering the

nutrients arriving with the RWW.
O.M. is the soil organic matter content.
Clay

Application of RWW has potential substantial environmental

implications as the water and its constituents are transported out
Olsen bicarbonate extractable P.
SAR is sodium absorption ratio.
22.0 (1.7)
25.0 (2.0)
24.0 (2.0)

of the root zone into ground and surface waters. Such transport
SP is saturation percentage.
Physical properties

A.W. is the available water.

can lead to the salinization of groundwater (Kass et al., 2005), con-

Silt

tamination of drinking water with nitrates (Duan et al., 2010) or

pathogens (Bradford and Segal, 2009), and loading of surface waters
24.3 (2.9)
21.7 (8.1)
22.3 (2.4)

with nutrients (Bond, 1998).

Sand

We hypothesized that when irrigating olive orchards with

(%)

RWW, subtracting the content of the major nutritional constituents

80–120

in the RWW from the recommended nutrient application rates

0–40
40–80
Depth
Table 1

(cm)

would not affect tree growth and yield. Moreover, reduction in

a

applied fertilizers would minimize the potential contamination

456 E. Segal et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 140 (2011) 454–461

of groundwater due to leaching. Our objective was to study the Table 2

Composition of fresh water and of reclaimed wastewater. Values represent the four
effects of RWW used for irrigation on olive growth and yield and to
year average and standard deviation (2006–2009; n = 18).
quantify the nitrate (NO3 ) loss and salt load from a RWW irrigated
orchard. Constituent Units Reclaimed wastewater Fresh water

pH 7.7 (0.3) 7.5 (0.2)

2. Materials and methods ECa dS m−1 1.65 (0.13) 0.9 (0.2)
NH4 –N 4.8 (6.8) 0.0 (0.0)
NO3 –N 15.2 (3.9) 3.4 (2.2)
A four year field study compared two olive tree varieties, Total N 19.9 (6.0) 3.4 (2.2)
‘Barnea’ and ‘Leccino’, and two water sources combined with two K 29.6 (2.2) 4.4 (2.8)
fertilization treatments. The experiment was conducted within P 5.8 (1.8) 0.0 (0.0)
mg L−1
Mg 39 (6) 28 (13)
a 20 ha commercial high-density olive orchard, designed for
Ca 67 (11) 50 (15)
fully mechanized fruit removal with a continuous straddle over B 0.22 (0.04) 0.10 (0.05)
the canopy harvester. For both cultivars planting density was Cl 323 (30) 168 (56)
900 trees ha−1 with 4.5 m spacing between rows and 2.5 m between Na 198 (25) 81 (28)
trees. The experimental treatments commenced when the trees SARb (meq L−1 )1/2 4.9 (0.8) 4.2 (1.9)

were four years old, and were conducted for four consecutive years
(2006–2009). 2006 was the first commercial harvest of the orchard.
The orchard was located in the coastal plain of central Israel
(31◦ 4 50 N, 34◦ 46 32 E), represented by a Mediterranean climate.
Daily average maximum air temperature at the site varies between
31.1 ◦ C during summer to 17.2 ◦ C during winter. Average annual
precipitation is 47.8 cm falling exclusively between October and
April. Average annual evaporation rate of a Class-A pan is 172.3 cm.
The soil profile was sampled at three locations within the exper-
imental plot prior to treatment initiation and analyzed for some
physical and chemical properties. Particle size distribution was
determined by the hydrometer method (Gee and Or, 2002). Elec-
trical conductivity (EC) (Cyberscan 500, Eutech Instruments), pH
(420A, Orion), soluble K, Na, Ca and Mg (atomic absorption – AAn-
alyst 200, PerkinElmer) were determined from saturated paste
solution. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) was analyzed by calcimeter
(P1.85, Eijkelkamp). Total N and C were analyzed by the combustion
method (Flash EA 1112, Thermo). Phosphorus (P) was extracted
following the Olsen bicarbonate extractable P method (Pierzynski,
2000). Average values and standard deviations of the soil proper-
ties are given in Table 1. The soil texture was clayey with 58 mm of
available water in the upper 60 cm (estimated by ROSSETA – Schaap
et al., 2001). The soil was characterized by high pH due to abundant
carbonate (CO3 ), with sodium (Na), and therefore sodium absorp-
tion ratio (SAR), increasing with depth. On the contrary, organic
matter and total P in the soil decreased with depth.
Two water sources were utilized throughout the experiment. A
secondary-treated domestic wastewater from the city of Jerusalem
(RWW) and well water originated from the local coastal aquifer
(fresh). Water samples of each source were collected 4–5 times
during the irrigation season and analyzed for EC, pH, soluble K, Na,
Ca and Mg. Chloride (Cl) was quantified by chloridometer (Chloride
a
EC is the electrical conductivity of the water.
b
SAR is sodium absorption ratio.
926, Sherwood Scientific). Mineral concentration of NO3 –N, NH4 –N
and P was determined by a colorimetric system (QuickChem 8500,
Lachat Instruments). Average values of major constituents and their
standard deviations over the four years of the study are presented
in Table 2. The higher EC of the RWW was due to enhanced concen-
trations of minerals, including major plant nutritional constituents
(N, P and K) and salts, especially Na and Cl.
The experimental site included 36 plots (3 treatments × 6 repli-
cates × 2 cultivars) organized in a randomized block design for each
cultivar. Each plot included 12 trees (3 rows × 4 trees in a row) with
the two middle trees used for measurements and the other ten as
border trees. The treatments (water source–fertilization combina-
tions) were: (i) fresh water application with commercial fertilizer
at recommended rates (Fr), (ii) RWW with commercial fertilizer at
recommended rates (Re) and (iii) RWW application with reduced
amount of commercial fertilizer after subtracting the amounts of N
and K in the RWW (Re−). The irrigation seasons started in March or
April each year depending on precipitation events and amounts
and ended in October or November according to fruit ripening.
Deficit irrigation strategy was implemented to control the size of
the trees and facilitate their training and harvest. Some conse-
quences of the deficit irrigation levels were apparent in: (i) the low
actual crop factor (Table 3) compared to that found to be optimal
(0.75) by Grattan et al. (2006) under similar growing conditions,
(ii) low fruit water content (Table 5) and (iii) relative low stem
water potential values (−27 to −36 bar) measured in July for all
treatments using the Scholander pressure chamber (Arimad 3000,
MRC, Israel) technique. A single drip line per row (UniRam, Netafim)

Table 3
Annual precipitation, irrigation, potential evapotranspiration, actual crop factor, and application of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and chloride over the four years of the
study.

Year 2006 2007 2008 2009

Treatment Fra Reb Re−c Fr Re Re− Fr Re Re− Fr Re Re−

Precipitation (mm) 507 480 325 349

Irrigation (mm) 360 500 655 370
ETp d (mm) 1085 1083 1116 1109
Kc f 0.47 0.44 0.29 0.31
Applied N (kg ha−1 ) 268 245 + 72g 308 190 194 + 100 247 190 194 + 130 277 190 194 + 74 221
Applied P (kg ha−1 ) 0 0 + 21 21 0 0 + 29 29 0 0 + 38 38 0 0 + 22 22
Applied K (kg ha−1 ) 295 301 + 106 334 317 324 + 148 392 317 324 + 194 438 317 324 + 90 334
Applied Cl (kg ha−1 ) 873 1436 1466 1108 1889 1957 1369 2390 2500 890 1478 1477
a
Fr is fresh water application with commercial fertilizer.
b
Re is reclaimed wastewater application with commercial fertilizer.
c
Re− is reclaimed wastewater application with reduced commercial fertilizer.
d
ETp is the potential evapotranspiration (Penman–Monteith) during the irrigation season (April–October).
f
Kc is the actual crop factor (I × ETp −1 ).
g
Recommended amount (left) and over application amount (right).
 E. Segal et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 140 (2011) 454–461 457

Table 4
Mineral concentration in leaves. Values represent average and standard deviation of the three treatments in 2006–2008 and each individual treatment in 2009.

Constituent/treatment N (% of dry weight) P (% of dry weight) K (% of dry weight) Na (% of dry weight) Cl (% of dry weight)

Leccino
2006 1.48 (0.02) 0.12 (0.01) 1.19 (0.03) NAe 0.23 (0.01)
2007 1.89 (0.02) 0.13 (0.01) 1.37 (0.04) 0.027 (0.003) 0.24 (0.01)
2008 1.82 (0.10) 0.13 (0.01) 1.47 (0.05) 0.024 (0.007) 0.30 (0.04)
2009
Fra 1.92 (0.10) Ad 0.12 (0.01) A 1.55 (0.07) A 0.015 (0.002) A 0.26 (0.04) A
Reb 1.92 (0.12) A 0.13 (0.01) B 1.53 (0.08) A 0.016 (0.007) A 0.25 (0.03) A
Re−c 1.89 (0.13) A 0.13 (0.01) B 1.54 (0.08) A 0.018 (0.003) A 0.26 (0.03) A
Barnea
2006 1.28 (0.01) 0.10 (0.01) 0.78 (0.04) NA 0.15 (0.01)
2007 1.84 (0.08) 0.11 (0.01) 0.96 (0.01) 0.024 (0.005) 0.20 (0.02)
2008 1.62 (0.23) 0.12 (0.01) 0.93 (0.06) 0.025 (0.004) 0.21 (0.02)
2009
Fr 1.59 (0.14) A 0.11 (0.02) A 1.10 (0.11) A 0.017 (0.007) A 0.19 (0.03) A
Re 1.58 (0.10) A 0.11 (0.01) A 1.10 (0.09) A 0.016 (0.001) A 0.18 (0.03) A
Re− 1.66 (0.15) A 0.11 (0.01) A 1.10 (0.11) A 0.017 (0.002) A 0.19 (0.02) A
a
Fr is fresh water application with commercial fertilizer.
b
Re is reclaimed wastewater application with commercial fertilizer.
c
Re− is reclaimed wastewater application with reduced commercial fertilizer.
d
Letters represent statistical groups (P < 0.05).
e
NA, not available.

with 2.3 L h−1 emitters spaced every 50 cm distributed water and Spain) hammer crusher, weighing and drying the paste for 72 h at
fertilizer twice a week (April–June and September–November) and 105 ◦ C. Mineral concentration of the paste was measured follow-
three times a week (July–August). Fertilization followed the com- ing the same protocols as leaves. Oil percentage was measured by
mon recommended local commercial practice and supplied 180 kg chemical extraction of the dry paste by Soxhlet extraction using
of N ha−1 year−1 and 290 kg of K ha−1 year−1 (Therois, 2009). An hexane.
additional single N application of 191 kg of N ha−1 was applied Annual mass balances of Cl and NO3 in the upper soil profile that
to the trees at the beginning of the growing season, prior to the were used to estimate their leaching below the root zone were:
beginning of the study. Ready mixed liquid fertilizer of macro-
nutrients was injected into the irrigation water. A 6:0:12 N–P–K Clirrigation − Cldrainage − Clplant − Clsoil = 0 (1)
mixture was used to fertilize the Fr and Re treatments, and a 4:0:8 NO3 irrigation + NO3 nitrification − NO3 drainage − NO3 plant − NO3 soil = 0
N–P–K mixture to the Re− treatment. Annual precipitation, irriga-
tion quantities, potential evapotranspiration and actual plant factor (2)
during the irrigation season (March–September), macro-nutrients
and Cl application for each year are given in Table 3. Chloride had
The mass balances were calculated on a yearly basis in kg ha−1
two sources: fertilizer and wastewater. In practice, while the target
units for the upper 60 cm of the soil profile, where roots were vis-
amounts of N and K were supplied to the Fr treatment, N, P and K
ibly concentrated and assumed to be most active regarding water
were supplied in excess to the Re treatment and P was supplied in
and nutrient uptake under irrigated conditions. Soil storage was
excess to the Re− treatment. Less Cl was applied to the Fr treatment
calculated based on measured concentrations in the soil paste and
relative to the Re and Re− treatments.
measured saturation percentage from the beginning of the irriga-
Soil sampling was conducted twice a year, at the beginning of
tion season (March), estimated soil bulk density (1250 kg m3 ) and
the irrigation period (March) and prior to harvest and rainy sea-
active root zone volume (1500 m3 ha−1 , based on a wet strip of
son (September). Soil samples were collected under the drip line
about 1 m × 0.6 m below the drip line). Irrigation inputs are stated
between the two measured trees in each replicate plot from three
in Table 3. The estimation of plant uptake was calculated as com-
depths, 0–30, 30–60 and 60–90 cm. Air dried 200 g of ground soil
bined removal by the fruits and canopy. Fruits and pruning material
from each sample was used to prepare a saturated paste. Subsam-
were assumed to be the dominant sinks for Cl and N while storage
ple from the paste was oven dried (105 ◦ C) and used to calculate the
in the tree from year to year was negligible. Removal by the fruits
saturation percentage. Similar to the water analysis, the electrical
was based on measured concentration in fruits and fruit biomass.
conductivity of the soil extract (ECe ) and major concentration of
Upmost removal by the canopy was calculated from estimated dry
NO3 , K, Na and Cl were determined. Trunk diameter and diagnostic
weight of the pruned biomass and measured leaf concentrations
leaves (youngest mature) were sampled from each measured tree
(assuming that Cl and N content in the woody parts were smaller
once a year in July (Freeman et al., 2005). Chloride in the leaf was
than leaf – Therois, 2009). Nitrification was assumed to terminate
determined based on water extraction (0.1 g dry matter in 10 mL
due to the long time lag between measuring and last application of
of deionized water). Powdered leaf material was digested with sul-
N (5–6 months) and the typical rapid nitrification found in irrigated
furic acid and hydrogen peroxide, and then analyzed for N, P, K
soils (Strong et al., 1999). Statistical analyses were conducted with
and Na concentration (Snell and Snell, 1949). Total N in the leaves
Sigma-plot software (v. 11, Systat Inc.). The Student’s T-test was
was considered as ammonium and analyzed with the other ele-
used to determine the probability (P) for significant differences.
ments as described above. Trunk diameter was measured annually
in May, 50 cm above the ground level. Yield was determined for
3. Results and discussion
each monitored tree, harvested at the appropriate ripeness level.
Individual fruit weight was determined from a sample of 100 fruits. 3.1. Mineral in leaves
Fruit number per tree was calculated by dividing total fruit yield by
average single fruit weight. Water content in fruit was determine Concentrations of N, P, K, Na and Cl in the diagnostic leaves eval-
by crushing the fruit with an Abencor (MC2, Ingenieria y Sistems, uated throughout the experiment are presented in Table 4. There
458 E. Segal et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 140 (2011) 454–461

Trunk diameter, number of olive fruits, water content of olive fruit, olive fruit yield and oil yield. Values represent average and standard deviation. No significant differences (P < 0.05) were found between treatments in all
were no significant differences between treatments for each min-

4.3 (1.7)
2.5 (0.8)
3.1 (0.3)
4.2 (0.7)

3.6 (0.3)
2.6 (0.9)

0.1 (0.1)
eral throughout the four years of the study as demonstrated by the

Re−
2009 data set (besides minor increase of P in the ‘Leccino’ 2009).

–
Therefore, only averages of the three treatments and standard devi-

0.03 (0.03)
ations are presented for 2006–2008. The additional amounts of N,

4.4 (1.3)
2.2 (0.7)

3.2 (0.8)
3.0 (0.3)
4.0 (0.9)

2.0 (1.0)
Oil yield (Kg tree−1 )
P, K, Na and Cl due to RWW application did not result in accu-

Re

–
mulation in the leaves. Mineral concentrations in diagnostic leaves
serve as a bench mark for salinity and nutritional status of olive

2.1 (0.5)
2.7 (0.6)

3.3 (0.8)
2.2 (0.4)
3.7 (0.9)
4.0 (0.9)

0.1 (0.1)
tree (López-Villalta, 1996). Therefore, the measured concentrations
of N, P and K within a range considered normal (Therois, 2009)

Fr

–
indicated an adequate nutritional status for the cultivars in all 3

18.8 (1.7)

21.6 (8.3)
18.0 (5.9)
15.0 (1.3)
22.0 (3.8)
treatments. However, Fernández-Escobar et al. (2006) and Dag et al.

8.2 (1.2)

2.3 (2.6)
(2009) reported decreases in oil quality due to over application of N,

Re−
Olive fruits yield (Kg tree−1 )

–
which were not associated with increases in N detected in diagnos-
tic leaves. Therefore, the over application of N in the Re treatment

16.2 (4.9)
13.4 (2.3)

22.8 (6.7)
17.0 (4.4)
22.0 (5.0)

8.2 (3.8)

1.3 (1.1)
will likely result in inferior oil quality. Normal leaf concentration
of salinity indicators, Cl and Na (Freeman et al., 2005) indicated

Re

–
no effect of salinity stress or toxicity (>0.2% for Na and >0.5% for

14.1 (1.5)
21.9 (5.1)

18.3 (4.4)
16.5 (4.0)
16.0 (4.0)
Cl). Cultivar related differences were apparent in mineral accumu-

9.9 (3.7)

2.3 (2.4)
lation in leaves. Higher values of N, P, K and Cl were measured in

Fr

–
‘Leccino’ compared to ‘Barnea’. Specifically, the lower Cl concentra-
tion in the leaves of the ‘Barnea’ relative to ‘Leccino’ correspond to

0.59 (0.01)
0.48 (0.04)
0.54 (0.02)

0.54 (0.03)
0.52 (0.03)
0.54 (0.04)
0.46 (0.02)
former publications that claimed ‘Barnea’ is more salt tolerant than

Olive fruits water content(g g−1 )

Re−
‘Leccino’ (Demiral, 2005).

–
0.59 (0.03)
0.48 (0.03)
0.56 (0.06)

0.52 (0.03)
0.54 (0.04)
0.55 (0.04)
0.48 (0.05)
3.2. Tree growth, fruit and oil yields

Re
Vegetative and reproductive measurements of the trees are pre-

–
sented in Table 5. For both cultivars in each year, no significant

2.49 (0.37) 0.59 (0.02)

2.67 (0.35) 0.48 (0.03)
2.27 (0.31) 0.54 (0.03)

0.51 (0.05)
0.51 (0.05)
0.53 (0.06)
0.47 (0.03)
differences were found between treatments for all parameters:
trunk diameter, fruit number, average fruit weight, oil content,
Fr

–
water content, fruit yield and oil yield. The average annual growth

Leccino

Barnea
2.42 (0.48)
4.12 (0.49)
2.50 (0.87)
in trunk diameter (July–July) of both cultivars decreased over the

2.9 (1.2)
years from 17.5% for 2006–2007 to 12.25% for 2007–2008 and 5%
Re−

for 2008–2009. The ‘Leccino’ trees carried medium yields in 2006

–
and 2007, high yields in 2008 and no yield in 2009 (due to nat-
Average fruit weight (g)

2.54 (0.32)
2.71 (0.38)
2.34 (0.44)

2.43 (0.69)
3.82 (0.52)
2.09 (0.47)
3.7 (0.7)
ural biennial bearing cycle exasperated by a relatively hot winter
in 2008–2009 which didn’t provide satisfactory chilling hours for
Re

good flowering induction). The ‘Barnea’ trees had high yields in

2.51 (0.56)
2.86 (0.35)

2.15 (0.38)
3.94 (0.57)
2.23 (0.63)
2.21 (0.40)

2006 and 2008, medium yields in 2007, and, similar to ‘Lechino’,

very low yields in 2009. Average individual fruit weight ranged 3.5 (1.1)
between 2.21 g (2008) and 2.86 g for ‘Lechino’ and 2.15 and 4.12 g
Fr

–
9692 (1674)

8624 (3314)
7230 (1394)

(2007) for ‘Barnea’. Fruit number per tree ranged from 0 to 9900 in
Re− is reclaimed wastewater application with reduced commercial fertilizer.
7757 (689)
1992 (146)
5209 (92)

812 (902)

the ‘Off’ and high yields years, respectively, for ‘Leccino’ and from
348 to 10930 fruits per tree in the low and high years, respec-
Re−
Number of olive fruits (tree−1 )

tively, for ‘Barnea’. Fruit size was generally negatively correlated

Re is reclaimed wastewater application with commercial fertilizer.
10930 (3212)
6367 (1714)

9395 (2135)

6997 (1820)

to fruit number. The ‘Barnea’ trees had higher oil content in their
2588 (374)
5618 (100)

348 (299)

fruits (ranging from 19.2 to 26.6%) than the ‘Leccino’ (ranging from
17.8 to 20.5%). Multiplying olive fruit yield by oil content pro-
Fr is fresh water application with commercial fertilizer.
Re

vided oil yield per tree, which ranged from 2.1 to 4.2 kg tree−1
0
6392 (1169)

7652 (1869)

8190 (1969)
9900 (2306)
4678 (172)

2083 (463)

(1890–3780 kg ha−1 ) in the ‘On’ years (2006, 2008) in ‘Leccino’. The

653 (673)

‘Barnea’ trees had similar oil yields, ranging from 2.0 to 4.4 kg tree−1
(1800–3960 kg ha−1 ).
Fr

11.32 (0.64)
10.84 (0.64)

10.68 (0.62)
8.28 (0.52)
9.74 (0.48)

11.0 (0.56)

8.20 (0.22)
9.46 (0.30)

3.3. Soil
Re−c

Soil salinity measured as ECe was linearly related to the concen-

11.84 (0.72)

11.34 (0.44)
11.84 (0.68)
10.84 (0.64)

8.36 (0.36)
9.84 (0.36)
9.70 (0.54)
8.20 (0.50)

tration of the most frequently occurring anion, Cl (Fig. 1). The data
parameters for each cultivar.

Trunk diameter (cm)

suggest a single linear relation between Cl and ECe throughout the

Reb

experiment. This relationship was consequentially used to aid cal-

culation of the salt load to the soil as a result of the transition from
11.28 (0.36)
11.20 (0.76)

10.74 (0.64)
10.80 (0.42)
9.82 (0.32)

8.28 (0.48)
9.56 (0.44)
8.12 (0.40)

fresh water to RWW. Fig. 2 presents the soil profiles of Cl (A and B)

and NO3 –N (C and D) at the beginning and end of the 2008–2009
Fra

rainy season (349 mm) for each treatment. The large standard devi-
Table 5

2006
2007
2008
2009

2006
2007
2008
2009

ations were due to the variability of water and nutrient distribution

a

under drip lines and to soil heterogeneity. Higher concentrations of

 E. Segal et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 140 (2011) 454–461 459

Fig. 1. Chloride (Cl) concentration versus electrical conductivity of the soil saturated
paste extraction (ECe ), during the four years of the study.
Cl were measured in the upper 60 cm of the soil profile at the begin-
ning of the rainy season relative to measured values following the
rainy season (Fig. 2A and B). In contrast, similar values were mea-
sured at the lowest depth (60–90 cm) at both sampling dates. No
significant difference was found between treatments (P = 0.12), yet
average Cl concentrations in the soil samples from the ‘Barnea’ plots
were higher than those in the ‘Leccino’ (P = 5E−04). These observa-
tions were valid for the other experimental years, as well (data not
presented).
The combined lower Cl concentration in the leaves of the
‘Barnea’ (Table 4) and higher concentrations in the soil (Fig. 2) sup-
port previous findings that ‘Barnea’ controls the entrance of Cl to
plant tissues better than other varieties (Weissbein et al., 2008).
‘Barnea’ therefore may be preferred agronomically for utilization
of high salinity RWW. In contrast, ‘Leccino’ would become the pre-
ferred variety when environmental considerations dominate due
to the higher tissue concentrations of N, P, K and Cl, indicating that
the cultivar can more efficiently deplete minerals from the soil.
Under the assumption that the two varieties had similar growth
rates, more minerals were removed from the soil due to pruning
and harvesting of ‘Leccino’ trees, thus lowering the potential for
their transport out of the root zone.
Patterns of NO3 distribution in the soil profile were similar to
those of Cl. Higher concentrations were measured in the upper
60 cm, especially in the ‘Leccino’ and similar values at the lowest
depth in ‘Barnea’ plots (Fig. 2C and D). No significant difference was
found between treatments in the ‘Leccino’ plots (P = 0.11) and simi-
larly, NO3 concentrations in the soil samples from the ‘Barnea’ plots
were higher than those in the ‘Leccino’ (P = 1E−06). These trends
continued to be measured in each of the additional three years of
the experiment (data not presented).
In our experiment, Cl served as an indicator to estimate salt
load due to its (i) having a strong correlation to ECe under the cur-
rent experimental conditions, (ii) low relative uptake rate (ratio
between uptake and supplied), (iii) being an anion with low adsorp-
tion rate and high mobility in the soil and (iv) being the most
frequently occurring anion in the wastewater (Table 2). The accu-
mulation of Cl in the upper 60 cm of the soil profile during the
irrigation season (Fig. 2) implied intensive root water uptake indi-
cating the active root zone. Since irrigation was applied at deficit
levels, excessive Cl was subsequently transported below this zone
mainly following precipitation events during the winter. Quantify-
ing the exact amount of Cl leached below the root zone requires an
estimation of the plant uptake rates (Eq. (1)). This was established
from measured Cl concentration in the olive paste (0.19%) and in the
leaves (Table 4), measured fruit yield (Table 5) and dry weight of the
pruned branches, estimated at 5 kg tree−1 . Leaching of Cl (Eq. (1))
from the root zone for each treatment is presented in Table 6. Calcu-
lated Cl leached is presented for each year and the total of the four
years of the study, for both cultivars. The transition from fresh water
to RWW for irrigation resulted in significantly increased Cl drained
from the root zone (∼4000 kg Cl ha−1 for Fr and ∼6900 kg Cl ha−1

Fig. 2. Soil profile distribution of chloride (Cl, A and B) and nitrate (NO3 –N, C and D) measured in saturated paste solution at the beginning (Beg.) and the end (End) of
the 2008–2009 rainy season. Horizontal bars represent standard deviations. Fresh water application with commercial fertilizer (Fr), reclaimed wastewater application with
commercial fertilizer (Re) and reclaimed wastewater application with reduced commercial fertilizer (Re−).
460 E. Segal et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 140 (2011) 454–461

Table 6
Chloride (Cl) and nitrate (NO3 –N) depletion from the root zone. Values are annual average and standard deviation.

Treatment Fra Reb Re−c

−1 −1 −1 −1
Constituent Cl (kg ha ) NO3 –N (kg ha ) Cl (kg ha ) NO3 –N (kg ha ) Cl (kg ha−1 ) NO3 –N (kg ha−1 )

Year Leccino
2006–2007 933 (59) 6 (19) 1491 (93) 19 (4) 1478 (154) 2 (2)
2007–2008 1081 (63) 6 (5) 1857 (144) 112 (8) 1891 (73) 45 (11)
2008–2009 1175 (169) 16 (5) 2203 (161) 73 (6) 2378 (48) 39 (15)
2009–2010 864 (267) 106 (6) 1392 (265) 186 (12) 1344 (205) 130 (12)
Total 4053 Ad (558) 134 ae (70) 6943 B (663) 390 b (30) 7091 B (480) 216 a (40)
Year Barnea
2006–2007 730 (155) 101 (40) 1353 (157) 114 (40) 1346 (126) 93 (57)
2007–2008 1248 (145) 105 (48) 2002 (155) 188 (34) 2086 (147) 162 (30)
2008–2009 1131 (148) 45 (7) 2071 (182) 77 (17) 2024 (289) 18 (35)
2009–2010 773 (141) 99 (6) 1362 (236) 192 (23) 1250 (692) 116 (48)
Total 3882 A (589) 350 a (101) 6788 B (730) 571 b (114) 6706 B (1254) 389 a (170)
a
Fr is fresh water application with commercial fertilizer.
b
Re is reclaimed wastewater application with commercial fertilizer.
c
Re− is reclaimed wastewater application with reduced commercial fertilizer.
d
Uppercase letters represent statistical groups for Cl (P < 0.05).
e
Lowercase letters represent statistical groups for NO3 –N (P < 0.05).

for the Re and Re− treatments). Due to low uptake of Cl by the
plant and minor changes of Cl in the root zone between consecutive
years, most of the applied Cl was transported below the active root
zone during the rainy season. The average increase in Cl load to the
soil under RWW application was 1.75 times that of the fresh water
application, similar to the ratio between the Cl concentrations of the
two water sources over the four years of the study. Presenting these
absolute values relative to the supplied amount revealed that about
97% of the Cl in the fresh water and 98% in the RWW were leached
below the root zone. Salt leaching is an essential practice to avoid
impairment of soil structure and fertility and inhibition of plant
development due to the osmotic potential and specific ion toxic-
ity (Chartzoulakis, 2005). Yet, leached salts have the potential to
increase the salinity of groundwater, where time scale and magni-
tude of the process depends on the water table depth, water fluxes
in the vadose zone, and its mineral composition (Bond, 1998). In this
study, deep mineral transport took place mainly as a result of spo-
radic winter rainfall, when precipitation/infiltration rates became
higher than actual evapotranspiration rates. In more arid climates
lacking significant precipitation, water application in excess would
be required to manage leaching and the irrigation-season deficit
application strategy practiced in the experimental case would be
less feasible.
Accurate quantification of NO3 leaching below the root zone is
a challenging task due the complexity of the N cycle in the soil
(Bar-Tal, 2011). For example, lack of information on N transfor-
mation rates (i.e. mineralization, nitrification, denitrification and
immobilization) disallows calculating the concentrations of the
inorganic forms of N (ammonium and nitrate) in the soil solution
over time. However, comparison between treatments enables eval-
uation of the effect of N application on the potential leaching of
NO3 below the root zone (Eq. (2)). Similarly to Cl, quantifying the
leaching amounts of NO3 below the root zone requires an estima-
tion of plant uptake rates. The estimation was established from
measured total N concentration in the olive paste (0.8% for ‘Lec-
cino’ and 0.5% for ‘Barnea’) and in the leaves (Table 4), measured
fruit yield (Table 5) and dry weight of the pruned branches, esti-
mated at 5 kg tree−1 . Leaching of NO3 –N from the root zone for
each treatment is presented in Table 6. The Re treatment, charac-
terized by greater application of N, resulted in significant higher
leached amounts (about 480 kg of NO3 –N ha−1 ) than for the Fr and
Re− (about 270 kg of NO3 –N ha−1 ). These differences were mea-
sured throughout the three years of the study for both ‘Leccino’ and
‘Barnea’ cultivars. Similar to Cl, NO3 is an anion with high mobility
in the soil and therefore, under the current experimental setup, the
timing and magnitude of leaching was mainly during the winter
rainy season.
4. Conclusions
The current transition towards RWW for irrigation of intensive
olive orchards was investigated from agronomical and environ-
mental perspectives. The two water sources combined with two
fertilization strategies created variable N, P, K and Cl application
to two cultivars, characterized by different sensitivities to salini-
ties. No significant differences were found between treatments for
either cultivar from agronomic perspectives, measured in terms
of mineral concentrations in leaves, trunk diameter, fruit size and
yield, and oil yield. Consideration of the plant available nutrients in
the RWW allowed the reduction of applied fertilizer. From an envi-
ronmental perspective, the greater application of Cl from RWW
resulted in greater transport below the root zone. Specifically,
‘Barnea’ trees had better control over Cl uptake, while ‘Leccino’
trees were found to have the potential to deplete minerals more
efficiently from the soil. Similarly, enhanced application of N, when
its content in the RWW was not considered in the fertilization strat-
egy, resulted in greater transport of NO3 below the active root zone.
The occurrence of the Cl and NO3 losses was mainly during the win-
ter rainy season when precipitation rates were higher than actual
evapotranspiration rates. Long-term transport of salts and NO3 into
the hydrological system might negatively affect the quality of the
local groundwater. In summary, the transition to RWW did not have
an effect on olive tree growth and productivity, but did have envi-
ronmental repercussions as the transport of salts below the root
zone was enhanced. Consideration of nutrients in RWW allows the
reduction of applied fertilizer and facilitates the minimization of
transport of nutrients below the root zone during the rainy sea-
son. Optimization between the reduced nutrient and increased salt
transport requires continued long term evaluation of crop produc-
tion and environmental aspects of irrigation with RWW.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by grant M26-062 of the USAID
Middle East Regional Cooperation Program, as well as by grant 203-
0620 from the Chief Scientist of the Israeli Ministry of Agriculture
and Rural Development. The first author was supported by a return-
ing scientist scholarship from the Israeli Ministry of Immigration.
 E. Segal et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 140 (2011) 454–461
We thank Inna Feingold, Eugene Presnov, Talal Alhwashla, Yulia
Subbotin and Lyudmila Yusupov for technical support in the field
and laboratory.
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