DMG 01

DEFENCE WORKS FUNCTIONAL STANDARD
DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE GUIDE 01
Roads for Tracked Vehicles
COMPILED BY AIRFIELDS & BULK FUELS GROUP (ABFG)

DEFENCE ESTATE ORGANISATION (WORKS)
Ministry of Defence
LONDON: HMSO
© Crown Copyright 1996
Applications for reproduction should be made to HMSO, The Copyright Unit,
St Clements House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich NR3 1BQ
ISBN 0 11 7724858
Front cover: A tank on the unbound test track at Catterick.

Back cover: The concrete block test track at Bovington.
Acknowledgements
This document has been produced by Major R P Sheldon RE during his posting to
Defence Estate Organisation (Works), Airfields and Bulk Fuels Group. Notable
assistance has been received from White Young Consulting Engineers and Scott
Wilson Kirkpatrick and Partners. The publication has in part evolved from
documents produced previously by the Property Services Agency, the Royal
Engineers, United States Federal Agencies and the Australian Department of
Roads.
Foreword
Technical advice on general highway works for wheeled vehicles is well

documented and published by the Department of Transport and HMSO.
Guidance on roads trafficked by tracked vehicles is poorly documented and

experience within the civilian world is generally limited to slow moving
construction plant. The military requirement is for roads able to sustain heavy
tracked vehicle use at speeds of 30 mph or greater.
This document is for the use of Top Level Budget Holders for application by their
Project Sponsors, Project Managers, Property Managers, Establishment Works
Consultants, Works Services Managers and other parties involved in the
provision of roads and hardstandings for tracked vehicles on the MOD estate.
This Defence Works Functional Standard was prepared under the patronage of
Headquarters Land Command. It supersedes the DOE/PSA document Technical
Instruction Civil Engineering (TICE) 48.
The application and limitations of this Functional Standard are outlined in

Chapter 1. Further technical assistance regarding the contents of this document
can be obtained from Defence Estate Organisation (Works). Approaches may be
made through local DEO (Wks) offices or directly to Airfields and Bulk Fuels
Group:
SO2 (W)
Airfields and Bulk Fuels Group
Defence Estate Organisation (Works)
St George's Barracks
Blakemore Drive
SUTTON COLDFIELD
West Midlands (0121) 311 3623
B75 7QB (0121) 311 2140
This Standard has been devised for the use of the Crown and its contractors in
the execution of contracts for the Crown. The Crown hereby excludes all liability
(other than liability for death and personal injury) whatsoever and howsoever
arising (including but without limitation, negligence on the part of the Crown, its
servants or agents) for loss or damage however caused where the Standard is
used for any other purpose.
Compliance with the contents of this document will not in itself confer immunity
from legal obligations.
iv
References
1. ME Vol II Pam 8A—Roads (1983).
2. ME Vol III Part 1—Basic Bridging (1981).
3. ME Vol IV—Soil Mechanics and Foundations (1981).
4. ME Vol V Part 1—Roads (1984).
5. DWS Functional Standard Hot Rolled Asphalt and Coated Macadam for
Airfield Pavement Works (1995).
6. DWS Functional Standard Specification 033 Pavement Quality Concrete

for Airfields (1996).
7. DWS Functional Standard Specification 035 Concrete Block Paving for

Airfields (1996).
8. DoT Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works published in 6

volumes. Volume 1 Specification for Highway Works is particularly
relevant.
9. TICE 48—Pavements Subjected to Tracked Vehicles—DOE/PSA Technical

Instruction (1984) incorporating Amdt 1 (Sep 90).
10. TICE 50—Road Design and Layout Criteria—DOE/PSA Technical

Instruction (1989).
11. Design of paved areas for industrial usage - Concrete Society Technical
Report No 24 (1983).
12. TM-822-12—Design of Aggregate Surfaced Roads and Airfields—US Army

Technical Manual (1990).
13. Design and Construction of Interlocking Block Pavements—B Shackel

(1990).
14. Road Aggregates and Skidding - Roger Hosking—TRL State of the Art
Review /4 (1992).
15. Road Building in the Tropics—Dr R S Millard—TRL State of the Art

Review 79(1993).
16. Unsealed Roads Manual Guidelines to Good Practice—Australian Roads

Research Board (May 1993).
Abbreviations
AAV Aggregate Abrasive Value

ABFG Airfields and Bulk Fuels Group
AFV Armoured Fighting Vehicle
ASC Alternate Start Corner
BBA British Board of Agrément
BS British Standard
CBM Cement Bound Material
CBR California Bearing Ratio
CRCP Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
CVR(T) Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)
DEO (Wks) Defence Estate Organisation (Works)
DOE Department of the Environment
DoT Department of Transport
DIA Diameter
EXG Existing
ggbs Ground granulated blastfurnace slag
HRA Hot Rolled Asphalt
Max Maximum
MET Main Battle Tank
ME Military Engineering
micron Micrometre
Min Minimum
mm Millimetre
MOD Ministry of Defence
mph Miles per hour
OPC Ordinary Portland Cement
PBC Portland Blastfurnace Cement
pen Penetration
pfa Pulverised fuel ash
PSA Property Services Agency
PQC Pavement Quality Concrete
RC Reinforced Concrete
SC Start Corner
TICE Technical Instruction Civil Engineering
TRL Transport Research Laboratory
VC Vitrified Clay
430 Series Armoured personnel carrier
Diameter
Contents
Page
Foreword iv
References
Abbreviations vi
Contents vii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Aim 1
1.3 Scope 1
1.4 Functional Requirements 2
1.5 Special Requirements of Tracked Vehicles 2
2 Principles of Design 4
2.1 General 4
2.2 Route Selection 4
2.3 Site Investigation 4
2.4 Geometric Layout 5
2.5 Choice of Construction Type 5
2.6 Reinforced Concrete 5
2.7 Unreinforced Concrete 6
2.8 Concrete Block Paving 6
2.9 Mastic Asphalt 6
2.10 Hot Rolled Asphalt 6
2.11 Grouted Macadam 7
2.12 Unbound Roads 7
3 Reinforced Concrete 9
3.1 General 9
3.2 Design 9
3.3 Materials 10
3.4 Laying 11
3.5 Joints 12
3.6 Surface Finish 12
4 Unreinforced Concrete 15
4.1 General 15
4.2 Design 15
4.3 Materials 15
4.4 Laying 15
4.5 Joints 15
4.6 Bay Layouts 16
5 Concrete Block Paving 19

5.1 General 19
5.2 Design 19
5.3 Materials 19
5.4 Edge Restraints 20
5.5 Laying 21
5.6 Expansion Joints 21
6 Hot Rolled Asphalt 23

6.1 General 23
6.2 Design 23
6.3 Materials 23
6.4 Laying 25
7 Mastic Asphalt 26
7.1 General 26
7.2 Design 26
7.3 Materials 26
7.4 Laying 27
7.5 Joints 27
8 Grouted Macadams 29
8.1 General 29
8.2 Design 29
8.3 Materials 29
8.4 Laying 30
8.6 Trafficking 30
9 Unbound Roads 32
9.1 General 32
9.2 Design 32
9.3 Materials 33
9.4 Laying 33
9.6 Construction Sequence 33
9.7 Maintenance Regime 35
10 Special Surface Treatments 37

10.1 Concrete Surface Hardeners 37
10.2 Concrete Fibres 37
10.3 Concrete Admixtures 37
10.4 Concrete Block Sealants 38
10.5 Grouted Macadams 38
10.6 Modified Binders 38
Appendix A — Magnesium Sulfate Soundness Test 39
A.1 Scope 39
A.2 Apparatus and Reagents 39
A.3 Preparation of Test Portions 39

A. 3.1 Bulk Samples 39
A.3.2 Test Portions 39
A.4 Preparation of Sand Test Specimens for Each Fraction 39

A.4.1 Particle Size Distribution 39
A.4.2 Fraction Passing 300 um Sieve 40
A.4.3 Test Specimen 40
A.5 Preparation of Coarse Aggregate Test Specimens for Each

Fraction 40
A.5.1 Particle Size Distribution 40
A. 5. 2 Minor Fractions 40
A. 5. 3 Test Specimen 40
A.6 Procedure 41
A. 7 Calculation and Expression of Test Results 41

A. 7.1 Minor Fractions 41
A.7.2 Fine Aggregate Samples 41
A. 7. 3 Soundness Value 41
A.7.4 Magnesium Sulfate Soundness Value (MSSV) 41
A.8 Precision 43
A.9 Test Report 43
Appendix B — Stripping Test 44

B.1 Scope 44
B.2 Apparatus 44
B.3 Samples 44
B.4 Procedure 44
B.4.1 Test Procedure 44
B.4.2 Test Criteria 45
B.4.3 Check Tests 45
List of Figures
1/1 Typical Kerb Details 3
3/1 Foundations for Rigid Pavements 10
3/2 Permissible Test Limits for Fine Aggregate 10
3/3 Gradings 1 and 2 for Sand 11
3/4 Permissible Test Limits for Coarse Aggregates 11
3/5 Expansion Joints Reinforced and Unreinforced Concrete Slabs 13
3/6 Contraction Joints 14
4/1 Warping Joints 16
4/2 Typical Bay Layout at Road Junction 17
4/3 Joint Layout at Turning Bays 18
5/1 Edge Restraint for Precast Concrete Blocks 20
5/2 Concrete Block Laying Patterns 22
6/1 Foundations for Flexible Pavements 23
6/2 Coarse Aggregate Properties 24
6/3 Fine Aggregate Properties 24
6/4 HRA Filler 25
6/5 Asphalt Temperatures 25
7/1 Mastic Asphalt Coarse Aggregate Grading 26
7/2 Mastic Asphalt Fine Aggregate Grading 27
7/3 Mastic Asphalt Bitumen Properties 27
7/4 Mastic Asphalt Composition 27
8/1 Grouted Macadams 31
9/1 Unbound Pavement Thickness 32
9/2 Typical Cross Section 34
9/3 Intervention Levels for Unbound Roads 36
A.4/1 Mass of Each Test Specimen for Sand 40
A.5/1 Mass of Each Test Specimen for Coarse Aggregate 41
B.4/1 Mixing Temperatures 45
1 Introduction
1.1 BACKGROUND
This Defence Estate Organisation (Works) [DEO (Wks)] Functional Standard is a
design guide for pavements subjected to the passage of tracked vehicles. The
information contained within the guide is largely based on an update of the old
PSA Technical Instruction Civil Engineering Number 48 (Reference 9) which it
supersedes.
The Ministry of Defence (MOD) is expanding its use of tracked vehicles in the UK
as a result of the reduction of forces in Germany. At the same time, most types of
tracked armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs) are becoming bigger and heavier with
more powerful engines. The consequence of these changes is a growing
requirement to provide adequate roads and hardstandings resistant to the
damaging effects of tracked vehicles.
It is intended that this functional standard will be of assistance to project

sponsors, project managers, design consultants and anyone else involved in
designing or building new facilities for tracked vehicles.
This design guide does not cover short term or temporary requirements for
tracked vehicle crossings or roads, for which a variety of expedients including
Class 60 trackway, timber baulks or hardcore ramps would be appropriate. There
is ample guidance available for these situations in the Military Engineering
publications (References 1-4).
1.2 AIM
The aim of this functional standard is to provide guidance on the design and
construction of pavements to be used by tracked vehicles.
1.3 SCOPE
The design guide covers a wide range of subjects associated with the provision of
a new road or hardstanding. Thus, guidance is given on the essentials of road
design as well as the factors to be considered when siting a road or when
selecting a suitable type of construction. Further guidance is available from the
references quoted at the beginning of the guide or from DEO (Wks) ABFG.
No publication of this type can claim to be comprehensive in its treatment and

this guide introduces only the major elements of the subject. Chapter 2 describes
the principles of design, with detailed guidance being given about the different
construction materials in chapters 3-10.
May 1996
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 1 Introduction
1.4 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

To serve the purpose for which it has been designed a pavement, whether a road,
apron, car park or workshop floor, must fulfil certain criteria satisfactorily. The
criteria are dealt with in more detail below.
The paved surface must protect the subgrade from damage caused by traffic. To
achieve this, the pavement must provide a suitable running surface and
sufficient additional strength to protect the underlying soil.
The pavement must protect the vehicles from damage caused by sharp edges or
large pieces of loose material and excessive bumpiness. This requirement is
closely related to the need to provide reasonable rideability both for the comfort
of vehicle occupants and to reduce wear and tear to the vehicles themselves.
The paved surface must provide a suitable texture and skidding resistance
particularly in wet conditions. It must be shaped either in camber or crossfall to
achieve good drainage to reduce the risk of skidding and to prevent spray which
can reduce visibility.
Among a number of other criteria that a pavement must meet, a key requirement
is the ability to resist damage in use.
1.5 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS OF TRACKED VEHICLES

In addition to the general criteria listed above which apply to all paved surfaces,
roads for tracked vehicles need to be able to withstand the particularly damaging
characteristics of heavy AFVs.
AFVs operate with relatively low ground bearing pressures compared to the
pressures under a modern commercial vehicle tyre. This is based on the
requirement for AFVs to operate off road in a variety of soil and weather
conditions. However, the overall load imposed by a main battle tank (MET) such
as Challenger 2 is high.
In order to achieve the protection and mobility demanded by modern battlefield

conditions, the manufacturers have increased vehicle weights, sizes and power-
to-weight ratios substantially. The consequence of high weight and high power is
a considerable increase in damaging power to the pavement.
The method by which a tracked vehicle is driven and turned is completely

different to other vehicles. The action of a steel linked track on a straight road at
constant speed, even when fitted with rubber track pads, is much more
aggressive than the effect of a pneumatic tyre. On turns, gradients and when
accelerating or decelerating, the difference in effect is much more dramatic. Put
simply, a rubber tyre slips and leaves a small rubber deposit when there is a
change in motion; a track tends to scrape causing a grinding action. When
slewing at speed the scraping action is especially onerous.
Tracked vehicles roads should be provided with kerbs or other visible edge
restraints to assist vehicle drivers and to prevent damage to adjoining areas.
Current experience suggests that no kerb can withstand frequent contact with
tracks without sustaining damage. Consequently, any kerb should be considered
as a form of sacrificial barrier. There are essentially two possibilities—a precast
concrete kerb or a cast in situ kerb. If it is essential to prevent a tracked vehicle
from leaving the carriageway, then a large cast in situ kerb with a substantial
upstand will be required. It is generally cheaper to use standard precast kerbs to
BS 340 than to cast in situ. Figure 1/1 shows typical kerb details.
May 1996
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 1 Introduction
Figure 1/1 Typical Kerb Details.
RAISED KERBS AND EDGINGS TO BS 340 (PRECAST CONCRETE)
FLUSH KERBS
FLUSH KERBS MAYBE USED WHERE THERE IS NO FOOTWAY AND NO REQUIREMENTS OR
SURFACE WATER TO BE TAKEN TO GULLIES BUT LATERAL SUPPORT IS REQUIRED TO THE
CARRIAGEWAY.
[NOTE: FLUSH KERBS TEND TO ENCOURAGE DRIVERS TO LEAVE THE CARRIAGEWAY CAUSING
DAMAGE TO THE VERGES]
FLEXIBLE CONSTRUCTION
STANDARD CROSS-SECTIONS
May 1996
2 Principles of Design
2.1 GENERAL
All roads are designed to spread vehicle loading sufficiently so that the pressure
at foundation level is less than the maximum allowable bearing capacity of the
soil.
2.2 ROUTE SELECTION

The factors governing route selection for highways are well known to practising
engineers and do not need to be reviewed here. However, there are one or two
specialist points that should be borne in mind when selecting tracked vehicle
routes.
It is vital for the statement of requirement to clarify whether only tracked

vehicles, or mixed wheeled and tracked traffic, is to use the route. It is frequently
a requirement to separate tracked vehicles from other traffic and this places
considerable restraints on the routes available to the designer. This is
particularly important when near public roads.
Where tracked vehicles routes have to cross other roads, the designer must
ensure that the tracked route is clearly and immediately obvious even to
personnel unfamiliar with the area. This may conflict with a military training
desire to make the tracked vehicle routes blend in with the landscape as much as
possible.
Where unbound construction is concerned, the importance of adequate drainage

cannot be overemphasised. Clearly, routes that make the best use of natural
drainage are to be preferred as the costs of providing positive drainage will be
reduced and the maintenance bills are likely to be lower.
2.3 SITE INVESTIGATION

The site investigation should not only include the routine gathering of
information on soil types, topography and existing usage but should also assess
the impact of heavy tracked vehicles on the local ecology. One of the advantages
of building even an unbound road for tracked vehicles is that damage to the
natural ground is significantly reduced.
It is recommended that at least one trial pit should be dug per kilometre, with
augered holes at more frequent intervals. There should be further investigations
where changes in the ground are detected and where any structures such as
culverts are to be built.
May 1996
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 2 Principles of Design
Overall costs will be minimised if construction plant can be operated efficiently.

This can be achieved only by ensuring that the site investigation is in sufficient
detail for the engineer to design an economic pavement for each section of the
road.
2.4 GEOMETRIC LAYOUT

In general, a tracked vehicle route will have a low design speed, typically a
maximum of 30 mph. However, where wheeled traffic shares the road, a higher
design speed may be selected. Guidance on wheeled vehicle design speed is
available from Department of Transport (DoT) publications.
The ability of tracked vehicles to negotiate very steep slopes means that
gradients steeper than 10% can be used, particularly for short sections. Indeed,
training needs may require special climbing sections with gradients of up to 35%.
Clearly, such slopes would be dangerous for two way traffic so they should not
form part of a major through route and they must be sited with great care.
It should be noted that a heavy commercial vehicle can negotiate a maximum

gradient of approximately 15%. Due to insufficient traction, this reduces to not
greater than 8% for an unbound road.
For low speed roads it is normal practice to use circular curves and to dispense
with transition curves. However, it remains important that superelevation is
introduced on curves for design speeds of 30 mph or greater. Superelevation
assists tracked vehicles when cornering at speed so it is particularly important
when wheeled traffic shares the road. Roads should be widened for sharp bends
to allow tracked vehicles plenty of room to slew round.
2.5 CHOICE OF CONSTRUCTION TYPE

Considerable experience has been gained over the years with the use by tracked
vehicles of roads built using a variety of construction materials. Many of these
roads were designed to take wheeled traffic but have since been used extensively
by tracked AFVs. For purpose built roads and hardstandings the choice between
the various types of flexible and rigid pavements is largely determined by
location, cost, availability of construction materials, expected rate of use and
estimated design life.
A workshop floor requires a high quality material capable of withstanding high

point loading with the absolute minimum of maintenance. In addition, it should
be resistant to abrasion and oil spills whilst still providing an easily cleaned non
slip surface.
A road across a training area can often be constructed satisfactorily from locally
supplied stone despite the fact that it requires significantly more maintenance
and does not provide a very smooth ride.
The advantages and disadvantages of the different pavement types are

considered in more detail below.
2.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE

Reinforced concrete (RC) has been used extensively for tank roads all round the
world. It has proved to be a reliable surface when properly constructed with
carefully detailed joints. It provides a high quality surface with good abrasion
May 1996
resistance, even in the more onerous situations, and it provides a smooth ride for
vehicles. It has proved to be a long lasting material when well built with a life of
up to 40 years.
RC suffers from a number of disadvantages. It is relatively expensive compared

to some alternatives; joint defects are difficult to rectify; it requires a skilled
workforce to produce a good quality product and, perhaps of more significance
under modern environmental constraints, it is intrusive upon an open landscape.
RC roads can be built without any joints using extra reinforcement to form a
continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP). Although it is more
expensive, CRCP construction should produce a high quality finish and should
produce a virtually maintenance-free road.
2.7 UNREINFORCED CONCRETE

Unreinforced concrete has also provided a satisfactory pavement historically. The
majority of unreinforced slabs used for tracked vehicles have employed steel
dowels to provide shear connections between adjacent slabs.
Where the underlying soil conditions are good, an unreinforced slab can be
considered and it is likely to be cheaper, though thicker, than a reinforced
alternative. It suffers from the same disadvantages as RC apart from being less
expensive.
2.8 CONCRETE BLOCK PAVING

Concrete block paving has been used increasingly as a cost effective surfacing for
heavy duty pavement uses in industrial applications, including container storage
areas, ports and airports. Concrete blocks have been used for tracked vehicles in
Europe and to a lesser extent in the UK.
Concrete blocks have a number of advantages over other surfacing materials, not
least being a lower overall cost. They require a firm level base, normally of
drylean concrete, for heavy duty use. They provide good rideability and excellent
skid resistance. Concrete blocks have proved to be resistant to thermal
movements, settlement and heavy wear.
2.9 MASTIC ASPHALT

Mastic asphalt has been used successfully for tracked vehicle roads and other
heavy duty applications. It is resistant to abrasion and is highly resilient so that
local deformations do not lead to long term distress in the pavement layers.
The material suffers from several disadvantages. It is susceptible to deformation

in periods of hot weather, it is expensive (due in part to being hand laid) and it is
susceptible to damage by oil and fuel spillage.
The material is particularly useful in small, awkward shaped areas where

machine laying is difficult or impracticable. It cannot normally be laid by
machine, making it unsuitable for large areas.
2.10 HOT ROLLED ASPHALT

Hot Rolled Asphalt (HRA) has been used on a few occasions for tracked vehicle
roads. It is considered to be substantially less resistant to rutting and
deformation than mastic asphalt. It is the most common road surfacing used in
May 1996
the UK for all categories of traffic although tracked vehicles are not normally
permitted to use UK roads. Where HRA has been used for straight roads it has
performed fairly well under tracked vehicle loading.
DEO (Wks) has recently published a new Functional Standard (FS) entitled Hot
Rolled Asphalt and Coated Macadams for Airfield Pavement Works (Reference 5).
Although not written for roads, this standard provides an excellent basis for the
design of HRA for tracked vehicle roads. It should be appreciated that modern
aircraft loading with its high tyre pressures causes scuffing and wear of a similar
order of magnitude to a rubber track pad.
HRA has a number of advantages over alternative materials for tracked vehicle
roads. It is widely available in the UK, a large number of British contractors are
experienced in laying it and it can be obtained and laid at a competitive price. It
can be laid in small, awkward areas by hand but major areas are machine laid.
Repairs are comparatively simple and can be carried out by a large number of UK
contractors. It should be noted that HRA is rarely used outside the UK and so it
would not be recommended for overseas stations including Germany.
2.11 GROUTED MACADAM

Grouted macadams consist of pervious bituminous wearing courses which are
grouted with proprietary cementitious products to achieve a sealed surface
resistant to fuel and oil spillages.
Although it would not be appropriate to use grouted macadams for long lengths of
road, due to their cost, they are well suited to use in small heavily trafficked
areas particularly workshops and garages where the possibility of fuel spills and
oil leaks is high.
The major disadvantages of grouted macadams are their relatively high cost and
irreparable failure of the pavement surface where the grouting is deficient. They
have been used successfully in the UK and abroad for areas subject to
particularly heavy use such as locked track turns on firing ranges.
2.12 UNBOUND ROADS

Unbound roads have been used extensively for tracked vehicles roads. All modern
AFVs are designed to operate across country on unbound surfaces.
However, the ability of a tracked vehicle to cross rough ground easily does not
mean that it does so without damage to the ground surface. In fact, even strong
natural subgrades suffer damage rapidly when trafficked by AFVs. This can be
seen on any tracked vehicle training area.
Unbound roads can provide excellent, economic roads for tracked vehicles
provided that they are properly designed and built and, most importantly, that
they are properly maintained. By definition, an unbound road is one where the
surface is not held together by bitumen or cement so the road surface will
deteriorate with natural weathering and by the action of traffic. The only way
that such a road can continue to serve satisfactorily without disintegrating is by
being maintained correctly. The maintenance regime following initial
construction is an integral part of the design and funding of an unbound road.
Where the ground conditions are suitable and only military vehicles are involved,
an unbound road should always be considered as an option for tracked vehicles.
This is because unbound roads can be built at a considerably lower capital cost
than a bound alternative.
May 1996
There are a number of disadvantages associated with unbound roads including

the cost of maintenance, rideability, dust and susceptibility to weather conditions.
The ability to improve an unbound road progressively is particularly useful. It

can be built relatively cheaply for temporary or short term use and then can be
improved using higher quality materials if a bound road is required ultimately.
This inherent flexibility can be most useful when planning new roads through
training areas. The client may not be certain beforehand which routes are going
to be most heavily used. A simple track layout can be built, monitored and altered
at comparatively low cost. If maintenance costs become too high, it is easy to
upgrade parts of the track network.
May 1996
3 Reinforced Concrete
3.1 GENERAL
A properly designed and constructed reinforced concrete road has a design life of
40 years. The ability of a road to survive for that length of time is critically
dependent on the quality of the materials used, good substructure including
drainage, good concrete detailing and carefully controlled placing, compacting
and finishing.
3.2 DESIGN
Reinforced concrete slabs for use by heavy tracked vehicles are recommended to
be not less than 200 mm thick and reinforced with long mesh reinforcement of
not less than 4.34 kg/m2. (C503 mesh to BS 4483).
Reinforced concrete slabs are recommended to be not more than 30 metres long
and 6 metres maximum width.
Reinforced concrete slabs trafficked only by smaller AFVs (ie. CVR(T) and 430
Series or similar) may have the slab thickness reduced to 175 mm.
In areas designed for particularly heavy use such as turnouts, the slab depths
should be increased by 25 mm.
For strength and durability under exposure to UK weather, the specified design
strength of the concrete is recommended to be 40 N/mm2 with a minimum cement
content of 320 kg/m3 and 5% ± 1% air entrainment for the full depth of the slab or
at least for the layer above the reinforcement. A maximum water/cement ratio of
0.45 is also recommended.
The precise mix design remains the responsibility of the supplier and
alternatives to the recommended cement content are permissible. Volume 1 of the
DoT Specification for Highway Works (Reference 8) gives rules for the use of
cement replacements and blends which would be appropriate for tracked vehicle
pavements. The use of pfa or microsilica may well produce a more dense and
durable concrete.
A minimum thickness of 150 mm Cement Bound Material 2 (CBM2) or

exceptionally Wet Lean Concrete (C10) is recommended beneath reinforced
concrete slabs. On weak subgrades (CBR < 5%) the thickness of CBM2 may be
increased to a minimum thickness of 175 mm laid in two layers. Alternatively, the
subgrade may be improved using a capping layer. Actual thicknesses of sub-base
must be sufficient to provide the required pavement strength.
May 1996
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 3 Reinforced Concrete
Figure 3/1 gives guidance on foundations below rigid pavements. The thicknesses
should be treated with some caution. On frost susceptible subgrades, a minimum
thickness of 450 mm of non frost-susceptible material is recommended.
Figure 3/1 Foundations for Rigid Pavements.
Formation 150 mm CBM2 or Wet Lean Concrete (C10) Sub-base
Subgrade CBR < 2% 2% < CBR < 5% 5% < CBR <15% CBR > 15%
[Optional Capping thickness] [600 mm] [350 mm] [150mm] [No capping]
3.3 MATERIALS
Capping material should be a granular material with a CBR of 15% or greater as
defined in the DoT Specification (Reference 8).
Cement Bound Material (CBM) is a mixture of aggregate and cement at a

moisture content compatible with compaction by rolling. (The American term is
Roller Compacted Concrete). Reference 8 gives details of acceptable grading.
CBM 1 has a characteristic strength of 4.5 N/mm2 at 7 days.
Wet Lean Concrete (C10) is a weak concrete which has to be mixed, placed and
compacted in the same way as a high strength concrete. It should have a
maximum water/cement ratio of 0.6 and a minimum cement content of 130 kg/m3.
C10 has a characteristic strength of 10.0 N/mm2 at 28 days.
Cement should be ordinary portland cement (OPC) complying with BS 12.

Portland blastfurnace cement (PBC) complying with BS 146 or Portland
pulverised-fuel ash cement (Portland pfa cement) complying with BS 6588 may
also be used separately or in combination with OPC.
Other cementitious materials which may be used include ground granulated

blastfurnace slag (ggbs) complying with BS 6699, pfa complying with BS 3892
and microsilica which should have a current British Board of Agrément (BBA)
certificate.
Fine aggregate should be natural sand, crushed rock or gravel or a blend of these.
The properties of the fine aggregate should fall within the limits of Figure 3/2.
Figure 3/2 Permissible Test Limits for Fine Aggregate.
Test Property Test Reference Permissible Limits
Particle size distribution BS 812: Section 103.1 As Gradings 1 or 2 in Figure 3/3

Minimum magnesium sulfate Appendix A 82 (each source)
soundness value 70 (each fraction)
Maximum fines content BS 812: Section 103.1 4 (natural sand or crushed gravel)
9 (crushed rock)
10 May 1996
Figure 3/3 Gradings 1 and 2 for Sand.
BS 410 Sieve Size Percentage by Mass Passing

Grading 1 Grading 2
10.0mm 100 100

5.0 mm 90-100 90-100
2.36 mm 60-[95] [75]-100
1.18mm 30-[70] [55]-90
600 microns 15-34 35-59
300 microns 5-[20] 8-[30]
150 microns 0-[10] 0-[10]
Notes: (1) A total tolerance of up to 5% may be applied to the percentages in square brackets in the Figure. The
tolerance may be split up. For example, it could be 1% on each of three sieves and 2% on another.
(2) For crushed rock sand, the permissible limit on the 150 micron sieve may be increased to 20%.
To provide durability against wear and weather a coarse aggregate of a tough

igneous or metamorphic rock with an aggregate abrasive value (AAV) of not more
than 12 when tested in accordance with BS 812 is recommended. Where the cost
of such a stone is considered excessive, the slab may be laid in two course
construction using a less expensive coarse aggregate for the lower course. Where
two courses are used in this way, the top course should be of sufficient thickness
to provide the specified cover to the reinforcement (see Fig 3/5 and Fig 3/6). The
top course should be laid directly on the reinforcement without a construction
joint. The maximum size of the aggregate is recommended to be 20 mm in the top
course and 20 or 40 mm in the lower course.
The properties of the coarse aggregate should fall within the limits of Figure 3/4.
Figure 3/4 Permissible Test Limits for Coarse Aggregate.
Test Property Test Reference Permissible Limits

Particle size distribution BS 812: Section 103.1 40mm, 20 mm and 10 mm single sized
as BS 882, Figure 3
Minimum magnesium sulfate Appendix A 82 (Each source)
soundness value 70 (Each fraction)
Maximum Flakiness Index (%) BS 812: Section 105.1 30
Minimum 10% fines value BS 812: Part 111 100kN
Maximum fines content BS 812: Section 103.1 4
Maximum shrinkage(1) BS 812: Part 120 0.075
(1) Testing is required only if crushed rocks other than limestone are used. Reinforcement used in RC
roads should comply with the DoT Specification (Reference 8) which lays down the material
standards, sizes and spacing for reinforcing steel, tie bars and dowel bars.
3.4 LAYING
The concrete should normally be machine laid and compacted except on small
jobs where such a requirement would be uneconomic. The suitability of the plant
which the Contractor proposes to use should be proved by laying a sample slab
before the main concreting commences.
The trial slab should be checked by taking four 150 mm diameter cores and
testing them in accordance with BS 1881: Part 4. If any of the cores show
honeycombing as defined in the BS, or more than 10 voids having a dimension
greater than 3 mm in the top 40 mm, the trial slab should be deemed to have
failed and a new trial slab should be laid by the Contractor and tested at his
expense.
May 1996 11
The trial is set to ensure that the Contractor is able to produce consistently
strong, well compacted concrete, free from defects and capable of being finished to
the specified requirements. It should be noted that these requirements are no
more onerous than a Contractor would face when laying any concrete road to DoT
standards.
Concrete compliance should be tested in situ by taking a set of 2 cores from every
1,000 m2 of finished pavement (or part thereof).
3.5 JOINTS
Transverse and longitudinal joints should be as for normal concrete road
construction with transverse joints at 90° to the longitudinal axis of the
pavement. Dowel bars and tie bars should be incorporated. Where joints are
hand-finished, the edges should have a 5 mm radius arris. Details of joint
spacing can be found in Reference 8.
Typical joint details can be seen in Figures 3/5 and 3/6.
3.6 SURFACE FINISH

A simple brush finish is appropriate for a concrete road used by tracked and
wheeled traffic. Even where a road is nominally only for tracked vehicles a
minimal surface texture is desirable as there is no guarantee that there will not
be a change in use in the life of the pavement.
The finished surface of the reinforced concrete should be measured using a

Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) rolling straightedge or a 3 m straightedge
laid parallel to the centreline of the road. Transverse regularity should be
checked with the 3 m straightedge set at right angles to the centreline of the
road. The procedure is laid down in the DoT Specification (Reference 8). The
maximum allowed surface depression under the straight edge is 3 mm.
12 May 1996
Figure 3/5 Expansion Joints Reinforced and Unreinforced Concrete Slabs.
May 1996 13
Figure 3/6 Contraction Joints.
14 May 1996
4 Unreinforced Concrete
4.1 GENERAL
The general comments on reinforced concrete apply equally to unreinforced
concrete. There is no substitute for good design and good construction and if they
are done well, unreinforced concrete roads can also serve for 40 years.
4.2 DESIGN
Unreinforced slabs are normally constructed approximately 25 mm thicker than
equivalent reinforced slabs. Given the cost of buying and fixing reinforcing steel,
it is nearly always less expensive to use an unreinforced slab.
In order to prevent premature failure of the slabs from cracking, it essential that
they are cast in short, approximately square bays. For slabs less than 225 mm
thick, the bays should be no longer than 4 m. For slabs 225 mm thick or greater,
the bays should not exceed 5 m in length.
The concrete should be designed to have a characteristic strength of 40 N/mm2

with 5% ± 1% entrained air. The slab may be cast in two courses with the lower
course having no air entrained. The top course is recommended to be a minimum
of 75 mm thick with air entrainment. The two courses should be placed without a
construction joint between them. DEO (Wks) FS 033 on PQC for Airfields
contains useful design guidance (Reference 6).
4.3 MATERIALS
Advice on material specifications is provided in Chapter 3. The only difference for
unreinforced slabs is the absence of reinforcing mesh. It is standard practice to
use tie bars and dowel bars with unreinforced concrete slabs.
4.4 LAYING
The procedures for laying unreinforced concrete should be identical to those for
reinforced concrete, including the production and testing of a trial slab and the in
situ testing of the pavement.
4.5 JOINTS
Joint details are similar to those for reinforced concrete except for the absence of
the reinforcement and the spacing of joints. Details can be seen in Figures 3/5
and 3/6.
An unreinforced slab requires warping joints. A typical warping joint detail can
be seen in Figure 4/1.
May 1996 15
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 4 Unreinforced Concrete
Figure 4/1 Warping Joints.
4.6 BAY LAYOUTS

Details of standard bay layouts can be obtained from the DoT Specification
(Reference 8). In addition, standard details for bay layouts for road junctions and
turning bays are shown in Figures 4/2 and 4/3.
16 May 1996
4.7 SURFACE FINISH

A brush finish is appropriate for an unreinforced concrete road.
The finished surface of the concrete should be measured using a straightedge as

described in Chapter 3.
Figure 4/2 Typical Bay Layout at Road Junction.
UNREINFORCED C O N C R E T E REINFORCED C O N C R E T E
NOTES
1. X = 6.0m, 6.75m OR
Y = 4.0m, 5.0m, 5.5m OR 6.0m
2. JOINT L A Y O U T S ARE T Y P I C A L O N L Y .
3. JOINT POSITIONS MAY BE VARIED IN ORDER TO POSITION THEM AT GULLIES, PROVIDED
T H A T THE MAXIMUM WIDTH AND LENGTH OF S L A B S IS NOT G R E A T E R THAN THE PRESCRIBED LIMITS.
RIGID C O N S T R U C T I O N
JOINT L A Y O U T A T JUNCTION OF A C C E S S
AND DISTRIBUTOR R O A D S
May 1996 17
Figure 4/3 Joint Layout at Turning Bays.
NOTES
1. W = 4.0m, 5.0m OR 5.5m
2. JOINT L A Y O U T S ARE TYPICAL ONLY
3. JOINT POSITIONS MAY BE VARIED IN ORDER TO POSITION THEM AT GULLIES, PROVIDED
THAT THE MAXIMUM WIDTH AND LENGTH OF SLABS IS NOT THAN THE PRESCRIBED LIMITS.
RIGID CONSTRUCTION
JOINT L A Y O U T AT TURNING B A Y S
18 May 1996
5 Concrete Block Paving
5.1 GENERAL
Concrete block pavements can be expected to have a design life of 20 years
providing that they are correctly designed and built and are properly maintained
when there are any signs of distress such as excessive deflection, loss of joint
sand etc.
Although UK experience with tracked vehicles on concrete blocks is limited, the

use of blocks for heavy duty pavements in the UK and worldwide is increasing
rapidly.
DEO (Wks) FS 035 on Concrete Block Paving for Airfields contains useful design
guidance (Reference 7).
5.2 DESIGN
The general design process for concrete blocks follows the procedures for the
design of flexible pavements. It is generally agreed that a properly built layer of
80 mm thick blocks on a 35 mm bed of compacted sand is at least equivalent to
the structural strength of 50 mm of bituminous surfacing.
Concrete blocks for tracked vehicle use should be plain rectangular blocks 200 x
100 x 80 mm thick. The blocks should be laid on a sand bed of 35 mm nominal
depth. Research has shown that concrete block paving performs best with a sand
bed of 20- 40 mm.
The sand bed should be supported by a bound sub-base selected from the
following list:
a. DoT CBM 3.
b. DoT CBM 2.
c. Drylean concrete.
d. Bituminous basecourse.
5.3 MATERIALS
The concrete blocks should be to BS 6717: Part 1.
The sand bedding should be a sharp sand, or crushed rock fines, evenly graded
and with not more than 10% retained on a 5 mm BS sieve. Clay, silt and fine dust
content should not be more than 3% by mass.
May 1996 19
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 5 Concrete Block Paving
The jointing sand should be a clean, dry sand with 100% passing a 1.18 mm BS
sieve and up to 10% passing the 75 microns sieve.
5.4 EDGE RESTRAINTS

Concrete blocks impose a significant horizontal load on their surrounding when
subjected to traffic. This lateral thrust has to be resisted by substantial edge
restraints.
The most common type of edge restraint uses in situ concrete of sufficient width
and depth to prevent outward movement of the blocks.
Special arrangements have to be made to provide adequate edge restraint when

concrete block paving abuts flexible construction or natural ground. See Figure
5/1 for recommended designs.
An adjoining PQC slab is usually adequate as an edge restraint. It is normal

practice to insert a flexible filler board between the slab and the concrete blocks
to allow for expansion.
Figure 5/1 Edge Restraint for Precast Concrete Blocks.
NOTE
A SIMILAR EDGE RESTRAINT IS
RECOMMENDED EVEN WHERE
THERE IS NO UPSTAND.
EDGE RESTRAINT
PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCKS
20 May 1996
5.5 LAYING
The sub-base should be laid accurately by a paving machine to a tolerance of
± 10 mm. It is essential that the sub-base is fully compacted to leave a smooth,
dense surface on which to lay the bedding sand.
The sand bed should be laid to a smooth finish to achieve an average depth of
35 mm after final compaction.
The blocks should be either hand or machine laid in a regular herringbone

pattern set at 45° to the axis of the road.
Blocks should be cut by sawing not by splitting. No cut blocks smaller than half a
block should be permitted. Manufactured half blocks should be used where
available. Mitre blocks are useful as starter blocks set against edge restraints.
See Figure 5/2 for laying pattern details.
After the blocks have been laid hand tight with average joints of 2 mm, they
should be compacted using a vibrating plate compactor to achieve a smooth even
surface.
After initial compaction, the joints should be sealed using a suitable sharp sand
which should be brushed into place. It is normal practice to compact the surface
again and to leave excess jointing sand on the surface for the first few days to
ensure that a good mechanical interlock is established.
5.6 EXPANSION JOINTS

In normal use, concrete blocks do not require special provisions for expansion.
However, problems have been known to occur where the blocks were laid with
extremely tight joints.
In order to prevent problems with expansion in hot weather it is recommended

that care is taken to ensure that the blocks used do have integral joint spacers
and that they are only laid hand tight.
5.7 SURFACE FINISH

For satisfactory performance concrete block paving should be laid to a smooth
surface finish with no blocks protruding above their neighbours. The blocks will
tolerate considerable deflections under loading provided that they are well
compacted together using a vibrating plate compactor.
A surface tolerance of 5 mm in 3 m should be achieved with new or restored

paving.
May 1996 21
Figure 5/2 Concrete Block Laying Patterns.
22 May 1996
6 Hot Rolled Asphalt
6.1 GENERAL
Hot rolled asphalt surfacing can be expected to have a design life of about 20
years before it must be replaced.
6.2 DESIGN
The design mix should achieve a stability of not less than 7 kN, a flow of not
more than 4.00 mm and a void content in the total mixture of between 2% and
4%.
The hot rolled asphalt wearing course should normally be 40 mm thick.

Exceptionally, where particularly heavy wear is expected, the wearing course
may be increased to 50 mm.
The hot rolled asphalt should be laid on a basecourse of hot rolled asphalt to a
thickness of 60 mm. The lower layers of the pavement should consist of a bound
roadbase and a sub-base.
Where the roadbase is of bituminous construction it should be constructed of

dense bitumen macadam not less than 150 mm thick. A 100 pen binder should be
used with a coarse aggregate of crushed rock.
Where a cement bound roadbase is chosen it should be laid as a composite base

consisting of a minimum of 150 mm of CBM 3 overlaid by a 60 mm course of
HRA. To control reflective cracking through the HRA, the thickness of CBM
should not exceed twice the overall thickness of overlying asphalt.
The sub-base should consist of either DoT Type 1 granular material or CBM 1.
Thicknesses will vary with the subgrade CBR as shown in Figure 6/1.
Figure 6/1 Foundations for Flexible Pavements.
Layer Material Thicknesses
Subgrade CBR 2% 2%<CBR<5% 5% < CBR 15% CBR>15%

Sub-base 150mm 150mm 225mm 150mm
[Optional capping thickness] [600 mm] [350 mm] [No capping] [No capping]
6.3 MATERIALS
The hot rolled asphalt courses should be produced in accordance with BS 594:
Parts 1 and 2 except where noted in a particular specification.
May 1996 23
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 6 Hot Rolled Asphalt
Aggregates should be clean, hard and durable and should not contain deleterious
materials in such a form or quantity to affect adversely the strength or
durability of the asphalt.
The coarse aggregate should be crushed rock. The coarse aggregate should be a
minimum of 40% of the total aggregate. It should conform to the limits given in
Figure 6/2.
Figure 6/2 Coarse Aggregate Properties.
Test Aggregate type Material
Property Reference HRA Macadam
Minimum magnesium sulfate Appendix A Each source 82 82

soundness value
Each fraction 70 70
Maximum flakiness index (%) BS 812: Part 105.1 Crushed rock 30 30
Gravel n/a 30
Maximum aggregate crushing BS 812: Part 110 Crushed rock 30 30
value (%)
Gravel n/a 25
Maximum absorption (%) BS 81 2: Part 2 All except slag 2 2
Slag n/a 4
Stripping Appendix B All Not greater than 6
particles from a 150
particle test sample
should indicate evidence
of stripping
Minimum polished stone value BS 81 2: Part 114 Wearing course 45 n/a
Maximum sulfur content (%) BS1047 Slag n/a 2
Stability BS1047 Slag n/a Requirements

as Appendix A
Minimum bulk density (kg/m3) BS 81 2: Part 2 Slag n/a 1120
The fine aggregate should be either sand or crushed rock or a blend of these. Sea-
dredged sand should not be used. The fine aggregate should conform to the limits
given in Figure 6/3.
Figure 6/3 Fine Aggregate Properties.
Test Aggregate type Material

Property Reference HRA Macadam
Minimum magnesium sulfate Appendix A Each source 82 82
soundness value
Each fraction 70 70
Maximum absorption (%) BS 81 2: Part 2 All 2 2
Stripping Appendix B Parent rock if Not greater than 6
crushed rock particles from a 150
fines particle test sample
should indicate evidence
of stripping
The filler should be either OPC or crushed limestone or crushed rock. It should
meet the grading requirements set out in Figure 6/4.
24 May 1996
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 6 Hot Rolled Asphalt
Figure 6/4 HRA Filler.
BS 410 Sieves Percentage by Mass Passing
Minimum Maximum
300 100
75 85 100
The binder should be penetration grade bitumen meeting the requirements of

Figure 1 of BS 3690: Part 1. Wearing course binders should be either 50 or 70
pen. Regulating course binder may be either 50, 70 or 100 pen.
6.4 LAYING
Apart from small, irregular shaped areas the hot rolled asphalt should be
machine laid. The surface to receive the hot rolled asphalt should be swept clean
of debris and standing water.
The material should be mixed, delivered, laid and compacted within the material
temperature limits given in Figure 6/5.
Figure 6/5 Asphalt Temperatures.
Course Bitumen Temperature (°C)

Grade
Mixing Delivery Recommended Compaction
(Max) (Min) Paver-out (Min) (Min)
Wearing course 50 pen 185 140 130 100

Wearing course 70 pen 180 135 125 95
Regulating 100 pen 170 130 120 85
6.5 SURFACE FINISH

Unless otherwise specified, the hot rolled asphalt should be covered with a layer
of coated chippings while still warm and in a plastic state.
The chippings should be evenly distributed at the rate of 7.5 kg/m to 10.0 kg/m
for 14 mm chippings or 10.0 kg/m to 13.0 kg/m for 20 mm chippings.
The chippings should then be rolled into the surface of the asphalt with a
suitable hand or mechanical roller.
The finished surface of the hot rolled asphalt should be measured using a 3 m
straightedge laid parallel to the centreline of the road. The maximum allowed
surface depression under the straight edge is 7 mm.
May 1996 25
7 Mastic Asphalt
7.1 GENERAL
Mastic asphalt surfacing can be expected to have a design life of about 20 years
before it must be replaced.
7.2 DESIGN
The mastic asphalt should normally be 40 mm thick. Exceptionally, where
particularly heavy wear is expected, the wearing course may be increased to
50 mm.
The mastic asphalt should be laid on a basecourse of hot rolled asphalt to a

thickness of 60 mm. The lower layers of the pavement should consist of a bound
roadbase and a sub-base.

used with coarse aggregate of either crushed rock or slag aggregate.

should not exceed twice the overall thickness of overlying blacktop.
7.3 MATERIALS
The mastic asphalt wearing course should have coarse aggregate made with
crushed aggregate conforming to the grading shown in Figure 7/1. The aggregate
should be from a clean, hard igneous or siliceous rock with an aggregate abrasion
value (AAV) of not more than 12 when tested in accordance with BS 812.
Figure 7/1 Mastic Asphalt Coarse Aggregate Grading.
Percentage by Mass
Passing BS Sieve Min Max
20mm 100
14 mm 95 100
3.35 mm 0 5
26 May 1996
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 7 Mastic Asphalt
The fine aggregate used in the mix is recommended to be limestone or siliceous

rock containing not less than 70% calcium carbonate and ground to give the
grading shown in Figure 7/2.
Figure 7/2 Mastic Asphalt Fine Aggregate Grading.
Percentage by Mass
Passing BS Sieve Min Max
2.36mm 100
600 75 100
212 55 85
75 45 60
The bitumen should have the properties shown in Figure 7/3.
Figure 7/3 Mastic Asphalt Bitumen Properties.
Properties Min Max

Specific gravity at 15.5°C 1.0 1.06
Penetration at 25°C 30 40
Flash point (open) 175°C -
Ductility at 25°C 400mm -
Solubility in carbon disulfide 99.5% -
Softening point (Ring and Ball) 50°C -
Mineral matter (ash) - 0.5%
Loss on heating for 5 hours at 163°C - 2.0%
Penetration of residue after heating as a
percentage of original penetration 60% -
The overall composition of the mastic asphalt should fall within the limits of
Figure 7/4.
Figure 7/4 Mastic Asphalt Composition.
Percentage by Mass
Material__________________Min__________________Max
Coarse aggregate 45 50
Limestone powder 41.7 48.5
(45-60% passing 75 urn sieve)
Soluble bitumen 6.5 8.3
7.4 LAYING
The surface to receive the mastic asphalt wearing course should be swept clean of
debris and standing water.
The mastic asphalt should be laid as a single course at a temperature between

175°C and 230°C. The material should be spread uniformly by hand using
wooden floats.
7.5 JOINTS
Care should be taken to ensure that all joints are properly and truly made.
May 1996 27
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 7 Mastic Asphalt
The joints between sections of work should be made by warming the existing
mastic asphalt by the application of an excess of hot mastic asphalt which is
subsequently trimmed off to form an accurately level joint.
All projections into the road surface should be prepared before laying mastic
asphalt. Vertical surfaces of manholes, gully frames, boxes etc against which the
mastic asphalt is to abut should be cleaned and painted with a thin coat of hot
bitumen.
The finished surface of mastic asphalt should be kept flush with or not exceeding
3 mm above any projections. Where surfacing is to abut kerbs, these should also
be treated with hot bitumen.
7.6 SURFACE FINISH

The mastic asphalt should normally be covered with a layer of coated chippings
while still warm and in a plastic state.
The chippings should be evenly distributed at the rate of 7.5 kg/m to 10.0 kg/m
for 14 mm chippings or 10.0 kg/m to 13.0 kg/m for 20 mm chippings.
The chippings should then be rolled into the surface of the asphalt with a
suitable hand or mechanical roller.
The finished surface of the mastic asphalt should be measured using a 3 m

surface depression under the straight edge is 7 mm.
28 May 1996
8 Grouted Macadams
8.1 GENERAL
Resin or grouted macadam surfacing can be expected to have a design life of
about 20 years before it must be replaced.
The grouted macadam should be one which is the subject of a current certificate
issued by the British Board of Agrement as being suitable for use by tracked
vehicles.
8.2 DESIGN
The grouted macadam should be laid 40 mm thick.
The grouted macadam should be laid on a basecourse of hot rolled asphalt or
dense bitumen macadam to a thickness of 60 mm. The lower layers of the
pavement should consist of a bound roadbase and a sub-base.
used with coarse aggregate of either crushed rock or slag aggregate.
should not exceed twice the overall thickness of overlying blacktop.
8.3 MATERIALS
The grouted macadam consists of a coated macadam of 14 mm or 20 mm size
open graded wearing course to BS 4987: Part 1 with 20-25% void content filled
with a high penetration proprietary grout.
Aggregates should be clean, hard and durable and should not contain deleterious
materials in such a form or quantity to affect adversely the strength or durability
of the macadam.
The coarse aggregate should be crushed rock. The coarse aggregate should be a
minimum of 40% of the total aggregate. It should conform to the limits given in
Figure 6/2.
The fine aggregate should be either sand or crushed rock or a blend of these. Sea-
dredged sand should not be used. The fine aggregate should conform to the limits
given in Figure 6/3.
May 1996 29
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 8 Grouted Macadams
8.4 LAYING
The Contractor should prepare and lay the grouted macadam in accordance with
the Agrement certificate.
The material is laid using conventional machinery except for the grouting
process. Once the coated macadam has been laid and compacted, the grout is
poured onto the open textured macadam and a vibrating roller, or plate
compactor, is used to achieve maximum penetration. The laying process is shown
in diagrammatic form in Figure 8/1.
After rolling, the surplus grout is removed from the surface.
The success of the grouting process should be confirmed using cores taken from
the completed pavement.
8.5 SURFACE FINISH

Grouted macadams provide good surface friction and so it is not normally
necessary to roll in chippings.
The finished surface of the grouted macadam should be measured using a 3 m

surface depression under the straight edge is 7 mm. The transverse measurement
should be done using the 3 m straightedge laid at right angles to the centreline of
the road. The maximum transverse irregularity is 3 mm.
8.6 TRAFFICKING
Grouted macadams should not be subjected to traffic until the grout has fully
cured.
The manufacturer's instructions for curing should be followed exactly. Some

grouts require up to 14 days to cure. No trafficking should be allowed during this
time.
30 May 1996
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 8 Grouted Macadams
Figure 8/1 Grouted Macadams.
P L A T E VIBRATOR BRUSH POWER F L O A T
SUPPORT C O A T
BASE C O U R S E .
GROUTED M A C A D A M S
May 1996 31
9 Unbound Roads
9.1 GENERAL
An unbound or unsealed road can have an almost unlimited design life provided
it is properly maintained.
In many situations, the provision of an unbound road may be a highly cost

effective first stage in providing a new tracked vehicle route. This is because the
requirements of an unbound road are very similar to the sub-bases required for
bituminous construction. Thus, for a relatively low initial capital cost, a road can
be constructed and used quickly and can be incorporated into a subsequent bound
pavement if one is found to be necessary.
9.2 DESIGN
The design thickness of unbound roads for use by heavy AFVs is governed by the
subgrade CBR and frost resistance criteria. Design pavement thicknesses for
different CBRs are shown in Figure 9/1.
Thicknesses less than 450 mm are based on the subgrade being non frost
susceptible or that frost damage is acceptable to the user.
Figure 9/1 Unbound Pavement Thicknesses.
CBR Pavement Thickness (mm) Remarks

10 255 All figures are based on US Corps
of Engineers testing.
9 280
8 305
7 335
6 375
5 425 Capping recommended
1 1050
The pavement design of an unbound road should be checked for all user traffic
not just for tracked vehicles. However, the thicknesses given in Figure 9/1 exceed
the requirements for heavy commercial vehicles so there should be no problem
with mixed traffic.
Haul roads have to be designed with care since they are trafficked by heavily
laden vehicles. It is particularly important to ensure that construction traffic on a
partly built road is minimised as such loading can easily damage the subgrade.
32 May 1996
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 9 Unbound Roads
The total pavement thicknesses can be made up using different materials. It is

essential that at least the top 200 mm of material meets the requirements of DoT
Type 1 sub-base.
9.3 MATERIALS
The preferred material for the surfacing is a well graded crushed rock DoT Type 1
sub-base.
Thicknesses below the top 200 mm can be made up using DoT Type 2 material.
Where particularly poor ground is encountered, a capping layer may be used.
Material specifications are contained in the DoT Specification (Reference 8). A
typical design is shown at Figure 9/2.
9.4 LAYING
Materials should be spread evenly, without damaging the formation and
compacted to 100% of Optimum Dry Density.
Placing should achieve the minimum of drying out or segregation. Compaction

equipment should be chosen to achieve the desired compactive effort without
disturbing the subgrade.
Material should be compacted at a moisture content between 1% above and 2%

below the optimum percentage as determined in accordance with BS 1377.
9.5 SURFACE FINISH

The final wearing course should achieve a surface tolerance of ± 20 mm from the
design level at any point with no significant depressions or bumps.
The shaped and compacted surface should be free from roller marks, excess fines
or loose stone.
9.6 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE

A typical construction sequence would be:
Clearance and site preparation which includes stripping and stacking of topsoil
for reuse. It is normal to remove tree roots to 300 mm below ground level.
Unsuitable fill material should be removed and stored separately for use in
landscaping.
Drainage which is often done in stages. It is essential to keep water away from
excavations so drainage is usually done in conjunction with earthworks. Side
drains and culverts should be completed early in the construction period to
improve land drainage and to prevent damage to the unfinished road.
May'1996 33
Figure 9/2 Typical Cross Section.
34 May 1996
After stripping, the formation should be checked for soft spots which should be
dug out and backfilled with suitable material. Where a substantial length of poor
material is encountered, it may well be more efficient for the earthworks
contractor to take another cut ie increase the depth of the pavement over the
section, than to dig out individual soft spots.
Where an embankment is required, the Contractor should compact the formation

for a depth of 150 mm to at least the same standard as the overlying
embankment. Any material too wet to compact, or any soft spots, should be dried
so that they can be properly compacted or they should be replaced with suitable
fill.
The sub-base should be placed and compacted in layers as soon as possible once
the formation has been checked. It is important that the subgrade is covered
early to prevent deterioration from exposure to the weather. Although speed is
important at this stage, it is essential to maintain the design shape of the cross
section at every level from formation upwards. A grader is recommended for use
after initial compaction to trim the bottom layer to shape.
Succeeding layers of sub-base and roadbase material should be placed and

compacted in layers until the full pavement depth is finished. It is important for
compaction to be carefully controlled to ensure that each layer achieves the
design thickness and density. Rollers should always begin by compacting from the
lowest point of the cross section to prevent material from migrating down the
camber or crossfall.
Finishing the construction includes landscaping, topsoiling and disposal of any

surplus material. It may also involve extensive planting since vegetation
stabilises the disturbed ground, helps to prevent soil erosion and reduces the
visual impact of the road. Hydoseeding with a suitably selected native seed blend
can be particularly effective in re-establishing vegetation.
The Contractor may choose to construct a road from one end or both or indeed he
may work on several sections concurrently. Without unnecessarily restricting the
Contractor's freedom of action, it is essential that activities are confined to as
narrow a strip as possible to build the road. The plan for haul roads should be
checked to see that unnecessary land take is minimised and that heavy
earthmoving plant and laden dump trucks do not run on incomplete sections of
road.
9.7 MAINTENANCE REGIME

The importance of proper maintenance cannot be over emphasised. A well
maintained unbound road will give good service for low cost over many years; a
poorly maintained one will fail rapidly. The cost of maintenance will be directly
related to the amount of trafficking, the weather and how quickly repairs are
done when they are required.
One of the key factors in a successful maintenance regime is establishing at what

time repairs must be effected. Figure 9/3 gives some guidance on suitable
intervention levels.
May 1996 35
Figure 9/3 Intervention Levels for Unbound Roads.

Defect Level to Intervene Extent Urgent Maintenance Typical Action
Required
Windrows, channels, Safe travelling speed less than >20% of any Safe travelling speed less Grade or
corrugations, soft spots, 85% of design speed section of road than 70% of design speed resurface
loose material
Wheel ruts and potholes Depth of 80 mm Any Defect depth of 150 mm Resurface
Insufficient crossfall Water ponds or 2% less than >20% of any Crossfall of 1% or less, Grade
design crossfall section of road water ponds
Excessive crossfall Crossfall of 6% or steeper >20% of any Crossfall of 8% or steeper Grade
Insufficient height above At natural ground level in rolling >20% of any Water ponds and surface is Heavy grade
surrounding ground country or 100mm in flat terrain section of road lower than natural ground and import fill
(measured at the point of the level (measured at the point
shoulder) of the shoulder)
36 May 1996
10 Special Surface Treatments
10.1 CONCRETE SURFACE HARDENERS

There are numerous proprietary cementitious products for improving the surface
finish, chemical resistance, abrasion resistance and surface hardness of concrete.
These materials may be appropriate in particularly demanding situations such as

tank garages or workshops where locked track turns or channelised movements
occur.
The materials can be considered in 2 main groups; those which involve the use of
a resin and those which use a shake-on product to the wet concrete. Typical of the
resin based products are materials like Addagrip and Flowshield which can be
used to rehabilitate old concrete slabs using a hot, thixotropic resin and sprinkled
aggregate. Shake-on products include MasterTop which involves the use of
special malleable iron aggregate to produce a surface capable of resisting metal-
on-metal scraping contact.
Guidance is available from DEO (Wks) ABFG on the use of these proprietary
products.
10.2 CONCRETE FIBRES

Trials have been conducted using both polypropylene and steel fibres to assess
their effectiveness in reducing damage to concrete surfaces subjected to heavy
wear.
Fibre reinforcement is effective in reducing surface cracking and can give

increased resistance to abrasion. From the limited information available, it is not
possible to confirm whether the benefit of using fibres is cost-effective.
DEO (Wks) would welcome the opportunity to be involved in some trial areas,
using the latest fibres, which can be trafficked by tracked vehicles.
10.3 CONCRETE ADMIXTURES

Air entraining agents are now specified routinely for use in concrete roads,
whether for tracked vehicles or not. This is due to the improved resistance to
freeze/thaw action provided by the millions of microscopic bubbles in the
concrete. External concrete subject to tracked vehicles should be specified with a
DoT approved air entraining agent.
May 1996 37
Roads for Tracked Vehicles 10 Special Surface Treatments
For certain applications such as slipformed concrete roads, there may be a

requirement to add a superplasticiser to the mix. It is DEO (Wks) policy to avoid
the use of superplasticisers in concrete roads whenever possible. Thus, their use
is not proscribed but advice should be sought from DEO (Wks) ABFG whenever a
contractor wishes to use a superplasticiser.
To reduce the visual impact of concrete roads, particularly in sensitive areas, it

may be necessary to consider the use of tone down chemicals. These were
developed principally for use on airfields for camouflage purposes. All requests to
use these admixtures should be referred to DEO (Wks) ABFG for advice.
10.4 CONCRETE BLOCK SEALANTS

Under most conditions, concrete block surfaces are effectively self-sealing after a
few months when traffic deposits, dust etc. completely fill the joints between the
blocks. In certain circumstances, there is a risk of water penetrating the blocks
and washing out the bedding sand. This is easily dealt with by including a drain
masked by a suitable geotextile to prevent washout.
Where there is a threat of significant fuel or oil spills onto a concrete block
surface it may be necessary to seal the surface with a proprietary sealant. MOD
has some experience of using ACM PAVSEAL to seal concrete block pavements on
airfields.
It should be noted that commercial filling stations have used untreated blocks
successfully for many years. It is recommended that sealants are not normally
used on concrete block pavements.
10.5 GROUTED MACADAMS

Grouted macadams have produced distinctly mixed results when used by MOD.
There have been cases where the receiving course or the grout have not been
built properly leading to premature failure.
Salviacim and Hardicrete have been used in the past under PSA supervision.
Both materials performed satisfactorily when carefully constructed. They are
more expensive than other materials and should be used only when oil and
chemical resistance is a particular requirement.
10.6 MODIFIED BINDERS

To improve the resistance to deformation and abrasion, a variety of modified
binders have been prepared by the asphalt industry. Some of these products have
proved most successful under heavy tracked vehicle loading.
MOD has some experience of using ASHOPOL 2000 and Cariphalte DM.
Modified binders cost considerably more than standard penetration binders. They
should only be considered for areas of exceptional wear.
Advice is available from DEO (Wks) ABFG on the appropriate use of these
specialist products. While some materials have performed well, manufacturer's
claims should always be treated with caution.
38 May 1996
Appendix A Magnesium Sulfate
Soundness Test
A.1 SCOPE
This method shall be followed to determine the soundness of aggregate by
subjecting the aggregate to cycles of immersion in a saturated solution of
magnesium sulfate followed by oven drying.
A.2 APPARATUS AND REAGENTS

Apparatus and reagents are as detailed in BS 812: Part 121, clauses 5 and 6,
(except that the balance for coarse aggregate, sub-clause 5.2, is to be accurate to 1
gram). In addition, the following equipment is required:
a. 37.5 mm, 20 mm and 5.0 mm sized square-hole perforated-plate test

sieves and 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 and 300 sized woven-wire test
sieves (the additional test sieves shall comply with BS 410).
b. At least two brass or stainless steel mesh baskets for immersing aggregate
specimens, for fractions other than 10 to 14 mm. The baskets are to have
maximum dimensions of apertures not more than half the maximum aperture of
the sieve on which the specimen is retained, but not less than 150
A.3 PREPARATION OF TEST PORTIONS

A.3.1 Bulk Samples
Bulk samples from each nominal size of aggregate being used from each source of
supply shall be tested separately. The procedure described here shall be applied
to each separate sample.
A.3.2 Test Portions

Prepare two test portions from the bulk samples of each aggregate supplied as in BS
812: Part 121, clauses 7.1 and 7.2, replacing 'minimum mass of 500 g of the 10.0 mm
to 14.0 clause 7.1 by the relevant masses from the tables in clauses A.4
and A. 5.
A.4 PREPARATION OF SAND TEST SPECIMENS FOR EACH FRACTION

A.4.1 Particle Size Distribution
The particle size distribution of the test portion shall be determined by the
washing and sieving method described in clause 7 of BS 812: Part 103 using the
10 mm, 5 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 and 300 sieves. The particle size
May 1996 39
Roads for Tracked Vehicles Appendix A
distribution shall be recorded giving the percentage of the mass of the test
portion retained between each pair of sieves, together with that passing the 300
urn sieve, to the nearest whole number.
A.4.2 Fraction Passing 300 Sieve

The fraction passing the 300 sieve, together with those fractions retained
whose proportions are less than 5% by mass of the test portion, shall be
discarded; nevertheless, the proportions which they represent shall be taken into
account in the calculation of the test result.
A.4.3 Test Specimen

One test specimen, of mass in accordance with Figure A.4/1, shall be taken out of
each fraction retained after completion of sub-clause A.4.2. If there is insufficient
material in any of these fractions to provide a test specimen of the required size,
the procedure shall be repeated from sub-clause A.3.2; the particle size
distribution recorded shall be that obtained from all the material sieved out.
Figure A.4/1 Mass of Each Test Specimen for Sand.
BS Sieves Mass of Specimen Before Test (g)
Passing (mm) Retained (mm)
10.0 5.0 300 +10 /-O

5.0 2.36 100 + 10/-0
2.36 1.18 100 + 1 0 / - 0
1.18 600 100 + 1 0 / - 0
600 300 100 + 1 0 / - 0
A.5 PREPARATION OF COARSE AGGREGATE TEST SPECIMENS FOR EACH FRACTION

A.5.1 Particle Size Distribution
The particle size distribution of the test portion shall be determined by the dry
sieving method described in clause 7.3 of BS 812: Part 103 using the 37.5 mm,20
mm, 10 mm, 5 mm, 2.36 mm and 1.18 mm sieves. The fractions retained on the
37,5 mm sieve and passing the 1.18 mm sieve shall be discarded and not taken
into account in calculating the test result. The remainder of the reduced sample
shall be considered as the test portion. The particle size distribution shall be
recorded giving the percentage of the mass of the test portion retained between
each pair of sieves to the nearest whole number.
A.5.2 Minor Fractions

Those fractions retained whose proportions are less than 5% by mass of the test
portion shall be discarded; nevertheless, the proportions which they represent
shall be taken into account in the calculation of the test result.
A.5.3 Test Specimen

One test specimen, of mass in accordance with FigureA.5/1, shall be taken out of each
fraction retained after completion of sub-clauseA.5.2. If there is insufficient material
in any of these fractions to provide a test specimen of the required size, the procedure
shall be repeated from sub-clause A.3.2; the particle size distribution recorded shall be
that obtained from all the material sieved out.
40 May 1996
Roads for Tracked Vehicles Appendix A
Figure A.5/1 Mass of Each Test Specimen for Coarse Aggregate.
BS Sieves Mass of Specimen Before Test
Passing (mm) Retained (mm)

37.5 20.0 1500 ±50
20.0 10.0 1000 ±10
10.0 5.0 300 + 10/-0
5.0 2.36 100 + 1 0 / - 0
2.36 1.18 100 + 1 0 / - 0
A.6 PROCEDURE
The procedure for each test specimen is as in BS 812: Part 121, clause 8,
replacing '10.0 mm sieve' in clause 8.6 by the sieve relevant to the lower size of
the aggregate fraction.
A.7 CALCULATION AND EXPRESSION OF TEST RESULTS

Calculate the soundness value of each test specimen as in BS 812: Part 121,
clause 9.1, replacing '10.0 mm sieve' by the sieve relevant to the lower size of the
aggregate fraction.
A.7.1 Minor Fractions

Fractions not tested because they represent less than 5% by mass of the test
portion shall be assumed to have a soundness value equivalent to:
a. The mean of the soundness values found by the tests on specimens of the
two fractions immediately adjacent to it in size; or
b. The soundness value found by a test on a specimen of the fraction, either

larger or smaller, immediately adjacent to it if only one of these fractions was
tested; or
c. The mean soundness value found by the tests on specimens of the two fractions
next but one adjacent to it if both these fractions were tested and the adjacent
fractions were not; or
d. The soundness value found by the test on a specimen of the fraction, either
larger or smaller, in this order of priority, most nearly adjacent to it.
A.7.2 Fine Aggregate Samples

For samples of fine aggregate, the material passing the 300 sieve shall not be
tested but shall be taken as having a soundness value equivalent to that of the
specimen passing the 600 sieve but retained on the 300 sieve.
A.7.3 Soundness Value

The soundness value of each test portion of aggregate shall be the sum of the
soundness values found for each aggregate fraction times the proportion by mass
of that fraction in the test portion.
A.7.4 Magnesium Sulfate Soundness Value (MSSV)

The MSSV for the aggregate shall be the mean of the two results for the test portions
to one decimal place.
Note: A suitable worksheet (with two examples, one fine aggregate and one
coarse aggregate) is shown below:
May 1996 41
Appendix B Stripping Test
B.1 SCOPE
This method details the procedure to be followed to determine the resistance of
aggregates to stripping.
B.2 APPARATUS
Shallow tray(s).
Mixing bowl of 1.5 litres capacity.
Means of separately heating the aggregate and the binder to a temperature

within the ranges given in clause B.4.
Distilled water.
B.3 SAMPLES
The binder shall comply with BS 3690: Part 1 and shall be a representative
sample of the binder to be used in the plant mixtures.
The test shall be carried out on a separate sample of aggregate from each source
of supply. The sample shall be taken from the bin or stockpile at the quarry in
which the 10 - 6.3 mm size predominates. It shall be a representative sample of
the rock that is to be used in the plant mixtures.
B.4 PROCEDURE
B.4.1 Test Procedure
The test procedure is as follows:
a. Each sample of aggregate shall be quartered and sieved out to provide a

specimen of 150 particles each passing the 10.0 mm sieve and being
retained on the 6.3 mm sieve. The specimen and the binder shall be
heated separately. Under no circumstances shall the binder be heated to a
temperature greater than that shown below. The specimen shall be placed
in a heated mixing bowl and a quantity of binder equivalent to 4% by
mass of the specimen shall be added to it when both specimen and binder
are at the temperatures specified in Figure B.4/1.
44 May 1996
Roads for Tracked Vehicles Appendix B
Figure B.4/1 Mixing Temperatures.
Material Mixing Temperature
Hot rolled asphalt 175°C ±5 ° C

Dense bitumen macadam 160 °C ± 5 °C
b. The aggregate and binder shall be hand mixed until coating of the
aggregate is complete. If coating is incomplete after 5 minutes of mixing,
this procedure shall be repeated with a fresh specimen and an increased
proportion of binder. The binder shall be increased by steps of 0.5% by
mass of the specimen until a mix giving complete coating of the aggregate
is obtained.
c. The coated specimen shall be placed in one or more trays which have been
previously treated with a mixture of equal parts of glycerol and dextrin or
similar agent to prevent adhesion of the binder to the tray. Each particle
shall be completely separated from adjacent particles.
d. After standing for one hour, the coated specimen shall be covered with
distilled water at 18°C to 20°C and maintained at that temperature. After
immersion for 48 hours the water shall be decanted and the coated
specimen allowed to dry at air temperature.
e. The dried sample(s) shall then be examined, particle by particle while still
in the tray(s).
B.4.2 Test Criteria

If the binder has stripped exposing any part of the aggregate from more than six
of the total particles tested, the sample shall have failed the test.
B.4.3 Check Tests

To ensure that a fault during the test has not contributed to the failure, the test
shall be repeated separately on each of a further 3 samples.
If any one of the further 3 tests fails, by indicating stripping in excess of the
limits described in sub-clause B.4.2, the aggregate will not be acceptable for the
particular mixture, and supplies from its source shall be rejected.
Printed in the United Kingdom for HMSO

Dd302209 7/96 C7 G559 10170
May 1996 45

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DEFENCE WORKS FUNCTIONAL STANDARD

DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE GUIDE 01

Roads for Tracked Vehicles

COMPILED BY AIRFIELDS & BULK FUELS GROUP (ABFG)

Front cover: A tank on the unbound test track at Catterick.

Technical advice on general highway works for wheeled vehicles is well

Guidance on roads trafficked by tracked vehicles is poorly documented and

The application and limitations of this Functional Standard are outlined in

1. ME Vol II Pam 8A—Roads (1983).

2. ME Vol III Part 1—Basic Bridging (1981).

3. ME Vol IV—Soil Mechanics and Foundations (1981).

4. ME Vol V Part 1—Roads (1984).

6. DWS Functional Standard Specification 033 Pavement Quality Concrete

7. DWS Functional Standard Specification 035 Concrete Block Paving for

8. DoT Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works published in 6

9. TICE 48—Pavements Subjected to Tracked Vehicles—DOE/PSA Technical

10. TICE 50—Road Design and Layout Criteria—DOE/PSA Technical

12. TM-822-12—Design of Aggregate Surfaced Roads and Airfields—US Army

13. Design and Construction of Interlocking Block Pavements—B Shackel

15. Road Building in the Tropics—Dr R S Millard—TRL State of the Art

16. Unsealed Roads Manual Guidelines to Good Practice—Australian Roads

AAV Aggregate Abrasive Value

5 Concrete Block Paving 19

6 Hot Rolled Asphalt 23

10 Special Surface Treatments 37

A.2 Apparatus and Reagents 39

A.3 Preparation of Test Portions 39

A.4 Preparation of Sand Test Specimens for Each Fraction 39

A.5 Preparation of Coarse Aggregate Test Specimens for Each

A. 7 Calculation and Expression of Test Results 41

A.9 Test Report 43

Appendix B — Stripping Test 44

It is intended that this functional standard will be of assistance to project

No publication of this type can claim to be comprehensive in its treatment and

1.4 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

1.5 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS OF TRACKED VEHICLES

In order to achieve the protection and mobility demanded by modern battlefield

The method by which a tracked vehicle is driven and turned is completely

Figure 1/1 Typical Kerb Details.

RAISED KERBS AND EDGINGS TO BS 340 (PRECAST CONCRETE)

2.2 ROUTE SELECTION

It is vital for the statement of requirement to clarify whether only tracked

Where unbound construction is concerned, the importance of adequate drainage

2.3 SITE INVESTIGATION

Overall costs will be minimised if construction plant can be operated efficiently.

2.4 GEOMETRIC LAYOUT

It should be noted that a heavy commercial vehicle can negotiate a maximum

2.5 CHOICE OF CONSTRUCTION TYPE

A workshop floor requires a high quality material capable of withstanding high

The advantages and disadvantages of the different pavement types are

2.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE

RC suffers from a number of disadvantages. It is relatively expensive compared

2.7 UNREINFORCED CONCRETE

2.8 CONCRETE BLOCK PAVING

2.9 MASTIC ASPHALT

The material suffers from several disadvantages. It is susceptible to deformation

The material is particularly useful in small, awkward shaped areas where

2.10 HOT ROLLED ASPHALT

2.11 GROUTED MACADAM

2.12 UNBOUND ROADS

There are a number of disadvantages associated with unbound roads including

The ability to improve an unbound road progressively is particularly useful. It