Physics of the Atmosphere

o Functions of the atmosphere :

1. Radiation Protection
 UV and sub-atomic articles
 Ozone layer
2. Thermal Protection
 Clouds reflect IR radiation (greenhouse)
 Pollutants cause excess warming
1. Gaseous support of life
 O2, CO2, H2O
o Atmospheric Division:
 Troposphere – weather convection
 Stratosphere – ozone
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere/Ionosphere – charged particles. Temp can reach 1500
degrees
 Exosphere – space, particle collisions are rare
Physiological Zones
MSL – 10000ft The physiological zone
10000-50000 ft The Physiologically Deficient Zone
50000ft+ The Space Equivalent Zone
Composition of the atmosphere
 Oxygen 21%
 Nitrogen 78%
 Rare gases (methane, ozone, carbon dioxide) 1%
Pressure/Altitude relationship
Gravity vs thermal expansion
Density and pressure both fall exponentially
ICAO standard atmosphere
 Pressure 760 mmHG
 Density 1.225kg/m3
Boyle’s Law
At a constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional
to the pressure
At constant T, V 1/ P
Dalton’s Law
The total pressure of a mixed gas = sum of partial pressures of the
constituent gases
Ptotal = p1+ p2+ p3…+pn
Charles Law
Pressure remaining constant, Volume of a gas will vary with temperature
Volume remaining constant, pressure of a gas will vary with temperature
Henry’s Law
The amount of gas held in solution is proportional to the pressure of the
gas above the solution
The Law of Gaseous Diffusion
A gas will move from an area of higher pressure to an area of Lower
pressure
Cardiovascular & Respiratory Physiology 09/11/2010

 Oxygen + Glucose = energy

 1 glucose = 38 aerobic = 2 anaerobic
Metabolism
 The process where cells use oxygen  carbon dioxide (waste)
 Requires constant fuel : ( carbohydrate from food) + oxygen

Haemoglobin
 Conjugated protein
 Haem (iron-porphyrin compound) + globin (4 polypeptide chain complex)
 Hb = 4O2
 Normal Hb concentration = 15g/100ml
Oxygen Pathway:

Carbon Dioxide Pathway:

Chemoreceptors
Central chemoreceptors are located in the medulla.
 Sensitive to CO2
 Rise in pCO2 / Fall in pH (more acidic)
Peripheral chemoreceptors located in the aorta and carotid arteries
 Sensitive to O2
 Fall in pO2
A rise in pCO2 or fall in pO2 will lead to an increase in rate and depth of breathing.
The Heart
 4 chambered pump
 2 atria, 2 ventricles
 valves ensure one-way blood flow
 Atria pump blood  ventricles  lungs (right ventricle) and rest of body (left
ventricle)
 Contraction of ventricle = pulse
Blood & Pressure
 Adults – 6L of blood
 50% fluid (plasma) + 50% blood cells
 Red Cells carry oxygen
 White cells (5 types) attack foreign cells, produce antibodies, kill bacteria
 Platelets are blood clotting
 Normal Blood pressure 120/80 mmHg
 Stroke Volume = amount of blood ejected each beat
 Cardiac Output = Stroke volume x Heart Rate = SV x HR
 Cardiac Output : 3-5 L/min
Arteries & Veins
Arteries take blood AWAY from the heart
 High pressure blood
 Elastic, muscular walls
 Regulate blood pressure
Veins take blood to the heart
 Low pressure blood
 Inelastic
 Contains valves for one-way flow
Capillaries allow diffusion in the tissues
 Very thin walls
o Circulation
 Arterial driving pressure
 Venous return determines cardiac output
 Non-return valves in veins helps blood get back to the hear to maintain CO
 Negative intrathoracic pressure during inspiration
 Peripheral muscle action
Baroreflex
 Stretch receptors
 Monitors and adjusts blood pressure
 Fall in BP = less baroreflex activity Increase cardiac contractility + Increase HR +
Vasoconstriction
 BP therefore rises
 6-12 seconds to full activate
Hypoxia

o Hypoxia is the lack of suffiecient oxygen to meet the needs of the body tissues. The brain
weighs only 2% but is responsible for a 20% oxygen uptake. Hence, the earliest effects of
insufficient oxygen are the impairment of cerebral functions.
o As altitude increases, pressure decreases and above 10,000ft, there is insufficient oxygen to
maintain adequate cerebral function. It is hard to predict when hypoxia affects an individual
as each of us is different physically and mentally to pinpoint an exact measurement of
altitude where impairment may occur. Also, due to the nature of hypoxia, the pilot’s
judgement is unaware of its insidious effects.
o
o Factors causing hypoxia:
1. Altitude – the greater the altitude, the more rapid the onset
2. Time – longer time of exposure  greater effect
3. Exercise – increases the demand for oxygen
4. Cold – energy is required to generate heat to overcome low temperature, and this increases
demand for oxygen
5. Illness – illness increases energy demands of the body
6. Fatigue – lowers the threshold for hypoxia symptoms
7. Drugs/Alcohol – depress brain functions  reduce the tolerance of altitude
8. Smoking – produces carbon monoxide which binds to haemoglobin with a greater affinity
than oxygen, thus reducing the amount of haemoglobin available for oxygen transport.
Also, lung disease  affects air sacs and makes it hard to breathe

Types of hypoxia
1. Hypoxic hypoxia
- Low partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood
- Most common : exposure to high altitude, low pressure and no supplement of oxygen
2. Anaemic Hypoxia
- Reduction of haemoglobin circulating the body
- Decreased red blood cell + excessive bleeding such as haemorrhages
- It effectively puts body at altitude before leaving ground and cockpit altitude gives boost to
more altitude.
3. Histotoxic Hypoxia
- Happens when the appropriate amount of oxygen is reaching the cells but there is a
disorder prohibiting the cells to utilise oxygen effectively
- Carbon monoxide poisoning : inhibits the ability of haemoglobin to release the oxygen
bound to it
- Excessive intake of alcohol
4. Stagnant Hypoxia
- Happens when blood fails to deliver oxygen to target tissues due to local restriction in the
flow of well-oxygenated blood
- Blood pooling  peripheral vision loss and loss of ability to focus, can also cause blackouts
and unconsciousness
- Extreme rapid acceleration

Symptoms and signs

 Euphoria  slows brain down + relaxed feeling
 Personality change  common sense is diminished
 Impaired thinking and judgement
 Slowed reaction
 Mental/muscular incoordination
 Diminished hearing and vision
 Severe headaches
 Blue discolouration of skin
 Nausea
 Shortness of breath
 Fatigue
 Recovering from hypoxia  substantial memory loss
 Ultimately, loss of consciousness, coma  death

Stages of hypoxia
All individuals who normally live around sea level will experience symptoms of hypoxia when
they are exposed to altitude of 10000ft +
Stages of hypoxia can be classified by performance decrement which is dependent upon altitude
and the oxygen saturation of blood.

Indifferent stage
 Occurs when breathing air at altitude of 0-10,000ft  arterial oxygen saturation is 98% to
87%.
 Dark adaptation is affected at 5000ft  visual sensitivity to the night is reduced by 10%
caused by mild oxygen starvation , hence the use of oxygen is required during night flight at
high altitudes.
 Performance of new tasks may be impaired.
 Slight increase in heart and breathing rates.

Compensatory Stage
 10,000ft – 15,000ft
 arterial oxygen saturation 87% to 80%
 Cardiovascular and respiratory physiological responses provide protection against hypoxia
 Effects on central nervous system become perceptible after a short time ; drowsiness,
decreased judgement and memory, difficulty performing tasks requiring mental alertness or
discrete motor movements.
 Effects of prolonged flight at this altitude : persistent headache & excessive fatigue
 12,000ft + ; short term memory loss
 Worst case during climb 10k-15k ft : become hypoxic
 Hypoxic : person gets fixated to a particular task, during focus, loses all surroundings
 Loses judgement , decrease psychomotor skill, difficulty in simple tasks
 Sum up these reactions  aviator loses sense of time and surroundings, spends the last
moments of consciousness in a meaningless task
 15000ft + will cause lost of consciousness and death

Disturbance stage
 15,000ft – 20,000ft
 Arterial oxygen saturation 65% to 60%
 Mental performance deteriorates , confusion, dizziness occurs in few mins
 Total incapacitation with loss of consciousness rapidly follows with little or no warning.

Time of Useful consciousness

Maximum length of time during which an individual can carry out purposeful activity following
a loss of oxygen supply
 EPT = Effective Performance Time is the length of time an individual is able to perform
useful flying duties in an environment of inadequate oxygen, EPT more accurately refers to
functional performance than TUC

Alveolar gases
 Dry air is composed of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1% other gases. At the barometric
pressure of 760mmHg, partial pressure of oxygen would be 160mmHg. However, when a
gas is in contact with a liquid and is in equilibrium with the liquid , the partial pressure of
oxygen will change.
 Lungs & airways are always moist, air is rapidly saturated with water vapour in the upper
segments of the respiratory system. Therefore, typical mixture of alveolar gas : oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapour
 At body temp, water vapour has a partial temperature of 47mmHg. Hence total pressure
remaining for the inspired gases is 713mmHg giving the partial pressure of oxygen to be
150mmHg.
 As altitude increases, ambient pressure decreases but partial pressure of water vapour
remains as 47mmHg. This changes the composition of gases. For every part of air at an
increased altitude, oxygen count is relatively lesser than oxygen at sea level.
Oxygen Systems
For flights above 10,000ft a supplementary oxygen supply must available. It may consist of a
portable oxygen container and mask or a fixed installation adjacent to the crew and passengers.

Diluter Demand
 Flight crew oxygen system : close-fitting mask with a regulator that supplies a flow of
oxygen according to cabin altitude.
 Regulators are designed to provide an appropriate proportion of oxygen and air from a mix
of 0% oxygen and 100% cabin air at altitude below 8,000ft. It gradually increases the
proportion of oxygen until 33,000ft where 100% oxygen and 0% cabin air is delivered.
 Oxygen is supplied at the rate of the user when they inhale. This reduces the amount of
oxygen required.

Pressure demand
 Similar to diluter demand equipment
 Oxygen is automatically supplied under slight pressure at cabin altitudes above 10,000ft
with full pressure breathing above 38,000ft.

Pressure Demand mask with mask mounted regulator

 A pressure demand mask with a regulator attached directly to the mask rather than
mounted on the instrument panel or elsewhere
 Mask mounted regulator eliminates the problem of a long hose which must be purged
before oxygen is delivered to the mask.

Continuous flow oxygen system

 For passengers
 Re-breather bag ( collects user’s exhaled air to be re-inhaled)
 The oxygen in the re-breather is replenished by a continuous flow of oxygen regulated as for
dilutor demand.
 Only a portion of oxygen is consumed during each breath, air in the re-breather remains
highly saturated with oxygen and is draw into the lungs at the beginning of inhalation. If bag
is depleted before breath, cabin air is used for remainder inhalation

Cabin Pressurisation
For prolonged flights operating above 10000ft, using oxygen masks is exhilarating and
inefficient. Another method to maintain adequate supply of partial pressure of oxygen is to
pressurise the aircraft cabin to ensure the cabin altitude remains below 10,000ft, irrespective of
the actual altitude of the aircraft.
Cabin air supple is provided by tapping bleed air from the aircraft engine or by using an
independent compressor, and the pressure within the cabin is controlled by an outflow valve.
Maintaining the cabin at sea level pressure would require a very strong and thus heavy
structure for the fuselage  affects weight and fuel economy.
Normal individuals can tolerate altitudes of up to 10000ft but this is not true for elderly or the
diseased who are less tolerable to the effects of hypoxia. Hence pressurised cabins are to
maintain 6,000ft to compromise physiological needs of the crew and economical needs of
aircraft operator.

Rapid Decompression
If cabin pressure is suddenly lost during flight, pressure inside will equalise outside pressure of
air. Magnitude of the rate of decompression, physiological effects will be determined by:
 Size of cabin rupture or number of lost windows
 Aircraft altitude
 Pressure differential between cabin and external environment.
 Volume of cabin
 Position of the rupture or lost window – venturi effect can lead to increase in cabin altitude
if cabin air is sucked out

The larger the rupture + smaller cabin + greater pressure differential between cabin and the
outside air  more rapid the rate of decompression
Explosive decompression = extremely rapid loss of pressure .
 When this occurs , mist will fill the cabin
A sudden equalisation of pressure = strong blast of air outwards from cabin opening. This may
cause loose items / humans to be sucked out. Therefore, flying at high altitude in pressurised
aircraft , seat belt must be used and also provides restraint during unexpected turbulence.
Within the body cavities, free gases will expand and will be expelled wherever possible.
Decompression sickness
 In addition to the gases trapped in the body cavities, a considerable volume (primarily
nitrogen) exists elsewhere within the body, not in normal gaseous state but in solution.

Decompression sickness usually occurs 18,000ft – 25,000ft

Prevention and treatment
 Decompression sickness can be prevented by pre-breathing 100% oxygen before flight in
order to wash out nitrogen dissolved in the body tissues
 There is a risk of decompression sickness if flying within a 12-24 hr scuba diving ,
dependent on the depth of dive
 Following donning of 100% oxygen  rapid deceleration to 25,000ft and a slower descent
to below 18,000ft should prevent decompression sickness
 Decompression sickness should be treated with 100% and individual should be kept warm
and still
 Emergency post-flight treatment in a recompression chamber may be necessary on landing
and medical advice should be sought by radio communication prior to landing.
Barotrauma
At high altitudes, the body is exposed to high pressure externally, but internally, the pressure
remains the same as it was on the ground and so the gases inside begin to expand in accordance
with Boyle’s Law.
The human body contains a significant amount of gas which is largely air. Some is dissolved in
bodily fluids. Air also exists as a free gas in the intestinal tract, the middle ear and the sinuses
where it will expand as altitude increases.
 Expansion of gases in sinuses  headache
 Trapped gases in middle ear  ear pain
 Trapped gases in stomache  abdominal fullness
 Trapped gasses in small intestine  considerable pain and expansion can cause fainting
Reduce barotrauma :
 Don’t fly during a cold or congestion of upper respiratory tract
 Avoid eating gas forming foods
 Avoid eating too quickly or too much because of the risks of swallowing air
 Do not fly within 24 hrs of dental treatment
 Avoid drinking large quantities or gassy fluids
Hyperventilation
Breathing in excess of the metabolic needs of the body. A waste product of metabolism is carbon
dioxide which is carried to the lungs via the bloodstream. The respiratory centre of the brain
controls the rate of breathing and reacts to the amount of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream.
When there is exercise, the cells use more oxygen and this induces more carbon dioxide to be
produced. However , if a faster rate of breathing takes place and no physical exercise is
produced, no carbon dioxide is created. Hence, the excessive breathing removes carbon dioxide
from the bloodstream faster than metabolism , causing a chemical changes in the bloodstream.
This is hyperventilation.
Causes of hyperventilation :
 Anxiety
 Stress
 Excitement
 Motion sickness
 Vibration
 Heat
 Acceleration
 Pressure breathing
 Hypoxia
Symptoms of hyperventilation:
 Dizziness
 Increased sensation of body heat
 Tingling sensation in fingers and toes
 Increased heart rate
 Nausea
 Blurred vision
Extreme case: loss of consciousness  breathing rate slows fast recovery back to normal
Breathing in paper bag : inhaling carbon dioxide increases blood acidity to restore the normal
acid-base balance and decreases the breathing rate
Vision

Why is vision important in aviation?

 Provides 80% of orientation during flight
 Important in collision avoidance
 Depth perception ( take off, landing, formation)
 Important for situational awareness and correct orientation

Important eye components

Cornea : Majority of the focusing ability of the eye
Lens: fine tunes the visual image
Retina: the light sensitive area where light is converted to electrical
impulses
Iris: controls the amount of light entering eye, caters for levels of
illumination
Pupil: the aperture in the iris through which light enters the eye
Extra-ocular muscles: co-ordinated eye movements

Visual Functions
Aimed at detecting 3 major components:
1. Light sense
2. Form Sense
3. Colour Sense
These are detected by the retina.
The crude image is then manipulated by the brain to produce a
recognisable image
Light Sense
 Eye can function over wide range of light levels. Eg. From faint
starlight to bright sunlight on snow
 Requires both rods and cones due to their photochemical reaction
which converts light energy into electrical energy
 Three types of vision involved:
1. Scotopic vision
o Low light levels
o Night vision
o Mediated by Rods
2. Mesopic vision
o Intermediate light level
o Transitional stage (dawn, dusk, full moonlight)
o Mediated by Rods AND Cones
3. Photopic vision
o High light levels
o Day
o Mediated by cones
Form sense
 Detection and recognition of objects
 Involves varying levels of resolution and detail
 Two types of vision involved: Focal , Ambient vision
Visual Acuity
 Measured via standard eye chart at 6m away
 Normal visual acuity 6/6 : subject sees 6m while rest of population
sees 6m
 Poor vision 6/60
 Subject sees 6m while rest of population sees 60m

Colour Perception
 Cone (fovea) function
 Blue,red,green ratio 1:10:10
 Variation in proportion and saturation of these colours gives any other
colour
 Peak spectral sensitivities:
 Red cones 564nm
 Blue cone 420nm
 Green cone 534nm
Physiological blind spot
 Caused by lack of rods and cones at optic disc
 Covers 2-6 degrees of visual field
 Sufficient to block 18 m object at 200m
Depth Perception
Binocular cues ( up to 200m):
 Convergence – amount that the axes of the eyes converge to bring
visual target to each fovea
 Stereopsis – the fusion of signals from slightly disparate retinal points,
measured in seconds of arc of disparity
 Accommodation – if the eye observes a close object, the lens is
thickened and the pupil becomes larger, while to focus on a more
distant target, the lens flattens and the pupil becomes smaller
Monocular cues:
 Retinal image/size constancy – comparison of the object from past
experience
 Relative motion/motion parallax – near objects appear to move against
the oberserver’s motion, distant objects move in the same direction as
the observer’s motion
 Obscuration – nearer objects appear to cover distant objects
 Aerial perceptive
 Overlap
 Position in visual field
 Atmospheric perspective – distant objects appear more blue and hazy
than near objects
 Linear perspective – parallel lines converge at a distance
Perception time
Detect visualise,recognise : 1s
What to do? 2s
Muscle movement, change path 2.5s
Total time : at least 5s
Night vision
 Function of the rods ( & therefore peripheral vision)
 Visual acuity is less than during the day
 Colour vision is poor
 Night environment consists of degraded visual cues
 Can be worsened by atmospheric conditions
Dark Adaptation:
 The process by which the eyes adapt for optimal night visual acuity
under conditions of low ambient illumination
 Rapid adjustments from dark to light
 Slower adjustments from light to dark
 Each eye adapts independently
 30min -45min to fully adapt
 depends on regeneration of photopigments in the rods and cones
 5-7 min for cones
 30-45 min for rods
 full adapted cones give very poor night vision therefore, best when
rods are fully adapted
To minimise dark adaption time:
 Avoid inhaling carbon monoxide from smoking /exhaust
 Adjust instrument and lighting to low as possible
 Avoid exposure to bright lights
 Use supplementary oxygen at night flying above 5000ft
The night blind spot
 At night, the fovea cannot be used for vision as it contains no rods
 This region of the eye is effectively another blind spot
 Each eye has 2 blind spots: The physiological blind spot ( optic disc )
and the night blind spot (fovea)
Using eyes at night
 Awareness of limitations of eye
 Rods need to be used
 Looking off-centre ( not directly at an object) stimulates the peripheral
vision and rods
 Keeping the eyes moving stimulates rods
 Increases the chances of detecting an object ( stationary or moving)
 Never fixate for more than 2-3 seconds
 Insure a 15 degree overlap when scanning
 This will counter the night blind spot
Maximise Night vision prior to flight
 Balance diet
 Plenty of rest
 Avoid bright lights
 Wear sunglasses
 No smoking, alcohol, drugs
Maximise Night vision DURING flight:
 Ensure complete dark adaption
Target acquisition and object detection can be maximise by :
 Use off centre viewing ( 10 to 15degrees)
 Keep gaze moving
 Scan pattern needs practise
 Exploit contrast if possible
 Maintain clean visors/screens
 Close one eye if flashed
 Minimise cockpit lighting
 Min external lighting
 Use supplementary oxygen
Noise

o Effects of altitude change:

o Boyle’s Law: the air in the cavity of the middle ear expands and
contracts depending on atmospheric pressure.
o During a change in altitude, if the pressure in the ear is not readily
equalised with outside pressure, the drum is disintended 
inflammation + pain + temporary deafness
o CLIMB: When air in the middle ear expands, small bubble of air is
forced out through the Eustachian ( connects middle ear to back of
throat) tube at frequent intervals. Hence, pressure equalisation occurs
automatically
o DESCENT: outside air pressure increases, the middle ear which has
accommodated to the reduced pressure at altitude is at a lower
pressure than the external ear canal. Consequently, the increased
pressure forces the eardrum inwards. This is more difficult to relieve
because air must now go back up the Eustachian tube to equalise
pressure between the inner ear and the outside pressure.
o
o Vestibular Apparatus:
o 3 Semi-circular canals: form a motion sensing system and are right
angles to each other. Assists in the maintenance of balance and to
stabilise the eyes
o Otolith: sense gravity and linear acceleration
o
o Angular Acceleration:
o When the head beings to turn, speed up, slow down or stops turning,
sensory hairs in the canal are temporarily deflected due to the motion
of the fluid lagging behind the motion of the canal wall. Nerve impulses
are sent to the brain  turning motion is sensed.
o
o
Motion sickness

o Motion sickness is a response to real or apparent motion to which a

person is unfamiliar and hence, unadapted.
o Flying training: 23-39% of student pilots
o Interfere with progress
o Affect enthusiasm, performance and self-esteem
o Operational flying: 10% of crew
o Loss of performance
o Decresed effectiveness of aircraft
o Aborted flight
o Flying safety hazard
o Sea: Rough 90% , 55% in moderate seas
o Potent stimulant
o Vomiting causes dehydration and electrolyte disturbances
o Erodes will to live
o Must take tablets ASAP
o Space flight : 40-50% of astronauts experience SMS
o Signs / symptoms appear in first few hrs of microgravity exposure
o Worse with head movements

Causes of motion sickness

o Motion in flight, sea, in car generates patterns of sensory input which
conflict with those patterns based on land. Brain will be upset by this
conflict due to signals from vestibular system
o Anxiety & hyperventilation
 When someone is anxious and tense, the nervous system becomes
extra sensitive and if vestibular system is already sensitive, anxiety
can take it above critical level.
When someone hyperventilates, it increases one’s arousal level 
increase in sensitivity of vestibular system
o Alcohol diffuses from bloodstream to endolymph (semi-circular canal).
Because it is less dense than water, alcohol does not become evenly
distributed within the endolymph, but creates a light spot which causes
the fluid to move within semi-circular canal as if the head was turning.
This increases sensitivity of the canal head spinning .Following the
removal of alcohol, sensitivity of the canals remain the same.
o Visual/Vestibular Mismatch
 both signs are contradictory
 visual signals without expected vestibular signal
o Canal/otolith mismatch
Both signals contradictory (coriolis effect)
 canal signals without expected otolith signals (space sickness, head
movement in weightlessness, alternobaric vertigo)
 Otolith without canal ( bow of ship in rough weather)

Signs Symptoms:
1. Pallor
2. Cold sweats
3. Nausea
4. Vomiting
5. Hyperventilation & air hunger
6. Increased salivation, feeling of bodily warmth, light headed
7. Belching & flatulence
8. Sighing and yawning
9. Headache
 10. Drowsiness and lethargy
Earliest symptom is epigastric discomfortnauseaavalanche
phenomenonmultiple symptom signsvomit

Contributing factors:
o Age
o Sex : females more likely to suffer 1.7:1
o Anxiety
o Mental activity
o Aircraft/environmental factors : control dynamics
o Individual variation
Management approach
o MEDICAL:
o History : motion stimulus : provocation, frequency, severity
Risk factors: susceptibility factors, anxiety,stress
o Clinical examination : evidence of other disease processes
o MANAGEMENT :
o Behavioural
Minimise head movement
Lie down
Close eyes
Keep mind occupied
 Stay in stable part of aircraft
View horizon
o Adaptation: the more you fly the less likely you are to be motion sick
o Medications:
Central anticholinergics ( scopolamine (kwells), atropine,
cinnarizine,promethazine from avomine or phenergen)
o Sympathomimetics ( ephedrine, pseudoephedrine,amphetamines)
o Others ( calcium channel blockers, phenytoin)
o Densitisation:
o Used by most air forces
o Program of frequet motion stimulation with a nauseogenic stimulus
(coriolis)
o May be supplemented by flying phase
o Leads to adaptation to motion stimuli
o Desensities individual to motion effects
o 85% success rate
o must go back to flying immediately
Noise

o Noise = any sound that is unwanted, unpleasant or damaging

o Sound = energy that produces the sensation of hearing
o Vibration = inaudible acoustic phenomena that produces tactile
sensations
What is vibation?
o The alternating motion of an object relative to a reference position
( object at rest)
o Series of oscillations involving displacement and acceleration
o Usually transmitted thru direct contact between body and a vibrating
structure
Sound!
o Sound is a form of vibration
o Molecules in atmosphere vibrate causing alternating atmospheric
compression and rarefaction
o Oscillating fluctuations in local atmopheric pressure result which
emanate outwards from sound source
o Stimulation of the hearing mechanism generates a subjective auditory
sensation
o Sound is propagated thru matter as a wave of fluctuating pressure
Amplitude measure in decibels
THE DECIBEL :
o The decibel scale is a logarithmic scale calculated from actual sound
pressures
o A 3 db rise means the sound energy at the ear has DOUBLED
o The scale is weighted to mimic the response of the human ear
Sources of noise in aircraft:
o Aerodynamic noise
o Engine/propulsion
o Cabin condition
o Avionics
o Weapons system
o Auditory warnings/communication
o Direct voice input
Problem with noise
o Communication difficulties
o Stress
o Fatigue
o Distraction
o Deafness
o Compensation costs
Aircraft communication
o Communication essential
o Noise interferes with effective comm.
Ways to overcome noise
o Intercom sys
o Noise-cancelling headphones
o Noise-attenuating headset
o Standard phraseology
o Phonetic alphabet
Hearing damage
o Related to noise level
o Duration of exposure
o Individual susceptibility
Temporary threshold shift
o Reduced sensitivity to sound
o Due to acute noise exposure
o Often associated with tinnitus ( ringing in ears, persistent firing of
auditory nerve)
o Rapid recovery after exposure
o Timing of audiograms
Noise induced hearing loss
o Consequence of continued exposure
o Permanent threshold shift
o Initial high tone sensorineural deafness
o Physical damage to hair cells
o Affects both ears
Hearing conservation program
o Assessment of workpace
o Early detection of hearing deterioration is key
o Oh&s
Acceptable noise level
o 85Db for 8 hrs. 88Db = 4 hrs. 82Db = 16hrs
Protective equip:
o aircrew helmets
o aircrew headsets
o earmuffs
o insert earplugs
o active noise reduction has electronic 180 degree phase adjustment
Visual illusions

Oculogravic illusion
o When aircraft accelerates and there is a backward rotation of the
resultant force vector, the pilot may experience a pitch up illusion.
Accompanied by apparent upward movement and displacement of
objects, such as line of lights.
Auto-kinesis
o In the dark, static light will have motion when stared at for several
seconds & will increase in movement if it becomes the prime focus
o At night, shift the gaze to not stare at single light source
Illusion of level flight ( false horizon)
o In absence of clearly defined horizon, the pilot may choose mistakenly
another pt of line as a reference. Eg. Flying parallel to a sloping cloud
bank instead of earth’s surface
The landing errors
o The visual approach and landing of an aircraft requires the pilot to
perceive and respond to a number of visual cues. When flying a 3
degree approach, the angle between the horizon and the visual impact
point on the runway is also 3 degree. Thus the approach is flown using
suitable control inputs to maintain a constant angle subtended at the
horizon.
o Large aircraft: touchdown pt will be shot of the visual aiming pt
o Visual texture in the peripheral field will assist final judgement of
height and speed.
o Surface feature and atmospheric conditions can create illusions of
incorrect height and distance from runway. Can be avoided by
approach angle guidance lights
Ground lighting illusions
o Lights along a straight path such as a road or lights on moving vehicles
can be mistaken for runaway lights
o Bright runway where few lights illuminate the surrounding terrain may
create the illusion of there being less distance to the runway threshold.
o Flying over terrain which has few lights to provide height cutes may
lead to a lower than normal approach being flown.
Atmospheric condition
o Haze, mist or fog can lead to refraction of light  illusion of greater
height or greater distance from runway
o Penetrating mist or fog  illusion of pitch up may cause pilot to
steepen the approach
o Rain on windscreenrefraction of light  illusion of greater height or
distance  pilot makes shallower than normal approach  rain also
gives blooming effect to perception of runway lights  gives perception
that approach is faster and runway is closer than it actually is.
Runway and terrain slope illusion
o Unsloping runway or terrain  illusion that aircraft is higher altitude
and runway is shorter  lower than normal approach
o Runways which slopes down have opposite effect
Runway width illusion
o Approaching a narrow runway  aircraft may seem higher  lower
approach than normal.
o Approaching wider runway  aircraft seems lower  higher approach
than normal  landing beyond runway threshold
Featureless terrain ( black hole)
o Absence of ground features – eg. Land over water, darkened areas,
terrain with snow  creates illusion that aircraft is at higher altitude
than reality leading to lower approach.
o Landing at night at aerodome with no surrounding lights  pilots face
black hole  excessively low approach with risk of undershooting
runway . Cause: runway edge light is only visible cue and there is
nothing to provide dimension of scale leading to false perception of
distance and angle.
Prevention of disorientation:
o Illusions can be overcome by believing instruments>sensations
o Never continue flying in bad weather conditions unless suitably
qualified in instrument flying
o In poor visibility : do not mix instrument flying with visual flying ,
constant switching may lead to disorientation
o Never fly into dusk or darkness unless very competent with
instruments
o Avoid sudden head movements in flight, especially when manoeuvring
o Ensure outside visual reference are used they are reliable fixed pts on
earth’s surface
o Do not fly with cold or other illness
o Do not drink alcohol within 12 hrs of take off
o Do not fly when tired
o Maintain practice and proficiency in instrument flying