Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing

Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps:

Design and installation of closed-loop systems

Heat Pump
Compressor

Evaporator Condenser
Heat Distribution
System

Expansion
Valve

Ground Heat
Exchanger

A Guide, for specifiers and their advisors as well as potential users, on:
• Types of systems
• How to achieve an integrated system design
• How to maximise efficiency
• Capital and running costs
• Do’s and Don’ts
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 3
Types of system 3
Applications 3
Potential benefits 4

2 GENERAL DESIGN 5

3 GROUND HEAT EXCHANGER 6

Types of ground heat exchanger 6
Ground characteristics 6
Design issues 7
Installation and testing 9

4 THE HEAT PUMP 10

Heat pump sizing 10
Electrical requirements 11

5 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 12
Space heating 12
Domestic water heating 12
Cooling 13

6 CONTROL STRATEGIES 14
Space heating 14
Domestic water heating 14

7 COSTS 15

Capital costs 15
Running costs 15
FURTHER GUIDANCE 17
DO’S AND DON’TS 18

This Guide is based on material drafted for the Housing Energy

Efficiency Best Practice programme by BSRIA under contract to
BRE’s Sustainable Energy Centre (BRESEC).

BRESEC would like to acknowledge the contributions from:

Rosemary Rawlings – BSRIA (main author)
John Parker – Earth Energy
Gerdi Breembroek – IEA Heat Pump Centre
Jean-Yves Cherruault – Sciotech
Robin Curtis – Geoscience Ltd
Richard Freeborn – Kensa Engineering Ltd
Phil Moore – Ice Energy
John Sinclair – Electricity Association Services Ltd
Raymond Wood
Bengt Sandstrom

2
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

1 Introduction – systems
and applications
A heat pump can take low temperature heat and upgrade it
to a higher, more useful temperature. If this heat comes from
an ambient source, for example outside air or the ground, the
use of a heat pump can result in savings in fossil fuel
consumption and thus a reduction in the emission of Heat Pump
Compressor
greenhouse gases and other pollutants. Ground Source Heat
Pumps (GSHPs) in particular are receiving increasing interest Evaporator Condenser
Heat Distribution
in North America and Europe and the technology is now well System

established with over 550,000 units (80% of which are

Expansion
domestic) installed worldwide and over 66,000 installed Valve

annually.

Despite increasing use elsewhere, GSHPs are a relatively

unfamiliar technology in the UK although the performance of
systems is now such that, properly designed and installed, they
Ground Heat
represent a very carbon-efficient form of space heating.This Exchanger

document provides guidance notes on the design and

installation of domestic closed-loop GSHP systems to help
promote appropriate and effective use of this technology. It is
aimed at both specifiers and their advisors but much of the
information could be of interest to a more general reader. It
provides outline rather than detailed guidance, focusing on the
issues to be considered when selecting systems and
components and estimating system performance. Figure 1: A typical GSHP system

A useful list of Do’s and Don’ts can be found at the

back of this document.

Types of system
A GSHP system consists of a ground heat exchanger,
a water-to-water or water-to-air heat pump, and a heat
distribution system. Figure 1 shows a typical system.
Until recently open-loop GSHP systems using groundwater
were the most widely used type.Where a suitable source of
groundwater is available this can be very cost effective
because water can be delivered and returned using relatively
inexpensive wells that require little ground area. However,
the disadvantages are that water availability is limited, fouling
and corrosion may be a problem depending on water quality
and most importantly environmental regulations covering the
use of groundwater are becoming increasingly restrictive.
These limitations mean that interest is now focused on
closed-loop or ground coupled systems, where the ground
heat exchanger consists of a sealed loop of pipe buried either
horizontally or vertically in the ground.The refrigerant can be
circulated directly through the ground heat exchanger in a
direct expansion (DX) system but most commonly GSHPs
are indirect systems, where a water/antifreeze solution circulates
through the ground loop and energy is transferred to or from
the heat pump refrigerant circuit via a heat exchanger. Although
more expensive than open-loop systems, closed-loop systems
are more widely applicable.This guide will only consider closed-
loop systems.
Applications
GSHPs can be used to provide space and domestic water heating
and, if required, space cooling to a wide range of building types
and sizes.The provision of cooling, however, will result in
increased energy consumption however efficiently
it is supplied. GSHPs are particularly suitable for new build as the
technology is most efficient when used to supply low
temperature distribution systems such as underfloor heating.
They can also be used for retrofit especially in conjunction with
measures to reduce heat demand.They can be particularly cost
effective in areas where mains gas is not available or for
developments where there is an advantage in simplifying the
infrastructure provided.

3
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

This guide will concentrate on the provision of space and water
heating to individual dwellings but the technology can also be
applied to blocks of flats or groups of houses.
Potential benefits
To maximise the efficiency of a heat pump when providing
heating it is important, not only to have a low heating
distribution temperature but also to have as high a source
temperature as possible. Overall efficiencies for GSHPs are
inherently higher than for air source heat pumps because ground
temperatures are higher than the mean air temperature in winter
and lower than the mean air temperature in summer.The ground
temperature also remains relatively stable allowing the heat
pump to operate close to its optimal design point whereas air
temperatures vary both throughout the day and seasonally and
are lowest at times of peak heating demand. For heat pumps
using ambient air as the source, the evaporator coil is also likely
to need defrosting at low temperatures.
For GSHP systems, used to supply low temperature water based
heating systems (eg underfloor heating), seasonal efficiencies of
between 300% and 400% are common for indirect systems and
can be higher (350% to 500%) for direct systems. By comparison
the seasonal efficiency for an air source heat pump system is
about 250%.The seasonal efficiency is the ratio of the energy
delivered from the heat pump to the total energy supplied to it
measured over a year (including energy demands for circulation
e.g. to circulate fluid round the ground heat exchanger).
For example it can be seen that, assuming an average CO2
emission factor for electricity of 0.414 kg/kWh, the use of a
GSHP with a seasonal efficiency of 350% would result in the
emission of 0.12 kg CO2 for every kWh of useful heat provided.
By comparison, a condensing gas boiler (assuming a CO2
emission factor for gas of 0.194 kg/kWh) operating at a seasonal
efficiency of 85% would result in 0.23 kgCO2 for every kWh of
useful heat supplied i.e. the CO2 emissions would be almost
double those from the GSHP. In practice the environmental
impact of a heat pump will depend not only on the amount of
electricity used but also on the demand profile. In periods of
peak demand some electricity will have to be provided by less
efficient power stations with emission factors as high as 0.8
kgCO2/kWh.
As well as reducing purchased energy consumption and resulting
in low CO2 emissions, GSHP have a number of other
environmental and operational advantages:
• high reliability (few moving parts, no exposure to weather)
• high security (no visible external components to be damaged
or vandalised)
• long life expectancy (typically 20-25 years and up to 50 years
for the ground coil)
• low noise
• low maintenance costs (no regular servicing requirements)
• no boiler or fuel tank
• no combustion or explosive gases within the building

The high seasonal efficiency of GSHP systems reduces the • no flue or ventilation requirements
demand for purchased electricity and the associated emissions of • no local pollution
CO2 and other pollutants. Figure 2 shows the relationship
between utilisation efficiency and CO2 emissions for different
domestic fuels.

1.4
Gas
(kg/kWh useful heat delivered)

1.2
Electricity
1 Oil/LPG
CO2 emissions

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Utilisation Efficiency (%)
Assumed CO2 emission factors (SAP 2001):
Electricity = 0.414 kg/kWh delivered
Gas = 0.194 kg/kWh
Oil = 0.271 kg/kWh

Figure 2: CO2 Emissions and fuel use efficiency

4
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

2 General design
The most important first step in the design of a GSHP
installation is accurate calculation of the building’s heat loss, its
related energy consumption profile and the domestic hot water
requirements.This will allow accurate sizing of the heat pump
system.This is particularly important because the capital cost of a
GSHP system is generally higher than for alternative conventional
systems and economies of scale are more limited. Oversizing will
significantly increase the installed cost for little operational saving
and will mean that the period of operation under part load is
increased. Frequent cycling reduces equipment life and operating
efficiency. Conversely if the system is undersized design
conditions may not be met and the use of top-up heating,
usually direct acting electric heating, will reduce the overall
system efficiency.
A GSHP system can be designed to provide all the required
heat (a monovalent system). However, because of the relatively
high capital cost, it may be economic to consider a bivalent
system where the heat pump is designed to cover the base
heating load, while an auxiliary system covers the additional peak
demand eg if the savings in capital cost offset any increase in
running costs. Reducing the output temperature required from
the heat pump will increase its performance. Currently available
heat pumps have an operating temperature limit of 50ºC – 55ºC
in most applications and are not suitable for monovalent
operation in combination with traditionally sized wet radiator
distribution systems.
The performance of the heat pump depends on the performance
of the ground loop and vice versa. It is therefore essential to
design them together.
Closed-loop ground source heat pump systems will not normally
require permissions/authorisations from the environment agency
(see back page). However, the agency can provide comment on
proposed schemes with a view to reducing the risk of
groundwater pollution or derogation that might result.
The main concerns are:
• Risk of the underground pipes/boreholes creating undesirable
hydraulic connections between different water bearing strata
• Undesirable temperature changes in the aquifer that may result
from the operation of a GSHP
• Pollution of groundwater that might occur from leakage of
additive chemicals used in the system
Where there is a risk of or actual releases of polluting matter
to groundwater the agency can serve statutory notices to
protect groundwater.

This picture illustrates a type of ground coil which is more fully explained in Section 3 page 6.

Trench and ‘slinky’ © GeoScience 2002

5
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps
3 Ground heat exchanger
Types of ground heat exchanger
An indirect circulation system is the most common, where the
ground heat exchanger consists of a sealed loop of high-density
polyethylene pipe containing a circulating fluid (usually a
water/antifreeze mixture) which is pumped round the loop.
Energy is transferred indirectly via a heat exchanger to the heat
pump refrigerant.
Alternatively the refrigerant can be circulated directly through a
copper ground heat exchanger (this is called a direct expansion
(DX) system). Good thermal contact with the ground, the
elimination of a heat exchanger between the ground coil
circulating fluid and the refrigerant and the fact that no
circulation pump is required, means that direct circulation
systems are more efficient than indirect systems. A shorter
ground coil is required and the saving on installation cost helps
to offset the higher material cost, but more refrigerant will be
required and there is a greater potential risk of refrigerant leaks.
DX systems are most suitable for smaller domestic applications.
The majority of systems are indirect.
The ground heat exchanger is buried either horizontally in a
shallow trench (at a depth of about 1m) or vertically in a
borehole.The choice of horizontal or vertical system depends on
the land area available, local ground conditions and excavation
costs.The collector coil can also be laid under water, for instance
in a pond, but system efficiencies are likely to be lower because
of seasonal variations in the water temperature. As costs for
trenching and drilling are generally higher than piping costs it is
important to maximise the heat extraction per unit length of
trench/borehole.
Horizontal collectors require relatively large areas free from
hard rock or large boulders and a minimum soil depth of 1.5m.
They are particularly suitable in rural areas where properties are
larger and for new construction. In urban areas the installation
size may be limited by the land area available. Multiple pipes (up
to six, placed either side by side or in an over/under
configuration) can be laid in a single trench.The amount of
trench required can also be reduced if the pipe is laid as a series
of overlapping coils (sometimes referred to as a SLINKYTM),
placed vertically in a narrow trench or horizontally at the bottom
of a wider trench.The trench lengths are likely to be 20% to 30%
of those for a single pipe configuration but pipe lengths may be
double for the same thermal performance.
Vertical collectors are used where land area is limited and for
larger installations.They are inserted as U-tubes into pre-drilled
boreholes generally 100 mm to 150 mm diameter and between
15 m and 120 m deep. DX systems are only suitable for shallow
vertical collectors (maximum depth 30 m).Vertical collectors are
more expensive than horizontal ones but have high thermal
efficiency and require less pipe and pumping energy.They are less
likely to suffer damage after installation. Multiple boreholes may
be needed for larger residential applications.
6
Ground characteristics
It is important to determine the depth of soil cover, the type of
soil or rock and the ground temperature.
The depth of soil cover may determine the possible configuration
of the ground coil. If bedrock is within 1.5 m of the surface or
there are large boulders it may not be possible to install a
horizontal ground loop. For a vertical borehole the depth of soil
will influence the cost as, in general, it is more expensive and
time consuming to drill through overburden than rock as the
borehole has to be cased.
The temperature difference between the ground and the fluid in
the ground heat exchanger drives the heat transfer so it is
important to determine the ground temperature. At depths of
less than 2 m the ground temperature will show marked seasonal
variation above and below the annual average air temperature. As
the depth increases the seasonal swing in temperature is reduced
and the maximum and minimum soil temperatures begin to lag
the temperature at the surface. At a depth of about 1.5 m the
time-lag is approximately one month. Below 10 m the ground
temperature remains effectively constant at approximately the
annual average air temperature (ie between 10°C and 14°C in
the UK depending on local geology and soil conditions). Figure 3,
below, shows the annual variation in ground temperatures at a
depth of 1.7 m compared to the daily average air temperature
measured at a site in Falmouth. It also shows the ground
temperature at a depth of 75 m.
22
20
18
16
Temperature oC
14
12
10
8
24hr Mean Air
6
Ground @ 1.7 m
4
Far Field' @ 75 m
2
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Time of year
Figure 3: Air and ground temperatures, Falmouth 1994
(Source: Geoscience Limited)
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

In order to determine the length of heat exchanger needed to
meet a given load the thermal properties of the ground will be
needed.The most important difference is between soil and rock
as rocks have significantly higher values for thermal conductivity.
The moisture content of the soil also has a significant effect as
dry loose soil traps air and has a lower thermal conductivity than
moist packed soil. Low-conductivity soil may require as much
as 50% more collector loop than highly conductive soil.Water
movement across a particular site will also have a significant
impact on heat transfer through the ground and can result in a
smaller ground heat exchanger.
The amount of energy that the ground loop can deliver is
derived from the hours of use at particular temperature
differences (and hence energy fluxes) over a given period. Sizing
is complex and usually performed using specialised software
programs the accuracy of which have been verified using
monitored data. Software is available in the public domain or has
been developed by manufacturers. An up to date list of design
tools and suppliers is available from the IEA Heat Pump Centre’s
website. Details of a variety of design tools are also given in their
report number HPC-AR12 ‘Designing heat pump systems: Users’
experience with software, guides and handbooks’.

A geotechnical survey can be used to reduce the uncertainty

associated with the ground thermal properties. More accurate
information could result in a reduction in design loop length and Loop depth, spacing and layout
easier loop installation. For large schemes where multiple The deeper the loop the more stable the ground temperatures
boreholes are required, a trial borehole and/or a thermal and the higher the collection efficiency but the installation costs
properties field test may be appropriate. will go up. Horizontal loops are usually installed at a depth of
approximately 1 m. Health and Safety Regulations do not allow
personnel to enter unsupported trenches if they are more than
1.2 m deep.To reduce thermal interference multiple pipes laid in
a single trench should be at least 0.3 m apart and to avoid
Design issues interference between adjacent trenches there should be a
Sizing minimum distance of 3 m between them.Vertical boreholes
The length of pipe required depends upon the building heating should be at least 3 m and preferably 5 m apart. Careful
load, soil conditions, loop configuration, local climate and consideration should be given to the pipe layout in order to
landscaping. Sizing of the ground loop is critical.The more pipe keep the dynamic hydraulic pressure drop across the ground
used in the ground collector loop, the greater the output of the heat exchanger as small as possible to minimise the pumping
system, but as the costs associated with the ground coil typically power needed.
form 30% to 50% of the total system costs, oversizing will be
uneconomic. Conversely, undersizing, would lead to the ground
loop running colder and could, at worst, result in ground
temperatures not being able to recover and heat extraction from
the ground being unsustainable ie the ground loop must be sized
to meet the peak thermal power but also to deliver energy at no
greater rate than the surrounding earth can collect energy over a
twelve month period. If a system provides heating and cooling,
energy transferred to the ground in summer can be stored and
used in winter.

Assuming that other conditions remain constant, the specific

thermal power that a loop can extract (usually measured in:
w/metre pipe length for horizontal loops, w/m trench length for
SLINKYs and w/m of borehole for vertical loops) will be
dependent on the temperature difference between the circulating
fluid and the ‘far field’ ground temperature (ie away from the
influence of heat exchange with the collector coil).

Figure 4 shows the variation in thermal power output for a single

water filled ‘indirect’ vertical borehole in wet, medium density
rock given a heat flux between the loop and ground of 5W/m
(borehole) K.Typical heating only vertical collector systems
would be designed assuming a mean ground loop fluid to far-field
temperature difference of 10 K. For other ground conditions and
loop types, the relationship would be similar but the gradient
would be different from this particular example.

7
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

Piping material 140

The piping material used affects life, maintenance costs, pumping

Thermal Flux (W/m.bore)

120
energy, capital cost and heat pump performance. For indirect
systems high-density polyethylene is most commonly used. It is 100

flexible and can be joined by heat fusion.The pipe diameter must 80

be large enough to keep the pumping power small but small 60
enough to cause turbulent flow so as to ensure good heat
40
transfer between the circulating fluid and the inside of the pipe
wall. Pipe diameters between 20 mm and 40 mm are usual. 20
0
For direct expansion systems copper pipe (12 to 15 mm -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
diameter) is usually used. Depending on soil conditions, a plastic o
Temperature Difference (mean loop - far field) C
coating may be necessary to prevent corrosion.

Figure 4: Thermal flux from a single U-tube closed-loop borehole

Circulating fluid
The freezing point of the circulating fluid should be at least 5°C
below the mean temperature of the heat pump (ie the average
of the inlet and outlet temperatures). As the mean operating
temperature of the heat pump may be as low as – 4°C it is usual
to add antifreeze solution to prevent freezing to below –10°C.
The antifreeze should have good thermal performance. It is also
important to make proper allowance for any change in
properties of water/antifreeze mixtures as the loop temperature
falls. For instance, below –10°C glycols (especially propylene
glycol) become viscous and need greater pumping power,
reducing overall system efficiency.

The ground loop circulating pump

The circulating pump should have a low electrical load
requirement while still adequate to ensure turbulent flow is
maintained in the ground loop. In general the pumping power
should not exceed 50W per kW installed heat pump capacity.
The pump must be suitable for the minimum design water
temperature. As temperatures down to -10°C are possible, a
pump suitable for use in chilled water circuits with its motor
protected against the possibility of internal condensation is likely
to be needed.

8
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps
Installation and testing
Installation of the heat pump system and especially the ground
heat exchanger needs to be carefully programmed so that it does
not interfere with or delay any other construction activities.
The time for installation depends on soil conditions, length of
pipe, equipment required and weather conditions but typically
installation of a vertical or horizontal ground coil can be
completed in 1 to 2 days. Prior to any excavation it is important
to locate and protect any buried utilities, drainage pipes etc.
The GSHP manufacturer’s procedures must be followed.
The installation of horizontal heat exchangers is relatively
straight forward but vertical heat exchangers require highly
specialist knowledge not just by the drilling contractor but
also regarding pipe specification, joints, grouting etc.
The ground heat exchanger should be installed by professionals
who preferably have undergone training by manufacturers or
other recognised authorities such as the International GSHP
Association (IGSHPA).
When installing the ground heat exchanger it is important to
ensure good long-term thermal contact with the ground.
Horizontal loops are usually laid on a bed of sand and then
covered with a further 150 mm layer of sand for protection.
Care must be taken to avoid damage when backfilling and the
backfill material should be screened for rocks, stones etc.
The picture shows the trench accommodating the ground loop heat exchanger in relation
to the house
© GeoScience 2002
For vertical heat exchangers the space between the borehole
wall and the inserted pipes is backfilled with a suitable grout
material, for instance high conductivity Bentonite grout,
which is pumped from the bottom of the borehole.This not
only provides good thermal contact but also prevents any
vertical migration of groundwater. It is recommended that the
ground heat exchanger is made from a continuous loop of pipe.
Any connections in high density polyethylene pipe should be
made using heat fusion techniques in accordance with relevant
standards. For direct expansion systems the ground collector
coil is usually delivered pre-charged with refrigerant.
External pipework must be insulated within 1.5 m of any wall,
structure or water pipes and sleeved where it enters the house.
When the heat pump is delivering heat the ground loop circuit
will normally be operating below the building interior's dew
point temperature. Good quality insulation and vapour sealing of
internal pipework and fittings in this circuit is therefore essential
to minimise the risks and the pipework should be configured so
as to avoid potential damage if any condensation should still
occur.Warning tape should be installed over all buried pipes.
The ground loop should be pressure tested before installation
in the ground (this may be done prior to delivery) and again
after installation.The loop should be flushed and purged of all
air before being charged with antifreeze and pressurised ready
for connection to the heat pump.
9
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

4 The heat pump

GSHPs are special versions of conventional water source heat
pumps designed to operate over an extended range of entering
water temperatures.Typical entering water temperatures can
range from -5°C to +12°C for heat pumps delivering heat with
maximum output temperatures, sometimes as high as 50/55°C.
The lower the heating output temperature and the higher
the source input temperature the more efficiently the heat
pump will operate.
The performance of heat pumps can vary widely so it is
important to select an efficient unit.The heat pump output is a
function of the rated efficiency of the unit and this should be
quoted in manufacturer’s data.This is the result of performance
testing under standard test conditions such as those specified in
BS EN 255-2:1997 Air conditioners, liquid chilling packages and
heat pumps with electrically driven compressors – Heating
mode. Part 2 Testing and requirements for marking for space
heating units.The performance data should provide the
coefficient of performance (COP), measured as the heat output
(kWth) divided by the electrical input (kWel), at standard test
conditions for brine/water heat pumps of B0W50, B0W35 and
B5W35 (ie brine input temperature of 0°C and water output
temperature of 50°C, etc).
Figure 5 shows coefficients of performance (COP) measured
under test conditions for a typical GSHP.The efficiency for a
specific installation will also be dependent on the power required
by the ground loop circulating pump and this should be kept as
low as possible.
Heat pump sizing
The actual performance of the heat pump system is a function of
the water temperature produced by the ground coil (which will
depend on the ground temperature, pumping speed and the
design of the ground coil) and the output temperature. It is
essential that the heat pump and ground heat exchanger are
designed together (see Section 3).
To size the system the design heat load must be known.
An accurate assessment of the infiltration rate is important,
especially for highly insulated houses, and it is recommended that
an air leakage pressure test is carried out to confirm that the
design levels are met. It is also important to look at the load
profile as the energy required to operate the system will depend
on the operating conditions.The heat pump system can be sized
to meet the whole design load but because of the relatively high
capital cost it may be economic to size the system to meet only
a proportion of the design load in which case auxiliary heating
(usually an in-line direct acting electric heater) is needed.
Detailed analysis of the building loads, energy consumption
and cost effectiveness is required (design software is available).
In general, a heat pump sized to meet 50% of the design
heating load is likely to meet 80% to 85% of the annual
heating energy requirement.

Most heat pumps are designed to limit noise nuisance and

vibration for example by using anti vibration mountings for the
compressor and lining the heat pump casing with acoustic
insulation. In addition flexible connections may be needed for the
hydraulic connections from the heat pump.The heat pump should
not be mounted close to sensitive areas such bedrooms.

3
COP

2
output water temp 35 degC
1
output water temp 50 degC
0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Source Water Temperature (deg oC)

Figure 5: Coefficients of performance of typical small GSHP’s

10
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

Electrical requirements Ways to overcome this problem include using:

The heat pump is driven by an electric motor.This is an inductive
load which can cause disturbances to the electricity distribution
network because of high starting currents. It is a particular
problem when using a single phase and can lead to flickering
lights, voltage surges or 'spikes (which can affect electronic
equipment) and premature main fuse failure.
The Electricity Supply Regulations 1988, require that at any
particular consumer’s installations do not interfere with the
supplier’s system or the supply to other consumers. In particular
the variation in voltage caused by switching a load on/off shall be
within recognised limits.The actual voltage variation caused by a
particular piece of equipment at a particular point on the
network will depend on the electrical impedance of the network
at that point as well as the actual size of the load connected. It is
therefore essential to contact the distribution network operator
(DNO), formerly known as the Regional Electricity Company, at
an early design stage to determine the maximum load that can be
connected to the network at that particular location because this
may limit the size of heat pump that can be installed.
• heat pumps that incorporate soft start controls to limit
starting currents
• heat pumps with compressors specially designed with low
starting torque
• reducing the required heat pump capacity by using a direct
acting electric flow boiler to supplement the heat pump at
times of maximum heating demand
• multiple heat pumps, say one for the ground floor and one for
the first floor
• obtaining a 3 phase supply and use of a 3 phase motor in the
heat pump compressor
In most other European countries this is not a problem as a
three phase electricity supply is generally available in houses,
however it does mean that the majority of European made heat
pumps are only available with three phase motors.

This picture illustrates an underfloor heating system.The tail of the trench for the ground coil can be seen in
the upper half of the picture. More information on this topic is presented in Section 5 page 12.

Underfloor heating system © R Rawlings 1997

11
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps
5 Distribution systems
The efficiency of a heat pump is a function of the difference
between the temperature of the source and the output
temperature of the heat pump (ie the temperature of the
distribution system).The smaller this temperature difference the
higher the coefficient of performance of the heat pump will be.
For example if the distribution temperature required falls from
60°C to 40°C the COP can increase by more than 40%. It is
therefore important to use the lowest possible temperature
distribution system.
Space heating
Table 1 shows the supply temperatures required for a range of
domestic heating distribution systems.
Distribution system Delivery temperature °C
Underfloor heating 30-45
Low temperature radiators 45-55
Conventional radiators 60-90
Air 30-50
Table 1: Typical delivery temperatures for various heating
distribution systems
GSHP systems may not be suitable for direct replacement of
conventional water-based central heating systems because of the
high distribution temperatures unless extensive measures are
taken to improve the thermal insulation of the building. A wet
radiator system usually operates at 60°C to 80°C and a drop in
circulating temperature by 20°C would require an increase in
emitter surface of 30% to 40% to maintain the same heat output.
For an air system reducing the delivery temperature to 35°C
would require increasing the air change rate by up to three
times to maintain the same output.
For new housing where high insulation levels result in low
heating demand, low temperature air distribution systems, low
temperature water-based systems or underfloor heating are all
possible options.
The most efficient type of space heating to use with a GSHP
system is underfloor heating. Ideally the system should be
designed to give floor surface temperatures no higher than 26°C
and should be sized using a water temperature difference of
about 5°C.
12
Because of the higher output temperature, the seasonal
performance of a low temperature radiator system will not be as
high as that for an underfloor design. Fan convectors can be used
but flow temperatures of around 50°C may be necessary to
ensure high enough air temperatures which will also reduce the
system efficiency.
The thermal capacity of the distribution system is important. If it
is too low the heat pump may suffer from artificially long off
periods at times of light load.This effect is partly due to the
presence of a restart delay (designed to reduce wear on the
compressor by preventing rapid on/off cycling) in the heat pump.
To avoid it, sufficient non-disconnectable thermal capacity to
compensate for the loss of output during the delay restart
period needs to be provided.The heat pump manufacturer’s
guidance should be followed but it may be necessary to install a
‘buffer’ tank in order to optimise the running time of the heat
pump.The required capacity will depend on the system but is
likely to be between 60 and 150 litres.
Domestic water heating
Water heating provides a year-round load and can improve the
load factor for the heat pump. Hot water is usually required to
be delivered from the tap at temperatures in the range 35°C to
45°C and for domestic installations, the thermal power output
of the heat pump will be inadequate to deliver direct heating of
incoming mains water to this level so a storage system is
required. Heating is usually carried out via a primary coil or
jacket to a storage cylinder. For most domestic heat pumps the
maximum output temperature will be 55°C and the maximum
water storage temperature achievable will be 50°C. An auxiliary
electric immersion heater will be required to provide a ‘boost’
facility, and also to raise the water temperature so that it can be
stored at 60°C in order to reduce the risk of Legionella. Because
the efficiency of the heat pump falls as the output temperature
rises it may be more economic to use the immersion heater to
heat the stored water at temperatures above 45°C.The stored
water volume should be sized so that virtually all the energy
input could be supplied during the Economy 7 (or other reduced
rate) electricity tariff period.
Another option is to preheat the incoming cold water in a
separate preheat tank via an indirect coil at whatever
temperatures are being used to perform space heating.
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

Heat pumps, especially those for the US market, can be supplied
with a desuperheater designed to provide partial domestic water
heating. A desuperheater is a refrigerant hot gas-to-water heat
exchanger that is installed between the compressor and the
reversing valve of a space conditioning heat pump. It has a small
thermal power output (about 10% of the total heat pump power)
but output temperatures up to about 70°C can be achieved.
They are designed for use in situations where cooling loads
dominate as they then act as a heat recovery system whereas in
heating mode the desuperheater leads to a small reduction in
thermal power output.The desuperheater only works when the
heat pump is working, so if the space heating need is satisfied
(house up to temperature) the heat pump will be turned off and
there will be no energy available at the desuperheater for hot
water production so an auxiliary immersion heater will still be
required.The cost benefits of using a desuperheater need to be
carefully assessed.
Cooling
Most water-to-air heat pumps are reversible so a forced air
distribution system can readily be adapted to provide cooling as
well as heating. A reversible water-to-water heat pump coupled
to an underfloor distribution system can also be designed to
supply space cooling in summer. Even with water-to-water heat
pumps designed for heating only, a limited amount of ‘passive’
summer cooling can be provided by direct use of the ground
loop for example by by-passing the heat pump, and circulating
fluid from the ground coil through a fan convector.
This technology, however, is still in its infancy.

The heating needs of this house are supplied by a trench based GSHP system

© GeoScience 2002

13
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

6 Control strategies
Space heating
The first aim of the space heating control circuit is to operate
the heat distribution system at the lowest temperature that will
still meet the required comfort conditions.This will optimise the
efficiency of the heat pump.The main control options are:
Weather compensation – This is the most efficient form of
control.The output temperature from the heat pump is adjusted
according to the outside air temperature so that as the outside
temperature rises the output temperature is reduced.The heat
pump thus never works at a higher temperature than necessary.
In general an outside temperature sensor sends signals to a
controller which automatically controls the output temperature
according to a factory set curve defining the relationship
between the outside air temperature and the heat pump output
temperature. For water distribution systems the operation of the
heat pump compressor is usually controlled in response to the
return water temperature so this is lowered as the outside air
temperature rises.
Domestic water heating
The heat pump is likely to be operating less efficiently when
providing domestic water heating because higher output
temperatures are required.Where the domestic hot water
system includes a storage cylinder it will be cost effective to
make maximum use of any cheaper tariff periods for electricity.
The basic control device is therefore a timeclock.
The auxiliary immersion heater should not be able to operate
at the same time as the heat pump is supplying heat to the
domestic hot water cylinder.
A tank immersion thermostat rather than a strap-on one
should be used to sense the stored water temperature as
it is more accurate.

Room sensor control – A room temperature sensor located

centrally in the house can be used in conjunction with an outside
air temperature sensor to influence the curve control function.

Fixed temperature – The heat pump is switched on and off by an

in-built return temperature sensor and always operates up to its
maximum working temperature.This method of control does not
offer optimum savings from the heat pump.

Usually a single room temperature sensor is used

to control the operation of the heat pump compressor.
In addition the operation of the heat pump can be controlled by
a timeclock, however, for water based distribution systems there
will not be the same potential for intermittent heating as there
can be with conventional gas or oil fired heating systems.
With output temperatures between 35°C and 55°C the
response time of the heating system is long and GSHP systems
are therefore designed to maintain a stable temperature rather
than to be able to raise the temperature quickly immediately
before occupation. Night setback is also unlikely to be
appropriate.The main function of the timeclock is likely to be
to try and maximise the use of any cheaper electricity tariffs.

14
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

7 Costs
Capital costs
Table 2 provides an indication of the range of costs for GSHP The picture shows a typical drilling rig used for a vertical borehole
systems using different types of ground heat exchangers. It is based GSHP installation
assumed that all the systems are ground to water but the cost
of the heat distribution system is not included. Single or multiple
pipe horizontal systems generally will be slightly more expensive
than SLINKY systems because the cost of additional trenching
will outweigh the reduction in the material cost for the piping.
DX systems are also likely to be cheaper than the equivalent
output indirect system as they require less ground coil.
The actual costs for the ground heat exchanger will depend
not only on the installed capacity of the heat pump but also
the energy demands of the building and the ground conditions.

For all types of ground collector, setting up costs (design,

equipment mobilisation and commissioning) are a significant part
of the total cost therefore the capital cost measured in £/m of
borehole or £/m of trench will fall as the collector size increases.
For example, for a group of 5 houses on a single site, the
collector costs per house are likely to be between 10% and 15%
lower than for an individual house.

System Ground coil Heat pump Total system

type costs (£/kW) costs (£/kW) costs (£/kW)

Horizontal 250 - 350 350 - 650 600 - 1000

Vertical 450 - 600 350 - 650 800 - 1250

indirect
*costs include installation and commissioning but exclude the distribution system

Table 2: Indicative capital costs* for ground-to-water heat pump systems A typical drilling rig © GeoScience 2002

Running costs
The running costs for a GSHP system are largely dependent on
the associated fuel costs. The fuel used for the heat pump is
electricity and usual tariff rates normally apply although some
suppliers offer a special heat pump tariff. Maximum advantage
should be taken of any preferential tariffs (off-peak, Economy 7
etc) in order to keep annual costs as low as possible. One way to
compare fuel costs with alternative heating systems is to use a
method similar to that used to calculate relative carbon dioxide
emissions in Section 1 and shown in Figure 2. The delivered price
for the alternative fuels is converted into the effective cost of
'useful' heat by the application of the fuel specific seasonal
efficiency factor. For instance fossil fuels are burnt in boilers with
a wide range of seasonal efficiencies, none of them over 100%.

15
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

The best gas condensing boiler has a seasonal efficiency of 10

approximately 85% compared with an efficiency of about 73% for LPG(bottled)

Cost (p/Useful kWh thermal)

9
a conventional boiler. Heat pump systems, however, can operate Oil
at seasonal efficiencies greater than 100% and an efficient GSHP 8
Gas
will operate with a seasonal efficiency of at least 300%. Figure 6 7 GSHP(E7)
shows the domestic fuel cost per useful kWh of heat provided
versus fuel utilisation efficiency.This graph can be useful at the 6 GSHP(HP)
early decision making stage. 5 Elec. (Std)

Maintenance costs for GSHPs are minimal.There is no 4

requirement for an annual safety inspection as there is for 3
combustion equipment.There are few moving parts.
The circulation pumps are likely to have the shortest lifetime 2
and are unlikely to be guaranteed for more than one year. 1
The system should be designed for easy replacement of the
0
circulating pumps.The compressor is likely to have a life of up
to 15 years (25 years for scroll compressors) and be guaranteed 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
for up to 3 years. Fuel Utilisation Efficiency (%)
The refrigerant circuit will be presealed and information about Figure 6: Domestic fuel costs* versus fuel utilisation efficiency
any requirements for maintenance concerning the refrigerant * Fuel prices taken from SAP 2001 (Table 12 and Appendix F)
circuit and who should carry this out should be provided. Standing charges are not included
The ground loop is expected to have a very long life (over thirty GSHP(E7) is a 7-hour off-peak tariff, GSHP(HP) is a special heat pump tariff
years for a copper ground coil providing the ground is non acidic Copies of SAP 2001 are available from 01923 664258
and over 50 years for polyethylene pipe) and be virtually
maintenance-free.

16
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

Further guidance Websites

Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing Publications UK Heat Pump Network
These publications can be obtained free of charge by telephoning www.heatpumpnet.org.uk
the Helpline on: 0845 120 7799 or by visiting the website at:
www.est/org.uk/bestpractice Heat Pump Association
www.feta.co.uk
GIR 72: Heat pumps in the UK – a monitoring report, 2000
UK trade association representing the interests
of organisations involved in the chain of supply
of heat pumps
Action Energy (formally The Energy Efficiency Best
Practice Programme) IEA Heat Pump Centre
GIR 67: Heat pumps in the UK – Current status and activities www.heatpumpcentre.org
IEA is the information centre for the International Energy Agency
GIR 70: Heat pumps in the UK – Heat pump and heat Heat Pump Programme
pump-related R&D in UK universities

GSHPs – A Technology Review. R H D Rawlings,Technical Note European Heat Pump Association

TN 18/99, BSRIA, 1999 www.ehpa.org

The Essentials – An introduction to heat pumps. International GSHP Association

Future Energy Solutions www.igshpa.okstate.edu
AEA Technology Plc A centre for technical information and training in the US
Harwell Business Centre
Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0QJ Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium
www.ghpc.org
UK heat pump equipment and services suppliers directory
A US organisation for the promotion of GSHPs, includes a large
(Heat Pump Association or online from the UK Heat Pump
number of case studies
Network website)

Closed-loop ground-coupled heat pumps. Informative Fact Sheet Canadian Earth Energy Association
2, IEA Heat Pump Centre, Sittard, 2002 www.earthenergy.ca

Designing heat pump systems: Users’ experience with software,

The CADDET international energy efficiency information service
guides and handbooks, Report Number HPC-AR12, IEA Heat
www.caddet-ee.org
Pump Centre, Sittard 2002.
Case studies on heat pumps

Groundswell
Relevant standards www.earthenergy.co.uk/eegrswel.html
ISO 13256-1:Water-source heat pumps – Testing and rating for A newsletter with brief details of activities relating to GSHPs in
performance – Part 1 Water-to-air and brine-to-air heat pumps. the UK, especially installations
1998

ISO 13256-2:Water-source heat pumps – Testing and rating for

performance – Part 2 Water-to-water and brine-to-water heat
pumps. 1998

BS EN 255: Air conditioners, liquid chilling packages and heat

pumps with electrically driven compressors – heating mode
(4 parts), BSI 1997

BS EN 814: Air conditioners and heat pumps with electrically

driven compressors – cooling mode (3 parts), BSI 1997

BS EN 378: Specification for refrigerating systems and heat

pumps – Safety and environmental requirements (4 parts),
BSI 2000

17
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps
Do’s and don’ts
Concept Stage
Do
• Prioritise the reasons for considering a GSHP system (you can
then rank the principal benefits which can be quantified during
the design process).These could include:
Costs
– capital costs
– running costs (fuel)
– maintenance/servicing/inspection costs
– lifetime costs
Primary energy use
Environmental impact – CO2 emissions
• Check the suitability of the local soil and geology for an
effective ground loop heat exchanger.
• Check site access for equipment to install a ground heat
exchanger eg digger/drilling rig.
• Contact the electricity distribution network operator (DNO)
to find out the maximum load that can be connected to the
electricity network.
Don’t
• Expect initial capital costs to be lower than that for a
conventional boiler.
Design Stage
Do
• Recognise that a GSHP system needs to be sized not just to
meet the peak thermal power requirements but also to deliver
the annual energy requirements sustainably. Output is limited
to the amount of renewable energy that the GSHP system can
collect from the surrounding ground.
• Calculate building heat losses accurately (the accurate
assessment of infiltration rate is particularly important).
• Assess monthly/annual useful energy requirements based on
actual anticipated occupancy and use.
• Consider providing domestic hot water (DHW) (determine
usage, loads and system type).
• Consider the need for space cooling (if any) and quantify.
• Decide on the need for supplementary heating/cooling (if any)
and quantify.
• Consider the lowest temperature possible heat distribution
system (the lower the heat pump output temperature the
more efficient the operation of the GSHP system will be).
18
• Take care over the design of the ground heat exchanger ie
pipe length, diameter, configuration etc.Wrong ground heat
exchanger pipe lengths and diameters are costly errors.
• Ensure that the ground heat exchanger and the heat pump
are designed to operate
efficiently together.
Don’t
• Guess or use rules of thumb for heat loss calculations.
• Assume there will be sufficient space for a horizontal ground
heat exchanger without calculating the length required.
Equipment selection
Do
• Correctly size equipment (do not add a ‘safety margin’).
• Ensure that the ground heat exchanger circulating pump is
suitable for use with the circulating fluid (for example
water/antifreeze) and for the operating temperatures (for
example suitable for chilled water applications).
• Take care using antifreeze for the ground heat exchanger (for
example the viscosity of propylene glycol increases significantly
at low temperatures).
• Use high density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe for vertical ground
heat exchangers and high or medium density polyethylene pipe
for horizontal ground heat exchangers. Joints should be
thermally fused.
Don’t
• Buy a collection of unmatched components from various
suppliers and expect them
to work efficiently.
Installation
Do
• Discuss the implications of the GSHP system with the main
building contractor so it can be included in site operations
planning. Burying the ground heat exchanger is likely to be a
novel activity.
• Use a reputable installation contractor (ask for and take up
references, ask where the operatives were trained and how
many installations they have done).
• Ensure that the ground heat exchanger is adequately pressure
tested both before and after
it is inserted in the ground.
• Choose high thermal conductivity grout for vertical borehole
systems.
 Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps

• Ensure that the ground heat exchanger is adequately protected

from damage after installation and that its location is clearly
marked.
• Use flexible connections for pipework connected to the heat
pump to reduce noise transmission.
• Ensure internal ground heat exchanger pipework, fittings and
pump are insulated (to chilled water specification) to limit the
risk of condensation.
• Ensure the system is fully documented (including a detailed
plan showing the location of the ground heat exchanger, details
of the circulating fluid, pressure tests, warranties etc).
• Use a commissioning engineer accredited by the heat pump
manufacturer.

Don’t
• Use mechanical couplings on buried pipework.

Operation

Do
• Follow start-up instructions supplied with the heat pump.
• Improve efficiency by keeping the heat pump output
temperature as low as possible (consistent with maintaining
comfort).
• Read the electricity meter and record consumption at regular
intervals. Once a pattern of normal use has been established
any unexpected increases in consumption can provide warning
of a potential problem.

19
 Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing
Good
Practice
Guide Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps:
339 Design and installation of closed-loop systems

International GSHP Association

Useful contacts FETA
The Federation of Environmental Trade Oklahoma State University
British Standards Institution Associations 499 Cordell South
389 Chiswick High Road, London W4 4AL. Henley Road, Medmenham, Marlow Stillwater, OK 74078-8010
Tel: 020 8996 9000, web: www.bsi.global.com Bucks SL7 2ER, United Kingdom Toll-Free: 1-800-626-4747
Tel: +44 (0)1491 578674 Tel: (405) 744-5175 Fax: (405) 744-5283
British Standards (BSI) Fax: +44 (0)1491 575024
To order BSI standards telephone E-mail: info@feta.co.uk UK environment agencies
020 8996 9001. England and Wales
GHPC Environment Agency
CADDET Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium, Inc Tel: 0845 933 3111
Mr David Batt-Rawden 701 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Future Energy Solutions, AEA Technology Plc Washington, DC 20004-2696 Scotland
156 Harwell, Didcot, Oxfordshire Tel: 202-508-5500 Scottish Environment Protection Agency
OX11 0QJ Fax: 202-508-5222 Tel: 01786 457700
United Kingdom E-mail: info@ghpc.org
Tel: +44 (0)1235 433198 Northern Ireland
Fax: +44 (0)1235 432919 IEA Heat Pump Centre DOE, Environment and Heritage Service
E-mail: david.batt-rawden@aeat.co.uk Novem BV Tel: 028 9025 4845
PO Box 17, 6130 AA Sittard,
EHPA The Netherlands UK Heat Pump Network Secretariat
Fachinformationszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH Tel: +31-46-4202236 NIFES House, Sinderland Road
Dr.-Ing. Axel Lehmann Fax: +31-46-4510389 Altrincham WA14 5HQ
Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 E-mail: hpc@heatpumpcentre.org Tel: +44 (0)161 928 5791
D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany Fax: +44 (0)161 926 8718
Tel: +49-7247-808.355 E-mail: secretariat@heatpumpnet.org.uk
Fax: +49-7247-808.134
E-mail: axel.lehmann@fiz-karlsruhe.de

This publication (including any drawings forming part of it) is intended for general guidance
only and not as a substitute for the application of professional expertise. Anyone using this
publication (including any drawings forming part of it) must make their own assessment of
the suitability of its content (whether for their own purposes or those of any client or
customer), and the Energy Saving Trust cannot accept responsibility for any loss, damage or
other liability resulting from such use.

Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing

Helpline: 0845 120 7799
Fax: 0845 120 7789
Email: bestpractice@est.co.uk
Web: www.est.org.uk/bestpractice
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© March 2004. Energy Saving Trust. E&OE. CE82.
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