Aluminium in Commercial Vehicles

ALUMINIUM
IN COMMERCIAL
VEHICLES
1
EUROPEAN ALUMINIUM ASSOCIATION
2
FOREWORD
Aluminium in Commercial Vehicles has been compiled by the European Aluminium Association in
answer to the needs of manufacturers and users of commercial vehicles and accessories. It is a com-
pendium of basic information on such aspects of aluminium as:
• The reasons for using it
• The main rolled, extruded and cast alloys available to manufacturers; their properties, mechanical
characteristics etc.
• The design and calculation of structures, fatigue and collision behaviour
• The joining of semi-finished products: fabrication, welding and other joining techniques
• The corrosion resistance of aluminium alloys under service conditions
• Surface treatment
• Cleaning and repair
This guide will be of particular interest to design and process engineers, to repair and maintenance man-
agers and more generally to anyone with an interest in the applications and development of aluminium
in road transport.
Given the obvious limitations of a single volume, it has not been possible to deal with all aspects in
detail. We have opted to present what we regard as the most up-to-date concepts and have indicated
the most relevant standards which the reader can refer to for further information.
The information in this publication is general in nature and is not intended for direct application
to specific technical or scientific projects. The European Aluminium Association cannot be held
liable for any damage, costs or expenses resulting from the use of the information in this
publication. For additional information please contact your aluminium supplier to be able to
discuss details directly with the relevant experts.
3
CONTENTS
I. FOREWORD ...................................3
II. ALUMINIUM IN TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1. One century of aluminium in transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2. Evolution of commercial vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3. Aluminium applications and weight savings . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4. Today’s concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
III. WHY USING ALUMINIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1. Short pay-back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2. Aluminium performance properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3. Environmental and social Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4. On the road… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
IV. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS .......... 29

1. Aluminium ...................................... 30
2. Aluminium chassis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3. Aluminium tippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4. Aluminium tankers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
V. ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
FOR COMMERCIAL VEHICLES .............. 39
1. Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2. International product designation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3. Basic temper designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4. Subdivisions of H temper designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5. Subdivision of T temper designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6. Typical alloys for commercial vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7. Influence of temperature on mechanical properties . . . . 50
8. Influence of fabrication on the properties of the alloys . 52
9. List of standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
VI. DESIGN AND CALCULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

1. Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2. Possibilities with aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3. Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4. Aluminium versus Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5. Limit state design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6. Serviceability limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7. Ultimate limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8. Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9. Special design issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
10. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4
VII. FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1. Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2. Fabrication of products from plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3. Fabrication of products from extrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4. Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5. Tapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6. Deep Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7. Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
VIII. WELDING ................................... 107

1. Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2. TIG welding (Tungsten Inert Gas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3. MIG welding (Metal Inert Gas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4. Plasma MIG welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5. Laser welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6. Laser MIG welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7. Resistance welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8. FSW - Friction Stir Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
9. Surface preparation before welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
10. Quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
11. Design and prevention of deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
IX. OTHER JOINING TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

1. Adhesive bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2. Screwing and bold fastening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3. Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4. Snap-Lock & Clipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
X. DECORATION AND FINISHING ............ 137

1. Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2. Possibilities with aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3. Mechanical finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4. Chemical decoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
XI. CORROSION RESISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

1. Definition of corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2. Corrosion of aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
XII. CLEANING OF ALUMINIUM

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
1. Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2. The nature of stains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3. The choise of detergent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4. Application of the detergent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
XIII. REPAIR OF ALUMINIUM

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES ................... 157
1. Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2. Execution of repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3. Repair of aluminium chassis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4. MIG and TIG weld repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Acknowledgments and photo credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
5
6
CHAPTER II
A L U M I N I U M I N T R A N S P O RT
1. ONE CENTURY OF ALUMINIUM IN TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2. EVOLUTION OF COMMERCIAL VEHICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3. ALUMINIUM APPLICATIONS AND WEIGHT SAVINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4. TODAY’S CONCERNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7
1. One century of aluminium in transport
Airbus A380
In 1903, the Wright brothers is fundamental to the aviation It was in the 1920s that alu-
made aviation history when they industry. It accounts for more minium shipping applications
achieved the world’s first flight than 60% of the structural started to expand due to new
powered by a lightweight weight of the Airbus A380, and alloys becoming available for
engine made with aluminium up to 80% of short- and mid- marine applications.
components. Today, aluminium range aircrafts.
8
ALUMINIUM IN COMMERCIAL VEHICLES CHAPTER II ALUMINIUM IN TRANSPORT 8 | 9
Cruise ship with aluminium superstructure

Today, 1000 high-speed passen-
ger ships are in service, most of
them have a structure and
superstructure made of alu-
minium. Cruise ship superstruc-
tures are commonly made of
aluminium, while over half of all
yachts are completely made out
of aluminium.
These ships take full advantage
of aluminium’s lightness and
strength, as well as its corrosion-
resistance, an indispensable prop-
erty for marine environments.
Catamaran UAI 50 (Babcock)
9
TGV Duplex (Alstom-SNCF)
In the 1980s, aluminium speed trains. In 1996, the TGV thanks to its aluminium struc-
emerged as the metal of choice Duplex train was introduced, ture. Today, aluminium metros
to lower running costs and to transporting 40% more passen- and trams operate in many cities
improve acceleration of metros, gers while weighing 12% less and aluminium trains are used
tramways, intercity and high than the single deck version, all all over the world.
10
In 1899, a small sports car with The average volume of alu-

an aluminium body was unveiled minium used in passenger cars
at the Berlin international car was already 131kg in 2005.
exhibition. In 1948, Land Rover
started using aluminium outer The same year, one car in every
skin sheets. four produced in Europe had an
aluminium bonnet and around
Today, besides well-known alu- one third of European cars were
minium-intensive cars like the already equipped with alu-
Audi A8, many cars contain sig- minium bumper systems.
Aluminium bonnet nificant amounts of aluminium.
Aluminium bumper system prepared for crash test
11
2. Evolution of commercial vehicles
Having made its debut in Parisian minium tankers, vans and tipping charging bodies and a multitude
buses in 1910, aluminium was vehicles. Today, most tankers and of components. Considering
used for a variety of elements in silo semi-trailers are made entirely today’s European fleet, aluminium
commercial vehicles in the 1930s. of aluminium. It is also frequently saves on average 800kg per artic-
The 1950s saw the first alu- used for vans, tipping or self-dis- ulated vehicle.
TODAY
1976
1950
1930
First aluminium parts
1910 in Parisian buses
12
3. Aluminium applications 4. Today’s

and weight savings concerns
Some examples… The key concern of transport
companies is profitability.
The rising diesel price and the

investment in new engine tech-
nologies increase costs, while it
is hard to increase transport
prices due to the high competi-
tion between operators.
Any investment must therefore

have a very short payback time.
Consequently, vehicle manufac-

turers must constantly improve
G Components for tractors G Safety parts their performance at minimum
& rigid trucks - front bumpers : -15kg costs. The choice of a material
- cabin & door: -200kg - rear bumpers : -15kg will therefore depend on its
- chassis: -350kg - side bumpers : -20kg price, its mechanical properties
- powertrain parts: -125kg - front and rear under-run
and its impact on vehicle pro-
- suspension parts: -110kg protections
duction costs.
G Complete superstructures G Trailers sub-structures
- rigid body: 90m2 = -800kg - chassis: 13.5m = -700kg From a society point of view,
- tipping body: -800 to -2200kg - chassis: 6m = -300kg energy efficiency, reduction of
- ADR fuel tank: 43000l = -1100kg - chassis+floor: 13,5m = -1100kg greenhouse gases and road
- self-discharging body - legs: -35kg
safety are in the priority list of
- silo
G Accessories European authorities.
G Components - air pressure vessels:
for superstructure 6x60l = -54kg Chapter III explains how alu-
- curtain rails: 2x13.5m = -100kg - diesel tank: 600l = -35kg minium helps to take up these
- front wall: -85kg - toolbox: -15kg
challenges.
- rear door: -85kg - tail lift: -150kg
- side boards: 600mm = -240kg - wheels: 14 rims = -300kg
- stanchions: 10x600mm = -50kg
- reefer floor
13
14
CHAPTER III
WHY USING ALUMINIUM
1. SHORT PAY-BACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1. Increased payload + Higher residual value = Additional incomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2. Fuel saving + long life + reduced maintenance = Cost savings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3. Make your own calculation on www.alutransport.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4. Coping with road tolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5. Reduced risk of work accident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2. ALUMINIUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1. High strength-to-weight and high stiffness-to-weight ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2. Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3. Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4. Diversity & functionality of semi-finished products, castings and forgings . . . . . 20
2.5. Easy to work with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL BENEFITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1. Aluminium reduces CO2 emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2. Aluminium as a complement to EURO IV & EURO V engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3. Aluminium improves road safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4. Aluminium is easily and economically recycled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4. ON THE ROAD… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.1. Looking good forever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2. Aluminium is easy to repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
15
1. Short pay-back
1.1. Increased payload + Higher residual value = Additional incomes
Aluminium reduces dead vehicle Furthermore, used aluminium due to the fact that aluminium is
weight. When transporting high- vehicles have a lot of success on easily recycled, without losing
density freight, which usually sat- the second, and even third hand any of its quality and saving 95%
urates the maximum gross vehi- market, where they are usually of the primary energy input.
cle weight, aluminium allows the sold for a very good price. Finally,
loading of more goods. This when they have reached the end
translates into additional income of their long service life they still
and/or better competitiveness. have a high scrap value. This is
1.2. Fuel saving + long life + reduced maintenance = Cost savings
A study conducted by the IFEU1 Aluminium’s well-known corro-

in cooperation with the TU-Graz2 sion resistance is an obvious
concluded that 1 ton saved on advantage in road transport: It
the total weight of an articulated contributes to a long service life,
truck leads to a fuel saving of 0.6 especially in vehicles which work
litres /100 km. in conditions that can cause seri-
ous corrosion problems. No
This saving occurs during trips painting or other surface protec-
made below the maximum gross tion is required and it is easy to
vehicle weight, i.e. when trans- clean. Maintenance is therefore
porting low-density goods, for kept to a minimum.
partly loaded or empty trips.
1.3. Make your own calculation on www.alutransport.org
Make your own payback calcula- and have a look at the example
tion on www.alutransport.org beside.
1. Institut für Energie und Umwelt Forschung, Heidelberg, Germany

2. Technical University of Graz, Austria
16
ALUMINIUM IN COMMERCIAL VEHICLES CHAPTER III WHY USING ALUMINIUM 16 | 17
Road toll station
1.5. Reduced risk of work

accident
1.4. Coping with road tolls In countries where road toll is Mobile parts that are manipu-
limited to the heaviest vehicle lated at each delivery, like drop-
According to the “user pays” category, “mini-semi-trailers” are side walls or rear doors, are
principle, an increasing number built using a substantial amount lighter to move when made out
of countries are introducing road of aluminium allowing the oper- of aluminium. This saves a lot of
tolls that increase cost per kilo- ator to keep a good payload effort for the drivers.
metre. On the other hand, while not exceeding the weight
increasing payload with alu- limit where a toll is applicable. Using extrusions with rounded
minium allows spreading this edges or folded sheets with round
extra cost over a bigger tonnage corners for the floors of box vans
of goods. reduces the risk of injuries.
Mini-trailer (Tang Fahrzeugbau GmbH)
17
2. Aluminium performance properties
2.1. High strength-to-weight and high stiffness-to-weight ratios
Aluminium alloys used in com- No weight saving can be obtained To illustrate the upper and the
mercial vehicles have strength- with aluminium if the design is lower limits of aluminium light-
to-weight and stiffness-to- simply copied from steel. weighting, let’s analyze two
weight ratios comparable with extreme equivalence philoso-
the most advanced metals like Designs optimised for aluminium phies “equal strength” and
high strength steel and titanium. are based on specific sections (20 “equal stiffness” to traditional
to 40% higher beams), smooth chassis beam.
These properties, among many transitions and clever joints,
others, are taken into account which normally give 40-60%
when designing a vehicle. weight saving over competing
metals, as explained below.
Comparison of weight-optimised designs made with 3 different metals and 2 design criteria
DEFINITION
Standard High strength Aluminium
steel steel alloy
Yield strength (MPa) 350 760 250
E-Modulus (MPa) 210000 210000 70000
Density (kg/m3) 7800 7800 2700
EQUAL STRENGTH EQUAL STIFFNESS

Standard High strength Aluminium Standard High strength Aluminium
steel steel alloy steel steel alloy
Strength 1 = 1 = 1 Strength 1 < 2.17 > 1.54
Stiffness 1 > 0.30 < 0.56 Stiffness 1 = 1 = 1
Weight 1 > 0.71 > 0.42 Weight 1 = 1 > 0.55
Section height 1 > 0.65 < 1.18 Section height 1 = 1 < 1.40
Unfair comparison!
18
Unpainted aluminium patrol boat

(All American Marine)
At equal strength:
• The aluminium beam is the
lightest, but has a lower stiffness
than the standard steel beam.
• The high-strength steel beam
ranks second for lightness, but its
stiffness is also the lowest!
• The aluminium solution is
about 60% lighter than the stan-
dard steel one (0.42 vs. 1) and still
40% lighter than the high
strength steel one (0.42 vs. 0.71).
At equal stiffness:
• The aluminium beam is the (1.54 vs. 1) and a much higher 2.2. Durability
lightest, with 45% weight saved stiffness (1 vs. 0.30). Some operators still fear prob-
(0.55 vs 1). lems with aluminium trailer chas-
• The high strength steel beam Last but not least, we should sis in heavy duty applications,
weighs the same as the standard underline that further weight but they should know that the
steel beam, because, based on optimisation is possible with alu- lifespan is not material related if
the same parent metal, both minium because: properly designed.
materials have identical elastic • The above comparison is
properties (E-modulus). based on a standard beam Experienced manufacturers opti-
• Compared to the standard steel design, the so-called “double T” mize their design for the material
beam, the aluminium one is • Finite element modelling they use and are able to produce
about 50% stronger, and the high allows a more precise definition aluminium chassis offering an
strength steel one about 120%. of most favorable section’s equivalent or longer lifespan but
geometry; at a much lower weight than
Comparing an aluminium beam • These sections, even if very conventional models.
designed for equal stiffness to a complex, can easily be produced
standard steel beam and a high with the aluminium extrusion It is also important to underline
strength metal beam designed for process. that aluminium vehicles often
equal strength to that standard • For parts where strength is the operate in transport segments
steel beam, only shows small leading criteria, high-strength where the load factors are the
weight saving for aluminium aluminium alloys can also be highest (solid and liquid bulk,
(0.55 vs. 0.71) but that compari- used and provide further weight public works etc…). In other
son is unfair, as the latter will savings words, they are much more
have a much higher strength intensively used than conven-
19
tional ones, and this fact is taken

into account in the design of alu-
minium vehicles.
Correctly used, aluminium alloys

have been developed to offer
optimum corrosion resistance in
all environments. Just one exam-
ple: the widespread use of
unpainted aluminium in marine
applications.
2.3. Stability
Achieving IRTE3 Class A4 tipping

stability standard for an alu-
minium tipper chassis is no prob-
lem. Aluminium, according to
tests carried out in the summer
of 2002 has no issues with flex-
ing and easily provides the equiv-
alent rigidity of steel.
Tipping stability test (STAS)
Indeed, a full-aluminium vehicle,
significantly lighter than others,
passed the IRTE Class A test at 44 2.4. Diversity & functionality of semi-finished products,
tonnes with its standard chassis, castings and forgings
reminding everyone that an
appropriate design leads to both Vehicle designers and manufac- • Extruded semis: hollow or solid
lightness and torsional stiffness. turers have a wide range of alu- shapes, standard or customized
minium alloy semi-finished prod- • Castings and forgings
ucts from which to choose:
3. Institute of Road Transport Engineers, • Rolled semis: sheets, tread
UK. plates (floor plates), pre-painted
4. “Class A” standard states that a
sheets
trailer should be able to tilt sideways 7°
without falling with a fully loaded and
raised body.
20
Various aluminium products
This diversity of semi-finished 2.5. Easy to work with

products makes it possible to: Aluminium alloys used in the
• Design structural elements manufacture of commercial vehi-
with special functions such as cles and their accessories are
shapes with grooves for screw easy to process. They lend them-
heads, hydraulic circuits, inertia selves to a variety of shaping and
shapes, snap-locks, welding joining techniques that will be
flanges etc. reviewed in chapters 7, 8 & 9.
• Save on time and cost for
assembly and finishing. This can In a nutshell, aluminium can
compensate for the added raw easily be
material cost of structures made • cut: sawing, shearing, water jet,
from aluminium alloys compared laser or plasma cutting
with equivalent steel structures. • machined: milling, drilling
• Reduce stress due to welding • bent
by placing castings at assembly • joined: welding, adhesive bond-
intersections or using special ing, bolting and riveting
extrusions to divert welding
stresses into less stressed areas of Furthermore, being light, alu-
a fabricated structure. minium is easy to handle in the
• Design complex cast or forged workshop.
shapes.
21
3. Environmental and social Benefits
3.1. Aluminium reduces CO2 emissions 3.2. Aluminium as

a complement to EURO IV
To achieve emission reductions, it ton saved on an urban bus saves & EURO V engines
is not only important to develop between 1,700-1,900 liters of
low-emission engines, but also to diesel fuel per 100,000 km.
use them in the most rational The European Environment
way possible. Saving weight with Taking primary production, use Directives for trucks date back to
aluminium is a good way of stage and end-of-life recycling 1988, while the first standard
achieving this objective as into account, life-cycle savings limiting emissions of nitrogen
explained below. have been estimated as follows: oxides (NOx) and particulates
(PM) from heavy-duty diesel
Aluminium contributes to the • 1kg of aluminium in today’s engines were introduced at the
reduction of CO2 emissions from average articulated truck saves beginning of the 1990’s.
road transport as follows: 28kg of CO2
• 1kg of aluminium in an urban The EURO IV and EURO V stan-
• When carrying heavy goods, it bus typically saves 40-45kg of CO2 dards represent a dramatic reduc-
increases the load capacity of tion of NOx and PM emissions.
vehicles and therefore improves However, they also impose new
transport performance, allowing combustion processes and
more goods to be carried per exhaust after-treatment techni-
trip. In this case, one ton saved ques representing an additional
on the dead weight of an articu- weight-penalty up to 300kg.
lated truck saves 1,500 liters of
diesel fuel over 100,000 km. Using more aluminium compo-
• When carrying voluminous nents allows the manufacturer to
goods, it reduces the overall compensate for this weight
weight, lowering fuel consump- penalty. The payload can there-
tion per kilometer. In this case, fore be preserved and even
one ton saved on the dead increased.
weight of an articulated truck
saves 600 liters of diesel fuel over
100,000 km.
• When carrying passengers, it
reduces the overall weight and
lowers fuel consumption. One
22
Truck with crash-module
3.3. Aluminium improves road safety
In the context of its Road Safety crash energy per unit of weight Last but not least, extra safety
Action Programme, the European than traditional systems. As a features always mean additional
Commission is looking into the rule of thumb, the light-weight- weight, which can be balanced
introduction of crash energy ing potential exceeds 40%. by replacing heavy materials by
absorption criteria for trucks. The aluminium.
aluminium industry has already For this reason, aluminium is very
developed several solutions for well suited for front, rear and
the automotive and railway sec- side bumpers.
tors and would be ready to take Aluminium elements can also be
up this challenge for trucks. used to improve the energy
absorbing potential of front and
Regarding metal deformation rear end under-run protection
that energy-absorbing elements devices, and may also be used to
undergo upon impact, alu- build soft deformable truck
minium systems make it possible noses.
to absorb significantly more
23
Aluminium tipper on scrap yard (Galloo recycling)
3.4. Aluminium is easily and economically recycled
Unlike traditional vehicles that the motivation to sell to a scrap required to produce primary alu-
are exported to end their life a merchant is very high and land- minium is not lost: it is “stored in
long way from Europe, alu- filling is avoided. the metal”.
minium-intensive trailers gener-
ally spend their entire life in our Recycled aluminium does not
continent, where they are even- loose any of its quality and saves
5. “The fate of aluminium from end-of-
tually dismantled5. Due to the 95% of the primary production life commercial vehicles”, Université de
high value of aluminium scrap, energy input. The energy Technologie de Troyes
24
8 years old aluminium tipping body

re-used on a new truck
4. On the road…
4.1. Looking good forever ward matter to produce vans Aluminium is used to produce
with rounded body corners both the lightest, the strongest and
The modern commercial vehicle inside and out. the most beautiful wheels.
cannot escape the pressures of
industrial design. Operators want With tippers and self-discharging Last but not least, no corrosion
their vehicles to look good with bodies, this makes for a smooth will appear after impact on alu-
clean, pleasing lines, something unloading and easier cleaning. In minium parts, therefore preserv-
which aluminium alloy semis are addition, using double wall alu- ing the image of the company.
ideal for producing. minium extruded boards allows
the preservation of a perfect
For example, using functional exterior surface over the time.
extrusions and plain or pre- Image conscious operators appre-
painted aluminium sheet that is ciate this type of construction very
easy to shape, it is a straightfor- much.
25
Double wall extruded boards for tippers
4.2. Aluminium is easy

to repair
Few people know that Land
Rovers have had aluminium clo-
sure panels since 1948, and in
the last 50 years, nobody has
ever complained about repair
problems. This illustrates the fact
that repair is possible, but alu-
minium repair techniques are
definitely different from those of
steel. Leading chassis manufac-
turers have set up a European
dealer network where an effi-
cient repair service is offered.
Forged aluminium wheel
26
Repair
of an aluminium tipper
(Benalu)
27
28
CHAPTER IV
F R E Q U E N T LY
ASKED QUESTIONS
1. ALUMINIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.1. What are the advantages of an aluminium vehicles? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.2. Is there an additional cost for an aluminium vehicle? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.3. What are the main benefits for the environment? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.4. Is it necessary to paint an aluminium vehicle? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.5. Is it possible to repair an aluminium vehicle? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.6. Does aluminium burn ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2. ALUMINIUM CHASSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1. How is an aluminium chassis designed and what are the weight savings achievable? . 32
2.2. Are there different aluminium chassis designs? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3. Is the life of an aluminium chassis shorter than a steel chassis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4. How does aluminium compete with high strength steel? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3. ALUMINIUM TIPPERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1. Are there different aluminium tipping body designs? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2. What about the wear resistance of aluminium tipping bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3. What type of chassis is needed for an aluminium tipper body? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4. What about tipping stability? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4. ALUMINIUM TANKERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.1. How should a tank for the transport of dangerous goods (ADR) be designed? . 37
4.2. Which alloys are suitable for ADR tanks? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
29
1. Aluminium
Aluminium bodied truck
1.1. What are the advantages of an aluminium vehicles?
Truck fleet operators benefit from smaller fleets with less higher payload, the longer life
from a better performance of staff, lower fuel bills and lower and the higher residual value of
their fleet. road toll costs. the equipment these companies
There is a significant payload can generate more profit by
increase which makes the fleet Trailer rental companies can offer using state-of-the-art equipment.
much more profitable. Another operators semi-trailers with a bet-
fact is cost savings that result ter performance. Due to the
1.2. Is there an additional cost for an aluminium vehicle?
Yes, aluminium vehicles are slightly ference in detail, we can see that, is paid back after less than two
more expensive than equivalent when heavy goods are trans- years. Make your own calculations
steel designs. If we analyse the dif- ported, the additional investment on www.alutransport.org.
1.3. What are the main benefits for the environment?
Aluminium contributes to the • When carrying voluminous Taking primary production, use
reduction of CO2 emissions from goods, it reduces the overall stage and end-of-life recycling
road transport as follows: weight, lowering fuel consump- into account, life-cycle savings
• When carrying heavy goods, tion per kilometre. In this case, have been estimated1 that 1kg
it increases the load capacity of one ton saved on the dead of aluminium in today’s aver-
vehicles and therefore improves weight of an articulated truck age articulated truck saves
transport performance, allowing saves 600 litres of diesel fuel 28kg of CO2.
more goods to be carried per over 100,000 km.
trip. In this case, one ton saved
on the dead weight of an artic-
ulated truck saves 1,500 litres of
diesel fuel over 100,000 km.
1. CO2 reduction potential of aluminium

for articulated trucks, EAA (European
Aluminium Association), 2005
30
ALUMINIUM IN COMMERCIAL VEHICLES CHAPTER IV FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS 30 | 31
Repair of an aluminium tipper (Stas)
1.4. Is it necessary to paint an aluminium vehicle?
No, it is not. Aluminium with its ance. If an operator chooses to motivation to do so lies in hav-
natural «alumina» layer has an pay extra money (and weight ing a fleet with a particular
excellent protection perform- too!) for the paint finish, the branding.
1.5. Is it possible to repair an aluminium vehicle?
It is often said that aluminium 50 years nobody has ever com- Please refer to the Chapter XIV
vehicles cannot be repaired, plained about repair problems. for detailed information.
however this is totally wrong. This illustrates the fact that
Few people know that Land repair is possible as for any Leading chassis manufacturers
Rover cars have had an alu- other materials, but aluminium have set up a European dealer
minium body since the end of repair techniques are definitely network where an efficient
world war two, and in the last different from those of steel. repair service is offered.
1.6. Does aluminium burn?
NO, aluminium and its alloys and do not contribute to the Aluminium alloys will however
are, under atmospheric condi- spread of fire. melt at around 650°C, but with-
tions, totally non-combustible out releasing harmful gases.
31
2. Aluminium chassis
2.1. How is an aluminium chassis designed and what are the weight savings
achievable?
Leading European trailer manu- sections (20 to 40% higher tional model. If this would be
facturers are using strength, beams), smooth transitions and the sole criteria, the weight sav-
stiffness and durability criteria. clever joints, which normally ing obtained with aluminium
give 40-60% weight saving over would be maximized (up to
No weight saving can be competing metals (see Chapter 60%) and high strength steel
obtained with aluminium if III), as explained below. solutions would provide about
design is simply copied from half the weight saving achiev-
steel. Designs optimised for alu- 1) A good light-weight trailer able with aluminium (about
minium are based on specific has to be as strong as a tradi- 30%).
Chassis for aluminium tipper (Benalu)
32
Chassis for aluminium tipper (Leciñena)

2) A minimum stiffness is gener-
ally required.
• If this stiffness has to be equal
with standard steel models,
weight savings obtained with
aluminium will be around 45%
with a superior strength, but
high strength steel cannot
achieve any weight saving.
• If the minimum stiffness
required is lower than the one of
standard steel models, weight
savings obtained with aluminium
will be somewhere between
45% & 60% and weight savings
obtained with high strength 2.2. Are there different aluminium chassis designs?
steel somewhere between zero
and half of what can be Each manufacturer has its own seems to be a must, deflection is
achieved with aluminium. design, which to a high degree the main criteria, and this gener-
depends on the working condi- ally leads to longer lifetime than
3) Vehicles durability must be tions the vehicle is made for and conventional models, coupled
insured. As aluminium vehicles on the specific manufacturing with an attractive weight saving.
are much more intensively used experiences of the chassis pro-
than conventional ones, their ducer (e.g. some prefer fully In other countries, equal lifetime
resistance to fatigue must be welded constructions whereas with steel models will be the
higher. This result is obtained others prefer mixed welded and main criteria. A good design will
with a proper design. Among of bolted constructions). It is also lead to, at least, an equivalent
a lot of others, higher sections, important to underline that alu- lifetime, stiffness within require-
smooth transitions and clever minium vehicles are much more ments (even though it may be
joints are keys to success. intensively used than conven- slightly lower than steel mod-
tional ones, and this fact is els), but the weight saving will
taken into account in the design be maximized.
of vehicles. Apart from that,
there are two dominating In any case, they will usually be
design philosophies in the chas- stronger than classic models,
sis world. and the risk for starting yield
In countries like Italy, where failure from static overload will
equal stiffness with steel models be lower for aluminium chassis.
33
Bolted aluminium chassis for tipper

(Menci)
2.3. Is the life of an aluminium chassis shorter than a steel chassis?
The lifespan of a chassis is a design used in transport segments tanks, tippers), nevertheless well
issue and not a material issue. where the load factors are the designed vehicles can easily
Aluminium chassis are mostly highest (solid & liquid bulk exceed 20 years of service life.
2.4. How does aluminium compete with high strength steel?
We should make a distinction What is seldom communicated ness, the only solution is to
between pure aluminium and is that all alloys based on the change the material e.g. switch-
aluminium alloys. same parent metal have nearly ing from steel to aluminium (see
Pure aluminium is never used in the same elastic properties. Chapter III).
commercial vehicles. A wide
variety of aluminium alloys do This means that if someone is
exist, including high strength looking for a lightweight alter-
solutions. native to a standard chassis
while keeping the same stiff-
34
3. Aluminium tippers
3.1. Are there different aluminium tipping body designs?
Yes, there are a lot of tipper productivity for manufacturers, more details, please have a look
variants and all of them can be as well as increased payload, at Chapter VI.
built using dedicated aluminium low running costs and a great
semi-products that offer high fleet image to operators. For
3.2. What about the wear resistance of aluminium tipping bodies
The wear condition can vary Typical bottom plate material is: Typical values for bottom plate
extremely from one load to • 5083 H32, H321, H34 thickness are listed below:
another. Therefore it is not • 5086 H24 • 6 mm for light-duty opera-
always possible to link the actual • 5383 H34 tions like agricultural products,
hardness of an alloy to the wear • 5454 H22, H24 coal or sand transport
resistance. It was found out that • 5456 H34 • 8 mm for medium-duty serv-
for a very large extent, the type or other, mill-specific alloy types. ice like recycling products
of load is a decisive factor. • 10 mm for heavy-duty trans-
port like gravel
The choice of material for the • Up to 12 mm in extreme cases
construction of tipping trailers is
nowadays often a question of Please refer to Chapter VI for
specific experiences, material more details.
availability and manufacturer’s
specific production methods.
35
IRTE tipping stability test (STAS)
3.3. What type of chassis is needed for an aluminium tipper body?
Some operators still fear prob- related. Indeed, strength, like the same performance but at a
lems with aluminium trailer stiffness and lifetime, are only much lower weight than con-
chassis in heavy-duty applica- design criteria. Experienced ventional steel models.
tions, but they should know manufacturers are able to pro-
that strength is not material duce aluminium chassis offering
3.4. What about tipping stability?
It is often said that achieving ing summer 2002 confirmed to both lightness and torsional
the IRTE2 Class A3 tipping sta- that both statements were stiffness.
bility standard for an alu- totally wrong.
minium tipper chassis would
be difficult simply because "it Indeed, a full-aluminium vehicle, 2. British Institute of Road Transport
flexes too much" or that, to significantly lighter than others, Engineers (IRTE)
provide the equivalent rigidity passed the IRTE Class A test at 3. IRTE's "Class A" stability standard
for tipping on uneven ground states
of a steel chassis "the lightness 44 tonnes with its standard
that a trailer should be able to tilt side-
benefit would be practically chassis reminding everybody ways 7° without falling with a fully
eliminated", but tests run dur- that an appropriate design leads loaded and raised body.
36
4. Aluminium tankers
4.1. How should a tank for the transport of dangerous 4.2. Which alloys are
goods (ADR) be designed? suitable for ADR tanks?
Tanks for the transport of dan- pressure not exceeding 0.5 bar - Suitable aluminium alloys for
gerous goods have to be built Design and construction” that application are listed in
according to the rules defined in • EN 14025 “Tanks for the standard EN 14286 “Aluminium
the following agreement and transport of dangerous goods - and aluminium alloys - weldable
standards: Metallic pressure tanks - Design rolled products for tanks for the
• ADR: Agreement for the and construction” storage and transportation of
transport of Dangerous goods dangerous goods” as well as in
by Road4 More details are given in chapter V.
• EN 13094 “Tanks for the Chapter VI. Aluminium suppliers are listed in
transport of dangerous goods - the “links” section of the web-
Metallic tanks with a working site www.alutransport.org .
4. See ADR, Annex A, Part 6, Chapter 6.8:

http://www.unece.org/trans/danger/danger.htm
Aluminium road tanker (Schrader)
37
38
CHAPTER V
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
FOR COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
1. FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2. INTERNATIONAL PRODUCT DESIGNATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3. BASIC TEMPER DESIGNATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4. SUBDIVISIONS OF H TEMPER DESIGNATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5. SUBDIVISION OF T TEMPER DESIGNATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6. TYPICAL ALLOYS FOR COMMERCIAL VEHICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.1. Flat rolled products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.2. Extruded products (forged products) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3. Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.4. Selection guide for the different alloys (indicative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7. INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.1. Elevated temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.2. Low and very low temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8. INFLUENCE OF FABRICATION ON THE PROPERTIES OF THE ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.1. Work hardening of non-heat treatable alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.2. Softening by annealing and recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.3. Heat treatable alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.4. Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
9. LIST OF STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
39
1. Foreword
Aluminium in its pure form is a ties can be varied in a great over the world. Company spe-
very soft metal and hence not range making it possible to have cific trade names are often com-
suited for structural applica- suitable alloys for literally all plemented by the standardized
tions. Thanks to the addition of applications. designation.
alloying elements such as cop-
per, manganese, magnesium, As the Aluminium Industry is a All relevant standards are listed
zinc etc… and thanks to ade- global industry there is the enor- at the end of this chapter.
quate production processes, the mous chance, that the product
physical and mechanical proper- designation is uniform almost all
Aluminium rolling mill
40
ALUMINIUM IN COMMERCIAL VEHICLES CHAPTER V ALUMINIUM ALLOYS FOR COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 40 | 41
2. International product designation
In order to identify the various A list of all registered cast alloys case of pure aluminium the last
alloys, 4-digit numbers have can be found in EN 1706. two digits of the 4-digit number
been standardized for wrought A selection of alloys for use in indicate the percentage of purity
alloys (see EN573-1) and 5-digit commercial vehicles will be pre- above 99.0%. E.g. 1070 means
numbers for cast alloys. sented in section 6. aluminium with at least 99.70%
A list of all registered wrought The first digit of the alloy number of aluminium or, in other words
alloys and their chemical composi- indicates the dominant alloying less than 0.30% impurities.
tion can be found in EN 573-3 for element; the remaining digits are
Europe and in the so-called “Teal just numbers for identification
sheets1” at international level. purposes (Table V.1). Just in the
TABLE V.1
CATEGORIES OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Dominant alloying element wrought alloy cast alloy
None (“pure aluminium”) 1xxx
Copper 2xxx 2xxx
Manganese 3xxx
Silicon 4xxx 4xxxx
Magnesium 5xxx 5xxxx
Magnesium and Silicon 6xxx
Zinc and Magnesium (with or without copper) 7xxx 7xxxx
Other elements (e.g. Iron or Lithium) 8xxx
From these eight categories are cates that it is an experimental aluminium plant and on the trans-
three families so called “non heat alloy, or followed by a letter A formation process of the semi-
treatable“, or “work hardening” which says that this is a national finished to the finished product.
alloys (1xxx, 3xxx, 5xxx) and four variation of the basic alloy. These processes are characterized
“heat treatable alloys” (2xxx, with the so called “temper desig-
4xxx, 6xxx, 7xxx). The 8xxx family The physical and mechanical nation” which attends the alloy
cannot be attributed to one or properties of these alloys not only number. When alloy number and
the other group. depend on their chemical compo- temper designation are indicated,
The alloy number can be pre- sition but also to a great extent on the metal is clearly identified and
ceded by a letter X which indi- the manufacturing process in the its properties defined.
1. The latest edition of the Teal Sheets is available for free download from the EAA website
http://www.eaa.net/en/about-aluminium/standards/international-registration/
41
3. Basic temper designations
• F - as fabricated: this condi- work-hardening or by hot rolling • T - heat treated: heat treat-
tion designates products made by at temperatures above the ment can combine some or all of
plastic deformation without any recrystallisation temperature. the following operations: solu-
particular control of the rates of • H - strain-hardened and pos- tion treatment, quenching, age
hardening or softening by defor- sibly partially softened: this hardening, artificial ageing and
mation or any heat treatment. relates to strain-hardened prod- possible plastic deformation.
• O - fully annealed: this con- ucts with or without subsequent For more details, please refer to
dition is the most ductile and is holding at a temperature high EN 515.
obtained by the process of anneal- enough to induce partial soften-
ing without any subsequent ing of the metal.
4. Subdivisions of H temper designations
The first digit after H indicates hardened and whose mechanical approximately midway between
the specific combination of basic properties are stabilized either by that of the O temper and that of
operations: a low temperature heat treat- the HX8 tempers.
• H1X: work-hardened only. ment or as a result of heat intro- • HX2 designates tempers
These designations identify prod- duced during fabrication. whose ultimate tensile strength
ucts that are work-hardened For more details, please refer to is approximately midway between
to obtain the desired strength EN 515. that of the O temper and that of
without supplementary heat The second digit following the the HX4 tempers.
treatment. letter H indicates the final degree • HX6 designates tempers
• H2X: work-hardened and par- of strain hardening, as identified whose ultimate tensile strength is
tially annealed. These designa- by the minimum value of the ulti- approximately midway between
tions apply to products which are mate tensile strength. that of the HX4 tempers and that
work-hardened more than the • 8 has been assigned to the hard- of the HX8 tempers
desired final amount and then est temper normally produced. • HX1, HX3, HX5, HX7 designate
reduced in strength to the • Tempers between O (annealed) tempers intermediate between
desired level by partial annealing. and HX8 are designated by those defined above. Note: These
• H3X: work-hardened and sta- numerals 1 to 7. temper designations are not
bilized. These designations apply • HX4 designates tempers included in EN 515. Mechanical
to products which are work- whose ultimate tensile strength is properties of these tempers shall
42
Extrusion press
be agreed between the manufac- • H112 applies to products that Products are strain hardened at
turer and the customer. may acquire some strain-hardening the last operation to specified
The third digit, when used, indi- from working at an elevated tensile property limits and meet
cates a variation of a two-digit temperature or from a limited specified levels of corrosion
temper. amount of cold work, and for resistance in accelerated type
• HX11 applies to products that which there are no upper corrosion tests. Corrosion tests
incur sufficient strain-hardening after mechanical property limits. include inter-granular and exfoli-
the final annealing such that they fail • H116 applies to products, ation. This temper is suitable for
to qualify as annealed but not so made of those alloys of the 5XXX continuous service at tempera-
consistent an amount of strain-hard- group in which the magnesium tures not higher than 65°C.
ening that they qualify as HX1. content is 3% nominal or more.
5. Subdivision of T temper designations
The first digit following the let- to a substantially stable condition • T7: Solution heat-treated and
ter T is used to identify the spe- • T3: Solution heat-treated cold- over-aged/stabilized
cific sequences of basic treat- worked, and naturally aged to a • T8: Solution heat-treated, cold
ments. Numerals 1 to 10 have substantially stable condition worked and then artificially aged
been assigned as follows: • T4: Solution heat-treated and • T9: Solution heat-treated, artifi-
• T1: Cooled from an elevated naturally aged to a substantially cially aged and then cold-worked
temperature shaping process and stable condition • T10: Cooled from an elevated
naturally aged to a substantially • T5: Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process,
stable condition temperature shaping process and cold-worked, and then artificially
• T2: Cooled from an elevated then artificially aged aged.
temperature shaping process, • T6: Solution heat-treated and For more details, please refer to
cold-worked, and naturally aged then artificially aged EN 515.
43
6. Typical alloys for commercial vehicles
Out of the vast variety of known • availability of semi-finished In the following tables the most
alloys as listed in EN 573-3 and products widely used alloys for the appli-
in the Teal Sheets, just a few are • mechanical properties cation in commercial vehicles
of importance for the manufac- • physical properties are presented.
ture of commercial vehicles. • suitability for fabrication
Selection criteria are: • weldability
• corrosion resistance
Aluminium coils
44
Aluminium rolling slabs
6.1. Flat rolled products TABLE V.2

REFERENCE STANDARDS FOR MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
WROUGHT ALLOYS – FLAT ROLLED PRODUCTS
In commercial vehicles, the most
commonly used alloys are 3003, Alloy Standards2
5005, 5059, 5083, 5086, 5088, 3003 EN 485-2
5182, 5186, 5383, 5454, 5456, 5005 EN 485-2
5754, 6061 and 6082. 5059 EN 485-2 and EN14286
5083 EN 485-2 and EN14286
The mechanical properties of 5086 EN 485-2 and EN14286
these alloys can be found in the 5088 EN 485-2 and EN14286
standards listed in Table V.2 and 5182 EN 485-2 and EN14286
Table V.3 gives indications on 5186 EN14286
engineering suitability. 5383 EN 485-2 and EN14286
5454 EN 485-2 and EN14286
5754 EN 485-2 and EN14286
6061 EN 485-2
6082 EN 485-2
2. See standards denominations at the end of this chapter section 9.
45
TABLE V.3
ENGINEERING SUITABILITY FOR ROAD TRANSPORT APPLICATIONS –
FLAT ROLLED PRODUCTS
Alloy Temper Shaping Welding Anodizing Corrosion resistance

3003 H14,H24,H16 B A A A
5005 H14,H24 B A A A
5059 O, H111 B A A A
5083 O,H111 A A A A
H116,H22,H24, H34 C A A A
5086 O,H111 A A A A
H116,H22,H24 C A A A
5088 O, H111 A A A A
5182 O, H111 A A A A
5186 O, H111 A A A A
5383 H22, H32 B A A A
5454 O,H111 A A A A
H22,H24 B A A A
5456 H34 C A A A
5754 O,H111 A A A A
H22,H24 B A A A
6061 T4 C A A A
T6 D A A A
6082 T4 C A A A
T6 D A A A
A = very good; B = good; C = fair; D = poor, to be avoided
46
Aluminium extrusion billets
TABLE V.4
6.2. Extruded products
ENGINEERING SUITABILITY – EXTRUDED & FORGED PRODUCTS
(forged products)
Alloy Temper Welding Anodizing Corrosion resistance
In commercial vehicles, the most 6060 all A A A
commonly used alloys are 6060, 6005A all A A A
6005A, 6008, 6106, 6082, 6008 all A A A
6061 and 7020. 6106 all A A A
6082 all A A A
The mechanical properties of 6061 all A A A
these alloys can be found in 7020 T6 A A C
standard EN 755-2 and Table V.4 7003 T6/T7 A A B
gives indications on their engi- 7108 T6/T7 A A B
neering suitability.
47
Semi-trailer chassis beam

made out of two extruded flanges
and a sheet as web
Extruded rail for sliding curtain
6.3. Castings
In commercial vehicles, the
most commonly used alloys are
21100, 42000, 42100, 43000,
44000.
Their chemical composition and
mechanical properties can be
found in standard EN 1706 and
Table V.5 reflects their casting
characteristics.
TABLE V.5
CASTING CHARACTERISTICS
Alloy Fluidity Resistance to Pressure Machinability Corrosion
hot tearing tightness resistance
21100 C D D A D
42000 B A B B B/C
42100 B A B B B
43000 A A B B B
44000 A A A C B
48
6.4. Selection guide for the different alloys (indicative)
Alloy, temper Curtainsider body

Van body
3003*, 5005*, 5052*
6005 T6, 6005A T6, 6063A T6
6060 T6, 6063 T6
*coated sheets
Alloy, temper
Tipper with ribbed sides Tipper or self-discharging
6005 T6, 6005A T6, 6005A T5
6005 T6 body with smooth sides
6060 T5/T6
6063 T6
6005AT6
5083 H111, 5754 H111
5083 H34/H32/H321 • 5086 H24

5383 H34 • 5454 H22/H24 in case of self-discharging floor
5456 H34
Tank for liquid bulk Alloy (O/H111 for all) Silo for solid bulk
5083, 5086, 5383, 5454, 5754
5182, 5186, 5059, 5088
do not allow weight optimization of ADR tanks
Chassis beam: Alloy, temper

Chassis beam:
two profiles 6005A T5/T6, 6082 T6 one single profile
one plate
5083 H111/H34
5086 H111/H24
5456 H34
OTHER APPLICATIONS
Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6061, 6082 Bumper beams, crash boxes

Diesel fuel tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5052, 5754 & roll over protections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7003, 7108
Tail lifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6005A Suspension parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21100
Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6082, 5086, 5754 Structural components-Hinges-Supports . .42000, 42100
Framing for buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6060, 6005A Complex shapes with medium strength . . . . . . . .43000
Sides & roofs for buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3003, 5005 Very complex shapes
Crash modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6008 without structural function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44000
Beside these well known alloys eration with the supplier of the offer best performance for the
it is possible to define, in coop- semis, tailor made products that foreseen purpose.
49
7. Influence of temperature
on mechanical properties
Aluminium alloys change their TABLE V.6

mechanical and corrosion resist- CHANGE IN MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF 5086 O AFTER
ance properties when subjected HOLDING AT TEMPERATURE FOR 10,000 HOURS
to temperatures other than Temperature Mechanical properties (*)
ambient temperature. Tables V.6 C° Rm (MPa) Rp 0,2 (MPa) A%
& V.7 show the interrelationship -196 390 140 34
between service temperature -80 280 120 26
and mechanical properties. In -28 270 120 24
Figure V.1 this is shown for one +20 270 120 22
alloy graphically. +100 270 120 26
+150 210 110 35
+200 155 105 45
TABLE V.7
CHANGE IN MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF 6082 T6 AFTER
HOLDING AT TEMPERATURE FOR 10,000 HOURS
Temperature Mechanical properties (*)
C° Rm (MPa) Rp 0,2 (MPa) A%
-196 380 330 16
-80 330 295 13
-28 330 285 12
+20 320 285 12
+100 300 265 15
+150 240 220 18
+200 130 105 28
(*) Mean values. These properties are measured at test temperature.
50
7.1. Elevated When subjected to even higher The loss in mechanical proper-
temperature temperatures, then the loss in ties at temperatures above
mechanical properties is moder- 100°C is very pronounced for
The loss in strength at higher ate for non-heat treatable alloys non heat treatable alloys in the
than ambient temperatures is in the O/H111 temper and for H12, H16 temper as well as for
negligible for temperatures up heat treatable alloys in the heat treatable alloys in the
to 100°C (short time exposure) T1/T4 temper. T5/T6 temper.
or 80°C (long time exposure).
7.2. Low and very low

temperatures
FIGURE V.1
Contrarily to most other engi- CHANGE OF MECHANICAL CHARACTERITICS
neering metals, the mechanical AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE FOR
properties improve at low tem- ALLOY 5086 O
peratures and especially the

elongation, which makes alu-
MPa
®
minium an ideal metal for severe

500 50
winter conditions and even
cryogenic applications (see
400 40
Figure V.1)
Rm - Rp 0,2
A%
Further examples can be found in 300 Rm 30
standard EN 12392 “Aluminium A%

and aluminium alloys - Wrought 200 20
products - Special requirements Rp 0,2

for products intended for the pro- 100 10
duction of pressure equipment”.
0
-196 ° + 20 ° + 200 °
Temperature °C
51
8. Influence of fabrication
on the properties of the alloys
8.1. Work hardening of 8.2. Softening recrystallization and annealing.

non-heat treatable alloys by annealing and recovery This growth is revealed during
subsequent working, e.g. fold-
Hardening is achieved by cold It is possible to restore the ductil- ing, by the rough “orange peel”
deformation, known as work ity of the work hardened metal by effect on the surface of the
hardening, that improves the heat treatment known as metal. Grain growth above
physical properties and the hard- “annealing” (partial or full around 100 microns reduces the
ness of the metal. It also reduces annealing). In this process, which deformation capacity of work
the metal’s capacity for deforma- takes place at temperatures hardening aluminium alloys.
tion and its ductility (Figure V.2). between 150°C and 350°C, the The following conditions are
The greater the deformation or hardness and mechanical charac- essential if a fine-grained annealed
higher the work hardening rate, teristics of the metal slowly begin structure is to be achieved:
the more pronounced is the to decrease: this is the recovery • The metal must have under-
effect. It is also governed by the phase [A-B] (Figure V.3). At lower gone a sufficient rate of defor-
composition of the material. annealing temperatures this leads mation corresponding to a rela-
The 5083 alloy, for example, to medium-strength material
which contains between 4 and properties. They then fall away FIGURE V.2
4.9% of magnesium, acquires a more rapidly at high temperatures WORK HARDENING CURVE OF ALLOY 5083
great hardness but its capacity above 280 °C during recrystal-
for deformation is less than that lization [B-C] and eventually MPa A%
®
of the 5754 alloy which contains attain a minimum value that cor- 500
between 2.6 and 3.6% Mg. responds to the mechanical char-
Work hardening is a general phe- acteristics of the fully annealed Rm
400 30
nomenon that takes place what- metal [C-D].
Rp 0,2
ever the method of deformation Restoration and annealing are
used: rolling, deep drawing, fold- accompanied by a change in the 300 20
ing, hammering, bending, press- texture and size of the grains of
ing, etc. This means that it will metal observed under a micro-
200 10
also occur during fabrication in scope with X50 magnification.
A
the workshop. The texture can change from a
fibrous structure to a fully recrys- 100 ®
tallized structure (Figure V.3). Temper 0 H12 H14 H16 H18

Work hardening % 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
The grain can grow in size during T-t
Ta
52
FIGURE V.3
tive reduction in section of at
HARDNESS CURVE DURING ANNEALING
least 15%. This is “critical work
hardening”. If this condition is Micrographic views
not met, then heat treatment
must be restricted to restoration
without recrystallization,
• A rapid temperature gradient
of 20 to 60°C per hour,
• Temperatures over 350 to A Recovery
Hardness
B
380°C must be avoided,
• Holding times must be limited
to 2 hours maximum. Recrystallization
C D
Annealing
For 5000 series alloys, annealing is
usually performed between 320°C O Time
and 380°C for 30 to 120 minutes.
Note: Non-heat treatable alloys in

the annealed temper (O, H111)
TABLE V.8 (typical)
can only be brought to higher
6000 SERIES ARTIFICIAL AGEING
strength by work hardening.
Alloy Initial temper Artificial ageing Final Temper*
6060 T1 - T4 6 h at 185°C T5 - T6
8.3. Heat treatable alloys or 8 h at 175°C
If some plastic deformation must 6005 T1 - T4 8 h at 175°C T5 - T6
be done on products of heat 6106 T1 - T4 8 h at 175°C T5 - T6
treatable alloys, it should be car- 6061 T4 8 h at 175°C T6
ried out in the T4 temper; first the 6082 T1 - T4 16 h at 165°C
allowable degree of deformation or 10 h at 170°C T5 - T6
is bigger than for the T6 temper or 8 h at 175°C
and second there is almost no
effect of work hardening. If for * T5, for an initial temper of T1, T6 for an initial temper of T4.
the final product e.g. a bent

extrusion in a 6XXX alloy T6 tem-
per is needed, age hardening can
be carried out. Table V.8 gives an
indication how to proceed, using
typically a hot air furnace.
53
Flywheelhouse casting
for truck engine (Brabant Alucast)
8.4. Castings
Casting is the shortest path

from molten metal to the fin-
ished product. It is recom-
mended for geometrically-com-
plex parts. It is advantageous to
involve the foundry from the
conceptual phase into the
design process. The expert of
the foundry, knowing the plants
equipment, the process of mak-
ing the mould, the flow of metal because of the wearing of the • For the same reason, isolated
into the mould, the cooling and cutting tools due to the high sil- bosses should be avoided and
shrinking of the cast piece etc. icon content of the alloys. walls must be correctly sized to
can be of great help during the The corrosion resistance of cast assist running,
design phase. When the design pieces with the as-cast surface is • There should be a fillet at
of a casting is optimized in view better than for machined sur- every inside corner to avoid
of its production it is in most faces of the same piece due to cracking during the casting
cases possible for the foundry to the much thicker oxide layer. operation (this is particularly
guarantee much better mechan- important for 21100 alloys),
ical properties than those listed Design of casting parts • The filling design should be
in standard EN 1706, especially Generally speaking it is essential somewhat asymmetrical to
with respect to elongation. to be aware of production pos- ensure controlled solidification
sibilities and limitations from the and uniform feed,
The Table V.5 (see section 6.3) initial development stage of a • The number of intersections
merits some explanation. new component, not just in and undercuts should be kept to
The alloy 21100 needs very terms of the choice of alloy and a minimum as they complicate
careful design of the pieces with casting technique but also in tooling and the casting opera-
respect to the casting process terms of design. There are a tion and hence increase the
and, in addition to that, the number of basic rules which cost. This applies equally to
metal treatment in the foundry, designers should follow: deburring operations,
especially the degassing of the • Sections should be kept uni- • The choice of dimensional
molten metal, must be carried form and thickness transitions tolerances must allow for the
out very carefully in order to should be smooth, avoiding a casting technique and any sub-
minimize micro-porosity. build-up of metal at intersections sequent heat treatment defor-
The index B or C in the column so as to reduce the risk of shrink- mation can occur during solu-
“Machinability” has been put age porosity during cooling, tion treatment and quenching.
54
9. List of standards
• EN 485 Aluminium and aluminium alloys – Sheet, strip and plate

Part 1: Technical conditions for inspection and delivery
Part 2: Mechanical properties
Part 3: Tolerances on dimensions for hot rolled products
Part 4: Tolerances on dimensions for cold rolled products
• EN 515 Aluminium and aluminium alloys – Wrought products – Temper designations
• EN 573 Aluminium and aluminium alloys – Chemical composition and form of wrought products
Part 1: Numerical designation system
Part 2: Chemical based designation system
Part 3: Chemical composition
Part 4: Forms of products
• EN 755 Aluminium and aluminium alloys – Extruded rod/bar, tube and profiles
Part 1: Technical conditions for inspection and delivery
Part 2: Mechanical properties
Part 3: Round bars, tolerances on dimensions and form
Part 4: Square bars, tolerances on dimensions and form
• EN 1706 Aluminium and aluminium alloys – Castings – Chemical composition and mechanical properties
• EN 12392 Aluminium and aluminium alloys – Wrought products – Special requirements for products
intended for the production of pressure equipment
• EN 14286 Aluminium and aluminium alloys – Weldable rolled products for the storage and transport
of dangerous goods
Registration record series Teal Sheets: International alloy designations and chemical composition limits
for wrought aluminium and wrought aluminium alloys available for free download from the EAA web-
site: http://www.eaa.net/en/about-aluminium/standards/international-registration/
55
56
CHAPTER VI
D E S I G N A N D C A L C U L AT I O N
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2. POSSIBILITIES WITH ALUMINIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3. SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4. ALUMINIUM VERSUS STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5. LIMIT STATE DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1. Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.2. What is the ultimate limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.3. What is the serviceability limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6. SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7. ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.1. Cross section classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.2. Load bearing resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.3. Welded connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.4. Bolted connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8. FATIGUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
8.1. Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.2. Practice: comparison between good and bad chassis solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9. SPECIAL DESIGN ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.1. Tanks for the transport of dangerous goods - ADR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2. Tippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
10. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
57
1. Introduction 2. Possibilities 3. Symbols

with aluminium
The new European design code Frequently used symbols are
for aluminium structures is used defined in this section:
as a basis for this chapter. The The advantages of designing fo characteristic value of 0.2 %
name of this standard is: with aluminium are: proof strength
EN 1999 Eurocode 9: Design of • High strength-to-weight ratio fu characteristic value of ulti-
aluminium structure • Possibilities to create your own mate tensile strength
cross-sections with the extrusion fub characteristic ultimate tensile
Part 1-1 General structural rules technique strength of bolt
Part 1-2 Structural fire design • Good corrosion resistance E modulus of elasticity
Part 1-3 Structures susceptible to • Long vehicle life d bolt diameter
fatigue • Easy to work with do hole diameter
Part 1-4 Cold-formed structural • Easy to repair t wall thickness
sheeting A cross section area
Part 1-5 Shell structures Especially for product design, the W section modulus
use of tailor-made profiles is a γM partial safety factor for resist-
Part 1-1 is used for all static great advantage for aluminium ance (see the definitions in sec-
design and Part 1-3 for all compared with other metals. In tion 5.2), in EN 1999-1-1:
fatigue design shown in this profile design the material can be
chapter. placed where the effect of the Subscript Ed
is used for factored
A new European standard for the material is optimal regarding load effects. It may be on axial
execution of structural alumini- resistance. Details can be made force (NEd), bending moment
um is under development and is in such a way that it will ease the (MEd), shear force (VEd), torsion
soon ready for publication. It is fabrication and assembling of (TEd) and forces in connection
recommended to use relevant the components. with bolted connections (Fv,Ed for
parts of this standard for execu- shear force and Ft,Ed for tension
tion of aluminium components force).
for use in commercial vehicles.
The name of this standard is:
EN 1090-3: Execution of steel
structures and aluminium struc-
tures – Part 3: Technical require-
ments for aluminium structures
58
ALUMINIUM IN COMMERCIAL VEHICULES CHAPTER VI DESIGN AND CALCULATION 58 | 59
4. Aluminium versus Steel
Both steel and aluminium are member will get twice the ther- steel structure and check after-
metals with relatively high mal elongation as a similar steel wards whether the deflection is
strength. Both materials are member with the same tempera- within the requirement.
incombustible and will not con- ture difference. Since the elastic When designing an aluminium
tribute to a fire. For structural modulus of aluminium is 1/3 of structure, it will often be the
purposes the main differences steel, the stresses in an aluminium deflection criterion that will be
are: member with fixation are 2/3 of governing. For that reason, the
Elasticity: The modulus of elas- that in a similar steel member. design procedure will start with
ticity (E-modulus) of aluminium is the deflection criterion and it will
1/3 of that of steel. This means Most of the structural aluminium be checked afterwards if the
that an aluminium beam with alloys have relatively high stress or the resistance of the
the same cross-section and the “strength-to-E modulus” ratio. structure is within the limits.
same loads as a steel beam will This effect is especially clear The deflection of members under
have a deflection 3 times that of when the aluminium alloy is bending load depends on the
the steel beam. strain-hardened or heat-treated. modulus of elasticity (E) and on
Weight: The density of alumini- Structural aluminium alloys have the moment of inertia (I) togeth-
um is 1/3 of that of steel. This roughly twice the “strength-to-E er with the load and the span.
means that a steel beam will modulus” ratio than standard steel. With the same span and load, it
weigh 3 times more than an alu- However, when compared with will be the product E x I that will
minium beam with the same high strength steels, structural determine the deflection.
cross-section. aluminium alloys have about the To get the same deflection of
Welding: When welding a hard- same “strength-to-E modulus” steel and aluminium beams in
ened aluminium alloy some of ratio. It should also be noted that bending, the moment of inertia
the hardening effects will be lost. the elastic modulus of an alloy of the aluminium beam must be
The strength in the heat affected mainly depends on its parent three times that of steel. If the
zone (HAZ) will be reduced. This metal. In other words, all alu- increase in the moment of inertia
reduction depends on the alloy, minium alloys have very similar E- is to be done only by increasing
temper, type of product and modulus, but this is also valid for the thickness of the web and
welding procedure. Ordinary steel alloys. Consequently, the so flanges, the aluminium beam will
steel has no strength reduction called “high strength steels” have the same weight as the
after welding. don’t have better elastic proper- steel beam.
Thermal elongation: The coef- ties than mild steel.
ficient of thermal elongation of Steel designers often use the
aluminium is twice that of steel. strength of the material as gov-
This means that an aluminium erning criteria when designing a
59
To save weight, the aluminium If the height of the aluminium An I 330 x 200 x 6 x 10 will have
beams in bending have to be alloy beam shall be 240 mm, this a moment of inertia of
higher. An example will illustrate will be satisfied by an I-beam of I = 117.3 · 106 mm4
this: I 240 x 240 x 12 x 18.3 and a mass = 15.8 kg/m
An aluminium beam shall have which has a moment of inertia which give a weight saving of 49%.
the same deflection as an IPE and the mass of These three different aluminium
240 steel beam. The moment of I = 116.6 · 106 mm4 beams will give the same deflection
inertia and the mass of the IPE mass = 30.3 kg/m as an IPE 240 steel beam. It will be
240-beam are If the height of the aluminium the shape and stability of the beam
I = 38.9 · 106 mm4. alloy beam can be 300 mm, the that will determine the weight of
mass = 30.7 kg/m. deflection criteria will be satisfied the beam. Table VI.1 shows the
The aluminium beam must have by an I 300 x 200 x 6 x 12.9 beams and the weight savings.
a moment of inertia of which has a moment of inertia of
I =116.7 · 106 mm4 I = 116.7 · 106 mm4
to get the same deflection. and a mass =18.4 kg/m
which is a weight saving of 40%.
TABLE VI.1
Steel Aluminium Aluminium Aluminium
®
®
t®
w®
h
®
®
®
®
b
Moment in inertia in mm4 38.9 106 116.6 106 116.7 106 117.3 106
2 12 12 12
E x I (N/mm ) 8.17 10 8.16 10 8.17 10 8.21 1012
h (mm) 240 240 300 330
b(mm) 120 240 200 200
w (mm) 6.2 12 6 6
t (mm) 9.8 18.3 12.9 10
Unit weight (kg/m) 30.7 30.3 18.4 15.8
Weight in %
of the steel beam 100 % 99 % 60 % 51 %
60
The stress in an aluminium struc- FIGURE VI.1

ture designed according to STRESS COMPARISON BETWEEN ALUMINIUM AND STEEL BEAMS
deflection criteria is very often
low. In the following example a
steel beam, IPE 240 is compared
σ (Mpa)
®
with an aluminium beam I 330 x

200 x 6 x 10 (both beams are S355
shown in the table VI.1). The
deflection criterion is 1/250 of
300
span (24 mm), the span is 6000
EN AW-6082 T6
mm and the load is 11.6 kN/m. In
the Figure VI.1. the stress-strain
curves for steel S355 and alu-
minium EN AW-6082 T6 is 200
shown. The stress and strain for
161
both the steel and aluminium
beam is also shown. With the
same deflection, the same load
100
and the same span, the steel
73
beam has a bending stress of
161 MPa while the aluminium
0,105
0,077
beam has a bending stress of 73 ε (%)

MPa. This is the maximum stress ®
when the deflection is 24 mm for 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7
both beams.
Additional comparison of weight-optimized beams are also given in

Chapter III, section 2.1
61
5. Limit state design
5.1. Philosophy methods that the new design all structural materials in civil
standards are based on. In engineering. For aluminium the
Limit state design and partial Europe the EN 19xx standards actual standards are:
safety factor method are the are the basis for this method for
EN 1990 Eurocode – Basis for structural design

EN 1991 Eurocode 1 – Actions on structures. All parts
EN 1999 Eurocode 9 – Design of aluminium structures
EN 1990 gives the partial safety EN 1991 gives the characteristic EN 1999 gives the design rules
factor on loads and rules for loads for structures and buildings for aluminium structures.
combination of loads to give the such as self weight, live loads,
different action effects. wind loads, snow loads, traffic
loads etc.
5.2. What is the ultimate the scattering of the strength ferent loads. The partial safety
limit state properties and the geometry of factor is different for the differ-
the cross section. For connec- ent types of loads, their certainty
The ultimate limit state is the tions the partial safety factor and how they are combined.
condition where the safety of the shall in addition take care of Dead loads (i.e. self weight of
structure is calculated. A struc- uncertainties in the welds and in structure) have a low partial safe-
ture shall not collapse and design the bolts and bolt configuration. ty factor while the live load (i.e.
in accordance with the ultimate The partial safety factor for the all forces that are variable during
limit state shall avoid structural load effects (γF) shall take care of operation, e.g. weight of goods,
failure. the scattering of the determina- road vibrations etc…) has a high-
The partial safety factor for the tion of the loads and the proba- er partial safety factor.
resistance (γM) shall take care of bility in the combination of dif-
62
The condition to be fulfilled is: Typical values for the load effect vehicles the following load fac-
factors in buildings and civil engi- tors may be used:
Rk
≥γ .E neering are 1.2 for dead loads Dead load: 1.1
γM F k
and 1.5 for live loads. For design Live load: 1.5
where: of components for commercial
Rk is the characteristic value of
the resistance; it may be axial
FIGURE VI.2
tension or compression, bending
moment, shear or a combined
resistance.
®
Frequency
Ek is the characteristic value of

the load effects; it may be axial
tension or compression, bending
moment, shear or a combined
load effect on a cross section or a
connection.
γM is the partial safety factor for
the resistance, also often called
material factor.
γF is the partial safety factor for
the load effects, also often called ®
Ek R Rk
load factor. Ek . γF < k
γM
This relation is shown in the
Figure VI.2.
Typical values for the partial safe-

ty factor for the resistance are
1.10 (gM1) for members and 1.25
(γM2 and γMw) for bolt and rivet 5.3. What is the serviceability limit state
connections and welded connec-
tions. These are the material fac- The serviceability limit state is In serviceability limit states both
tors for building and civil engi- the condition where the service- the partial safety factor for the
neering and may also be used in ability criteria have to be satis- resistance (gM) and the partial
all structural design because the fied. The most used serviceability safety factor for the load effects
material, the geometrical dimen- criteria are: (γF) are 1.0.
sions and the fabrication of con- • Deflection limits in all directions
nections are almost similar in all • Dynamic effects like vibrations
aluminium structures.
63
6. Serviceability limit state 7. Ultimate

limit state
All calculations in serviceability
limit state are elastic calculations. Where:
7.1. Cross section classes
Elastic deformations are calculat- σgr is maximum compressive
ed and compared with the limits stress in serviceability limit state Cross-sections are classified in 4
for deflections. The sizes of vibra- in the cross section, based on the classes. In Table VI.2 the differ-
tions have to be calculated in the gross cross-section properties ent classes identify how the
same manner. If the vibration has (positive in the formula) cross-section behaves during
a high number of cycles, the Igr is the moment of inertia for compression and bending. This
members and the connection the gross cross-section is directly linked to the resistance
details have to be checked for Ieff is the moment of inertia of the (load bearing capacity) of the
fatigue. effective cross-section in ultimate cross-section.
Normally the calculations of elas- limit state, with allowance for Thin parts of a cross-section may
tic deflections are based on the local buckling buckle at low stresses, and this
moment of inertia for the gross will reduce the resistance of the
cross-section of the member. For cross-section. This is taken care
members in cross-section class 4 of with the rules for cross-section
(see section 7.2.4 in EN 1999-1-1) classification.
it is necessary to reduce the
moment of inertia, if the stresses
of the compression part of the
cross section are higher than the
stresses when local buckling
occurs.
Moment of inertia for calculation
of deflections for cross section
class 4 members:
σgr
Iser = Igr - (Igr - Ieff)
fo
64
TABLE VI.2
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
Cross-sections that can Cross-section that can Cross-section where the Cross-section that will get
form a plastic hinge with develop their plastic calculated stress in the local buckling before
the rotation capacity moment resistance, but extreme fibre of the alu- attainment of proof stress
required for plastic analy- have limited rotation minium member can in one or more parts of
sis without reduction of capacity. reach its proof strength. the cross-section.
the resistance.
The resistance may be The resistance may be Annex F. The resistance The resistance is calculat-
calculated on the basis calculated on the basis is calculated on the ed on basis of an effec-
of plastic behaviour tak- of perfectly plastic basis of elastic design. tive cross-section. Rules
ing the material harden- behaviour for the mate- for calculating the effec-
ing effect into account. rial using the conven- tive cross-section are
Rules are given in EN tional elastic limit as the given in EN 1999-1-1,
1999-1-1. Annex F. limit value. Rules are 6.1.5
given in EN 1999-1-1.
EN 1999-1-1, 6.1.4 gives rules t = the corresponding thickness commercial vehicles will be opti-
how to classify any cross-section. η = a value depending on the mised regarding weight. Cross
A β value (i.e. width to thickness stress situation and if the part is section classes 1 and 2 will there-
ratio) is calculated as: an outstand or an internal cross- fore seldom be used. Elastic
section part design in cross section class 3 and
b
β=η. Limits are given for the β value 4 will be the normal situation.
t
for the different classes and for
where: welded or unwelded parts and
b = the width of a cross-section for outstand or internal parts.
part Most aluminium structures in
7.2. Load bearing resistance EN 1999-1-1 gives rules for cal- these rules are listed, and refer-
culating the load bearing resist- ences are given:
The load bearing resistance shall ances for different kinds of mem-
always be higher than the fac- bers exposed by different load
tored load effects. effects. In the Table VI.3, some of
65
TABLE VI.3
Situations Ref. EN 1999-1-1 Resistance
Tension 6.2.3 The smaller of:
A g . fo 0,9 . Anet . fu A .f
No,Rd = , Nu,Rd = or Nu,Rd = eff u
γM1 γM2 γM2
No,Rd is the design resistance to general yielding.
Nu,Rd is the design resistance to axial force of the net cross-section
at holes for fasteners or the effective cross-section at welds.
Ag is the gross cross-section.
Anet is the net area of cross-section.
Aeff is the effective area of cross-section taking the HAZ effects
into account.
Compression 6.2.4 The smaller of:
(with no Anet . fu A .f
Nu,Rd = , Nc,Rd = eff o
buckling) γM2 γM1
Nu,Rd is the design resistance to axial force of the net cross-section
at holes for fasteners.
Nc,Rd is the design resistance to axial force at each cross-section.
Anet is the net section area with deduction for holes and if required
the effects of HAZ softening at the cross section with holes.
Aeff is the effective section area based on the reduced thickness
allowing for the effect of local buckling.
Bending 6.2.5 Bending moment resistance in a net section:
moment Wnet . fu
Mu,Rd =
γM2
Bending moment resistance in each cross section:
α . Wel . fo
Mc,Rd =
γM1
6.2.5.2 Wnet is the elastic modulus of the net section allowing for holes
and HAZ softening.
Wel is the elastic modulus of the gross section.
6.2.5.1 α is the shape factor given in table 6.4 in EN 1999-1-1, 6.2.5.
Shear 6.2.6 The design value for shear resistance for non-slender sections:
AV . fo
VRd =
√ 3 . γM1
Av is the shear area.
6.7.4 6.7.5 For slender webs and stiffened webs the rules for capacity of plate
6.7.6 girder webs have to be used (plate buckling).
66

Torsion 6.2.7 The design St. Venants torsion moment resistance without warping:
WT,pl . fo
TRd =
√ 3 . γM1
WT,pl is the plastic torsion modulus
6.2.7.2 For torsion with warping the capacity is the sum of two internal
6.2.7.3 effects. For combined shear force and torsional moment the
capacity is given by a reduced shear capacity.
Bending and 6.2.8 The shear force will reduce the moment resistance. If the shear
shear force is less than half of the shear force resistance, the effect
of the moment resistance is so small that it can be neglected.
Bending and 6.2.9 Formulae are given for the combined effect of an axial tension
axial force and bending moments about one or two axis for:
6.2.9.1 • open cross-sections
6.2.9.2 • hollow sections and solid cross-sections
6.2.9.3 • members containing localized welds
Bending, shear 6.2.10 The shear force will reduce the combined axial tension and
and axial force moment resistance. If the shear force is less than half of the shear
force resistance, the effect of the combined axial tension and
moment resistance is so small that it can be neglected.
Web bearing 6.2.11 This is for design of webs subjected to localized forces caused
by concentrated loads or reactions applied to a beam.
Compression 6.3 Members subject to axial compression may fail in one of the
(buckling three ways listed below:
resistance) • flexural
• torsional or flexural torsional
• local squashing
The design buckling resistance of a compression member is:
κ . χ . Aeff . fo
Nb,Rd = γ M1
κ is a factor to allow for effect of the HAZ at welds

χ is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode
Aeff is the effective area of the cross section. (For cross section class
1, 2 and 3 this is the gross cross-section, for cross section class 4
it is reduced for local buckling effects)
67

Members 6.3.3 Members subject to bending and axial compression may fail in one of
in bending the two ways listed below:
and axial • flexural buckling
compression • lateral-torsional buckling
6.3.3.1 Combination formulas are given for members with axial
compression in combination with bending about one or two axis
and fail for flexural buckling. These formulas are given for:
• open double symmetric cross-section
• solid cross-section
• hollow cross-section and tube
• open mono-symmetrical cross-section
6.3.3.2 Combination formula for open cross-section symmetrical about
major axis, centrally symmetric or double symmetric cross-section
is given for lateral- torsional buckling.
Formulas are also given for calculation of the following effects:
6.3.3.3 • members containing localized welds
6.3.3.4 • members containing localized reduction of cross-section
6.3.3.5 • unequal end moments and/or transverse loads
Plate girders 6.7 A plate girder is a deep beam with a tension flange, a compression
flange and a web plate. The web is usually slender and may be
reinforced by transverse or/and longitudinal stiffeners.
Webs buckle in shear at relatively low applied loads, but considerably amount
of post-buckled strength can be mobilized due to tension field action.
Plate girders are sometimes designed with transverse web reinforcement
in form of corrugations or closely-spaced transverse stiffeners (extrusions).
Plate girders can be subjected to combinations of moment, shear
and axial loading, and to local loading on the flanges. Because
of their slender proportions they may be subjected to lateral
torsional buckling, unless properly supported along the length.
Failure (buckling) modes may be:
6.7.2 & 6.7.3 • web buckling by compressive stresses
6.7.4 & 6.8 • shear buckling
6.7.6 • interaction between shear force and bending moment
6.7.5 • buckling of web because of local loads on flanges
6.7.7 • flange-induced web buckling
6.1.5 • torsional buckling of flange (local buckling)
6.3.2 • lateral torsional buckling
68
7.3. Welded connections and the alloys being welded. 7.3.2. Butt weld
Values are given in Table 8.8 in
7.3.1. General EN 1999-1-1. Heavy loaded members should be
Single sided butt welds with no welded with full penetration butt
The rules given in EN 1999-1-1, backing is practically impossible welds. The effective thickness of
clause 8.6, apply to structures to weld in aluminium. If single a full penetration butt weld
welded by MIG or TIG and with sided butt welds cannot be should be taken as the thickness
weld quality in accordance with avoided, the effective seam of the thinnest connecting mem-
EN 1090-3. Certified welders are thickness can be taken as: ber. The effective length should
highly recommended. • the depth of the joint prepara- be taken as the total length if
Recommended welding consum- tion for J and U type run-on and run-off plates are
ables can be found in: • the depth of the joint preparation used. If not, the total length
• Chapter VIII, section 3.8 minus 3 mm or 25%, whichever is should be reduced by twice the
• EN 1999-1-1, section 3.3.4 the less for V or bevel type effective thickness. (Figure VI.3)
• EN 1011-4
In addition to the single sided FIGURE VI.3
When welding hardened alu- butt weld, a fillet weld may be
minium alloys, part of the hard- used to compensate for the low F, σ
ening effect will be destroyed. In penetration of the butt weld.
a welded connection it can be When designing a welded connec-
®
three different strengths: tion some few practical precautions

®
t
• the one of the parent (not should be taken into account.
® b ®
heat affected) material (fo) • Provide good access to the
• the one in the heat affected welding groove. The “welding
zone (fo,HAZ) head” of the equipment used for
• the one of the weld metal (fw) welding aluminium is rather F, σ
large, so there must be enough Butt weld subject to normal stresses
Normally it will be necessary to space around the weld.
check the stresses in the HAZ and • Good access is also needed for
in the welds. checking the weld. All welds
®
The strength in HAZ is depend- shall be 100 % visually examined

F, τ
®
ent on the alloy, the temper, the in addition to some non-destruc- t

type of product and the welding tive testing (NDT). b
®
® F, τ
procedure. Values are given in • Full penetration single sided
Table 3.2 in EN 1999-1-1. butt welds are impossible to
The strength in the weld (weld weld without any backing.
metal) is dependent on the filler If possible, position the welds in Butt weld subject to shear stresses
metal (welding consumables) areas where the stresses are low.
69
Design formulas for butt welds: FIGURE VI.4

Normal stress, tension or com-
t1
pression, perpendicular to weld ®
®
axis:
fw
σ⊥ ≤
γ Mw
®
g1
Shear stress:
fw
τ ≤ 0,6 .
®
γ Mw
®
®
®
t2
Combined normal and shear
a
a
apen ®
®
®
®
stress: ®
fw
√σ 2⊥ + 3 . τ2 ≤
γ Mw
FIGURE VI.5
EXAMPLE OF UNIFORM STRESS DISTRIBUTION
7.3.3. Fillet weld
A fillet weld is defined with the

throat thickness “a” given in mm.
The Figure VI.4 shows how to
measure the throat thickness.
The effective length should be τ τ
taken as the total length of the
weld if:
• the length of the weld is at
least 8 times the throat thickness FIGURE VI.6
• the length of the weld does EXAMPLE OF NON UNIFORM STRESS DISTRIBUTION
not exceed 100 times the throat
thickness with a non-uniform
stress distribution
• the stress distribution along
the length of the weld is constant
τ τ
70
The forces acting on a fillet weld σ⊥ : normal stress perpendicular τ⊥ : shear stress acting on the
shall be resolved into stress com- to the throat section throat section perpendicular to
ponents with respect to the σ⎜⎜ : normal stress parallel to the the weld axis
throat section (see Figure VI.7). weld axis τ ⎜⎜ : shear stress acting on the
These components are: throat section parallel to the
weld axis
FIGURE VI.7
σ⊥
®
F,σ ®
®
a τII
®
σ®
II
®
®
®
τ τ⊥
Design formula for fillet weld:
√σ 2
f
+ 3 . (τ⊥2 + τ2II ) ≤ w
⊥
γ Mw
71
7.3.4. Heat affected zone welds and fillet welds. The W: weld metal, check of weld
sketches below (ref. BS 8118) F: heat affected zone, check of
The stress in the heat affected indicate the failure plane for fusion boundary
zone has to be checked. The some welds (Figures VI.8, VI.9, T: heat affected zone, check of
stress is calculated for the small- VI.10, VI.11): cross section
est failure plane for both butt
FIGURE VI.8 FIGURE VI.9

BUTT WELD FILLET WELD
W
F W F
®
Pv F
®
Pv ® Pa
t
Pa ® ®
®
®
®
Pa Pv
®
®
® Pa
t
® F
®
Pv
®
FIGURE VI.10 FIGURE VI.11

T BUTT WELD T FILLET WELD
Pa Pa
Pv
®
Pv
®
® ®
® t t
® ®
®
T T
W F F W
W
F F F
T T T T
72
7.4. Bolted connections Minimum, regular and maximum

spacing, end and edge distances
The rules for bolted connections are for bolts are given in the Table
given in EN 1999-1-1, clause 8.5. VI.4.
TABLE VI.4
Minimum Regular Maximum
e1 = 4 . t + 40mm
e2 = 4 . t + 40mm
e1 = 1.2 . d0 e1 = 2.0 . d0
14 . t
e = 1.2 . d
2
p1 = 2.2 . d0
0
e = 1.5 . d
2
p1 = 2.5 . d0
0 p1 ≤ { 200mm
p2 = 2.2 . d0 p2 = 3.0 . d0 14 . t
p2 ≤ { 200mm
.
{ 200mm
14 t
p1 ≤
p1 = 2.2 . d0 p1 = 2.5 . d0
p = 2.4 . d p = 3.0 . d 14 . t
{ 200mm
2 0 2 0
p2 ≤
Outer lines:
14 . t
p1 ≤ {
200mm
p1 = 2.2 . d0 p1 = 2.5 . d0
Inner lines:
28 . t
p1 ≤ {
400mm
o) outer line i) inner line
d0 is the diameter of the hole and t = thickness of the plate
The maximum clearance for fit- • block tearing, failure in shear • bearing failure of the bolt hole
ted bolts is 0.3 mm and for non- in a row of bolts along the shear • tension failure of the bolt
fitted bolts 1.0 mm. face of a bolt group and tension • punching shear around the
failure along the tension face of bolt head or nut
Failure modes for bolted connec- the bolt group • combined shear and tension
tions may be: • shear failure in the bolt failure
73
TABLE VI.5
Failure mode Formula Parameters

Shear αv = 0.6 for steel bolts, 4.6, 5.6 and 8.8
αv . fub . A
αv = 0.5 for steel bolts, 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9
resistance per Fv,Rd =
γ M2
shear plane αv = 0.5 for stainless steel and aluminium bolts
A is the cross-section of the bolt at the shear plane
e2
{
Bearing 2.8 - 1.7
k1 . αb . fu . d . t d0
resistance Fb,Rd =
γ M2 k1 = smallest of for edge bolts
2.5
p2
{
1.4 - 1.7
d0
k1 = smallest of for inner bolts
2.5
{
αd
fub
αb = smallest of
fu
1.0
e1
αd = for end bolts
3 . d0
p1 1
αd = − for inner bolts
3 . d0 4
k2 = 0.9 for steel bolts

Tension k2 . fub . As
k2 = 0.5 for aluminium bolts
resistance Ft,Rd =
γ M2 k2 = 0.63 for countersunk steel bolts
As is the tensile stress area of the bolt
dm is the mean of across points and across flats

Punching shear 0,6 . π . dm . tp . fu of a bolt head or the nut or the outer
resistance Bp,Rd =
γ M2 diameter of the washer
tp is the thickness of the plate under the bolt head
or the nut
Combined Fv,Ed is the load effect of shear
shear Fv,Ed Ft,Ed Ft,Ed is the load effect of tension
+ ≤ 1.0
Fv,Rd 1.4 . Ft,Ed
and tension
74
Connection details that carry ten- FIGURE VI.12

sile forces, and where the tensile
forces don’t go directly through N = FN + Q N = FN + Q
the bolts, additional forces in the
bolts have to be accounted for.
These forces are called prying Q Q
forces (Q) and they can be con-
siderable large. See the figure
VI.12.
2 FN
Truck bodies for beverage transport
75
8. Fatigue
8.1. Theory stress concentrations. With con- defined as the algebraic differ-
tinuous repeating loads the crack ence between the stress peak
Structures with repeating loads will grow, this will be shown as and the stress valley in a stress
may be susceptible to fatigue one striation in the failure sur- cycle. At low stress ranges the
when the number of load cycles face for each load cycles. The dis- crack grows slowly and with high
is high, even when the loads give tance between the striations is stress range it grows fast. (Figure
low stresses in the structure. depending on the stress range VI.5)
Fatigue failure starts with devel- and that is giving the growing
opment of a crack at a point with speed. The stress range is
Trailer fatigue testing in laboratory (Benalu)
76
FIGURE VI.13
® 3
®
σ
®
® σmax
®
®
1
σ3
σm
®
Δσ
®
0
σ3
T
2
® σmin
®
®
®
1. Stress peak Δσ Stress range

σ3 Stress amplitude
2. Stress valley
3. Stress cycle
Rules for fatigue design are given

in EN 1999-1-3. The rules are
The picture is showing the striations in a fatigue failure surface of an aluminium tube.
based on quality levels given in
EN 1999-1-3 and EN 1090-3.
• The fatigue strength depends on:
• type of detail (design)
• stress range
• number of cycles
• stress ratio
• quality of manufacturing
77
The properties of the parent influence at all. For a plate or The fatigue strength is given as
material have very little influence extrusion with no manufacturing SN curves for the different
on the fatigue strength in practi- or only holes and notches the details. All detail categories given
cal structures and components. standard deviate between EN in EN 1999-1-3 have their own
For connections the properties of AW 7020 and all other structural SN curve. A typical SN curve is
the parent material have no alloys. shown on the Figure VI.14.
FIGURE VI.14
Δσ
2)
a
®
m1
b
ΔσC
c
ΔσD
1
m2 d
ΔσL
2 . 10e ® 5 . 10e
® NL 1)
NC ND
104 105 106 107 108 109

N
a. Fatigue strength curve b. Reference fatigue strength c. Constant amplitude fatigue limit d. Cut-off limit
1). Number of cycles (108) at rect, other calculation methods range don’t result in a tensile
which the cut-off limit is defined are recommended (Annex F of stress exceeding the design stress
2). For low cycles fatigue, this EN 1999-1-3). It shall be checked in ultimate limit state.
part of the curve may not be cor- that the maximum design stress
78
The stress ratio, R, is the mini- elements, where the residual stress, the fourth gives the weld
mum stress divided by the maxi- stresses has been established, type, the fifth gives the stress
mum stress in a constant ampli- taking into account any preac- parameter, the sixth gives stress
tude stress history or a cycle tion or lack of fit, there will be an concentrations already allowed
derived from a variable ampli- increase in the fatigue strength for, the seven gives the welding
tude stress history. Favourable for R < -0.25. For other cases characteristics, the eight gives
stress ratio will enhance the there will be no change from the the quality level for the internal
fatigue strength for some cases values in the standard. imperfections and the ninth gives
compared with the values given Some typical details categories the quality level for the surface
in the standard. For initiation are shown in the Table VI.6. The and geometrical imperfections.
sites in base material away from first row in the table gives the The requirements for the quality
connections, there will be an detail type number, the second levels are found in EN ISO 10042
increase in the fatigue strength row gives the detail category, the and additional requirements are
for R < +0.5. For initiation site at third gives a sketch of the detail given in EN 1090-3.
welded or mechanical fastened and also showing the initiation
connections in simple structural site and the direction of the
TABLE VI.6
® ® Continuous
5.1 63-4,3 automatic B C
Full penetration welding
® ® butt weld
Δσ Weld caps ground
® ® flush
5.2 56-4,3 Δσ
Nominal stress at initiation site
C C
At weld discontinuity
® ®
® ® Any backing
Δσ Full penetration
5.3 45-4,3 butt weld bars to be C D
® ®
Δσ continuous
® ®
5.4 45-4,3 B C
Continuous fillet
weld
® ®
Δσ ® ®
5.5 40-4,3 Δσ C D
79
Detail types 5.4 and 5.5 are an The SN curves that correspond to The numerical values for the
example where the same detail these detail categories are shown same curves are shown in the
has different fatigue strength on Figure VI.15. Table VI.7 :
depending on the quality of the
weld.
FIGURE VI.15
INFLUENCE OF WELD QUALITY ON FATIGUE STRENGTH
NC NO NL
500
400
Δσ 300
N/mm2
200
150
S
100
50
40
63-4,3
30 56-4,3
45-4,3
20 40-4,3
36-4,3
15 28-4,3
10
5
104 103 106 107 108 109
N
80
TABLE VI.7
SLOPE Cycles N
m1 m2 1E+05 1E-06 2E+06 5E+06 1E+07 1E+08 1E+09
4,3 6,3 126,4 74,0 63,0 50,9 45,6 31,6 31,6
4,3 6,3 112,4 65,8 56,0 45,3 40,5 28,1 28,1
4,3 6,3 90,3 52,9 45,0 36,4 32,6 22,6 22,6
4,3 6,3 80,3 47,0 40,0 32,3 29,0 20,1 20,1
4,3 6,3 72,3 42,3 36,0 29,1 26,1 18,1 18,1
4,3 6,3 56,2 32,9 28,0 22,6 20,3 14,1 14,1
Fatigue field test (Benalu)
81
8.2. Practice: comparison between good and bad chassis solutions
The following sections shows They all refer to the load case
good and bad design solutions described in Figure VI.16.
for aluminium trailer chassis.
FIGURE VI.16
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND BEAM GEOMETRY AS A BASIS
FOR THE FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
® 7300
®
® 3000 2150
®
®
®
N
115
cm
7300
®
®
® ®
® ®
1000 1250
165
® 7300
®
1
®
®
400
R1000
®
®
®
1900 941 ®
60
® ® ®
®
R1000 100
Load case with 0,5x115 N/cm is used (dashed rectangle).

Cross section of the beam is a simple symmetrical H-section with a flange-width of 150 mm,
flange-thickness of 12 mm and web-thickness 8 mm.
(1: To achieve the gooseneck, a part of the web has been cut off and re-joined by welding
at a distance of 60 mm from the lower flange.)
82
8.2.1. Gooseneck FIGURE VI.17

PLAIN CHASSIS BEAM, R = 1000 mm (σmax = 43 MPa, δ = 5.3 mm)
The Gooseneck area of the chas-
sis beam will be the most
stressed part and has to be very
carefully treated to avoid prob-
®
lems. Generally good precautions
will be:
• It is of utmost importance to
avoid all welding or heat treat- σmax = 43 MPa
ment on, or near, the flanges.
• No welded or bolted attach-
ments to, or near, the flanges in
this area.
FIGURE VI.18
• No joining of the beams
and/or reinforcement of the PLAIN CHASSIS BEAM, R = 450 mm (σmax = 73 MPa, δ = 6.9 mm)
beams in this area.
• No sudden variation of material
thickness or properties in this area.
It is obviously mandatory to fol-
®
low the fabrication or shop

drawings, design manuals, weld-
ing procedures, QA-manuals and
σmax = 73 MPa
the designer’s guidance through-
out the whole fabrication
process.
Figures VI.17, VI.18 and 6.19 pres- FIGURE VI.19

ent a few lifespan examples
PLAIN CHASSIS BEAM, R = 300 mm (σmax = 85 MPa, δ = 7.5 mm)
depending on the geometry of the
Gooseneck (i.e. curvature radius).
One can see the increase in stress

®
level is approximately 70% and

the increased deflection (δ)
approximately 23%.
The consequence will be a rela- σmax = 85 MPa
tive lifespan decrease of 50 %
83
from the normal radius of 450 FIGURE VI.20

mm to 350 mm. As illustrated, HOLE IN CHASSIS BEAM FLANGE, (ø = 20 mm): σmax = 102 MPa
an increased radius of 1000 mm
will offer very low stresses and
demonstrates simply the impor-
tance of smooth transitions.
8.2.2. Perforation
The fixture of the supporting legs
®
to the chassis beam will normally
be located at the highest stressed
®
area of the chassis beam, i.e. in

the gooseneck area. Hence a per- σmax = 102 MPa
foration of the bottom flange by
σ = 73 MPa
boltholes must be avoided as
well as any welding on or near
the flange.
Figures VI.20 and VI.21 show the
consequence of perforating the
flange compared to the web in
FIGURE VI.21
this area.
HOLE IN CHASSIS BEAM FLANGE, (ø = 20 mm): σmax = 73 MPa (on flange)
The reduced relative lifespan will
be as much as >80% due to the
effect of stress concentration in
the perforated area of the flange.
For the situation with the perfo-
ration through the web, the lifes- ®
pan will not be reduced. Both
examples show the importance
of a location away from the most
stressed area of the beam. If a
σ = 35 MPa
perforation through the flange is
®
inevitable, the location should be
as close as possible to the edge
of the flange (as far from the σmax = 73 MPa
web as possible). Note that
84
required minimum distance from FIGURE VI.22

the edge should be according to FIXTURE BY WELDING ON FLANGE: σmax = 97 MPa
actual standards, normally 1,5ø –
2,0ø depending on direction of
load, etc. Also note that local
bending capacity of flange must
be checked according to actual
location.
®
8.2.3 Welding
A fixture by welding in the web

area of the beam is a much-used ® σmax = 97 MPa
alternative to bolting, and will be
fully acceptable as long as weld-
σ = 73 MPa
ing is avoided in or near the
flange (i.e. in the most stressed
area of the beam). Figures VI.22
and VI.23 illustrate the conse-
quence of welding on the flange
and on the web.
FIGURE VI.23
The lifespan reduction will be as FIXTURE BY WELDING ON WEB: σmax = 73 MPa (on flange)
much as >90% in the case of the
fixture by welding on flange, due
to the effect of stress concentra-
tion in the welded area of the
flange and the decreased materi-
al properties due to heating.
The fixture by welding in the web

®
area will be of no effect to lifes-
pan. In both cases a geometrical-
ly perfect weld is assumed. In real ®
life, imperfections are common σ = 25 MPa
and therefore good workman-
ship and after treatment of welds σmax = 73 MPa
must be considered.
85
Aluminium road tankers (Schrader)
9. Special design issues
9.1. Tanks for the ing equivalence formula, where Furthermore, absolute minimum
transport of dangerous e0 is the minimum shell thickness shell thicknesses are fixed
for mild steel and Rm and A, the depending on the type of tank,
goods - ADR
tensile strength and elongation the shell dimension and the
Tanks for the transport of dan- of the metal chosen. material used.
gerous goods have to be built
e0 × 464
according to the rules defined in e=3
the following agreement and √(R m
× A)2
standards: For tanks protected against damage:

• ADR: Agreement for the trans- • For shells with circular cross-section ≤ 1.80 m:
port of Dangerous goods by Road1 e0 = 3 mm
• EN 13094 “Tanks for the e cannot be lower than 4,00 mm for aluminium alloys2
transport of dangerous goods - • For shells with circular cross-section > 1.80 m
Metallic tanks with a working e0 = 4 mm
pressure not exceeding 0.5 bar - e cannot be lower than 5,00 mm for aluminium alloys
Design and construction” • For other tanks:
• EN 14025 “Tanks for the e0 = 5 mm for shells with circular cross-section ≤ 1.80 m
transport of dangerous goods - e0 = 6 mm for shells with circular cross-section > 1.80 m
Metallic pressure tanks - Design
and construction” 1. See ADR - Annex A – Part 6 – Chapter 6.8:
In particular, tank shell thickness http://www.unece.org/trans/danger/danger.htm
(e) is determined by the follow- 2. Whatever the result of the equivalence formula is.
86
Suitable aluminium alloys for that 9.2. Tippers Another version which came up
application are listed in standard in the last few years is a material
EN 14286 “Aluminium and alu- 9.2.1. Construction – mix version with a steel bottom
minium alloys - weldable rolled plate and aluminium side- walls
products for tanks for the stor- Tipper body trailers (or “dump (bolted to the steel plate).
age and transportation of dan- bodies”) are constructed in two
gerous goods”. See also Chapter different versions: Two main tipper types can be dif-
V, section 6.4 in this manual. • Combination of plates and ferentiated:
extrusions (more frequently used • Rectangular trailer
For tanks protected against dam- version) • Half – pipe trailer
age, several alloys listed in EN • Extrusion intensive construc-
14286 allow manufacturing tank tion, where all sides of the trailer Independent from the type of tip-
shells with e = 5.3 mm (corre- are made of clamped and / or per, all extrusion cross – sections
sponding to Rm x A = 6600) and welded extrusion profiles and the thickness of the plates
even e = 5.0 mm (for those with are calculated with respect to:
Rm x A ≥ 7152).
Aluminium tipper bodies (Stas)
87
Production of aluminium tipper bodies (Schmitz)
• Actual load (compression / Wear is not only taken into 9.2.2.2. Factors influencing
tension) account for the calculation of the the wear
• Bending forces (static and dur- actual plate or extrusion thick- The wear condition can vary
ing tipping operation) ness, especially of the bottom extremely from one load to
• Other forces like shear stress, plate, but also for the type of alu- another. Therefore it is not
deflection, buckling minium to be chosen. always possible to link the actual
hardness of a work-hardened
In addition, the type of products 9.2.2.1. Defintion of Wear alloy to the wear resistance3. It
to be transported has to be taken The mechanism of wear is quite was found out that for a very
into consideration during design complex. Wear generally occurs large extent, the type of load is a
of the tipper. This is due to the when one surface (usually harder decisive factor.
fact, that the load can be just than the other) cuts off material
concentrated locally and on a from the second. The area of con- Soft goods like potatoes, fruits,
very small area or it can be divid- tact between the two surfaces is sugar beets or other agricultural
ed quite uniform across the thereby very small and concen- products are much less abrasive
whole bottom of the tipper body. trated on surface asperities. The than mineral goods. In case of
shear forces are transferred mineral goods like stones, pow-
9.2.2. Wear through these points and so the ders, cement, chalk etc. the size,
local forces can be very high. form (sharpness) and hardness of
Wear (or abrasion- resistance) is the material is by far the most
the most discussed issue when it Abrasives can act like in a grind- critical factor regarding abrasion
comes to the construction of an ing process where the abrasive is (in laboratory tests even the
aluminium tipper. A lot of uncer- fixed relative to one surface or in change of a type of sand
tainties about the abrasion – a lapping process, where the increased the wear by 35%).
resistance of the aluminium as abrasive tumbles, producing a
well as the totally different type series of indentations.
3. Abrasive wear of aluminium alloys
of loads makes it nearly impossi-
rubbed against sand, K. Elleuch,
ble to find a perfect solution for S. Mezlini, N. Guermazi, Ph. Kapsa,
each transport problem. Wear 261 (2006) 1316–1321
88
Even the wear debris acts there- 9.2.3. Material selection 10. References
by as an additional source for
abrasion. The choice of material for the
bottom plate of tipping trailers is • EN 1999-1-1 Eurocode 9
Also the number of tipping opera- nowadays often a question of Design of aluminium structures,
tions is to be considered. The more specific experience, material Part 1-1 General structural rules.
often the trailer is tilted, the more availabilty and manufacturer´s • EN 1999-1-3 Eurocode 9
often abrasion occurs. The num- specific production methods. Design of aluminium structures,
ber of cycles has a linear function Part 1-3 Structures susceptible to
when set into relation to the mass Typical bottom plate material is: fatigue.
lost of the aluminium plate. • 5083 H32, H321, H34 • EN 1090-3 Execution of steel
• 5086 H24 structures and aluminium struc-
Very often, tippers are used by • 5383 H34 tures, Part 3 Technical require-
the transport companies for • 5454 H22, H24 ments for aluminium structures
other products than they are • 5456 H34 • EN-ISO 10042 Arc-welded joints
originally made for and so a reli- or other, mill-specific alloy types. in aluminium and its weldable
able calculation of the lifetime of alloys – Guidance on quality lev-
an aluminium bottom plate can- els for imperfections.
not be determined. • BS 8118 Structural use of alu-
minium, Part 1 Code of practice
for design.
• ADR: Agreement for the trans-
port of Dangerous goods by
Full aluminium tipper (Menci) Road.
• EN 13094 Tanks for the trans-
port of dangerous goods -
Metallic tanks with a working
pressure not exceeding 0.5 bar -
Design and construction.
• EN 14025 Tanks for the trans-
port of dangerous goods -
Metallic pressure tanks - Design
and construction.
• EN 14286 Aluminium and alu-
minium alloys - weldable rolled
products for tanks for the stor-
age and transportation of dan-
gerous goods.
89
90
CHAPTER VII
FA B R I C AT I O N
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.1. 5000 series alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.2. 6000 series alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.3. 7000 series alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2. FABRICATION OF PRODUCTS FROM PLATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.1. Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.2. Marking out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.3. Cutting to shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.4. Edge rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.5. Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.6. Non-machinable faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3. FABRICATION OF PRODUCTS FROM EXTRUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.1. Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.2. Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.3. Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4. DRILLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.1. Twist drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.2. Straight flute drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.3. Gun drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
4.4. Half-round or three quarter round drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5. TAPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1. Chip removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.2. Upsetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.3. Threaded inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6. DEEP DRAWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7. SPINNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.1. Advantages of spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.2. Diameter of spinning blanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
91
1. Introduction
The forming operations used in 1.1. 5000 series alloys 1.2. 6000 series alloys
the commercial vehicle industry
are many and various. The man- In soft conditions, 5000 series These are used mainly as extruded
ufacturer will cut, fold, roll and alloys have excellent forming sections. The main alloy elements
bend semi-finished sheets and properties as suggested by the are magnesium and silicon.
extrusions to produce a vehicle difference between proof stress These are heat treatable alloys
or an accessory. and ultimate tensile strength and supplied in the T6 or T5 condi-
by the level of elongation1. tion and, less commonly, in the
These operations, some of which T4 or T1 condition3.
such as cutting and drilling can As metals are hardened by
now be programmed and auto- mechanical cold working, it may Generally speaking the shaping
mated, are carried out according be necessary to improve ductility properties of this family of alloys
to rules which we have summa- so as to continue forming by in the fully heat-treated condi-
rized in this chapter. In certain machine or by hand. This is done tion are limited. Nevertheless
cases and in some countries they by annealing2, a process that is shaping should be performed
are also standardized, and the easy to accomplish either in a cold as heating will considerably
relevant standards are referred to furnace or with a welding torch, reduce mechanical properties
where they exist. using tallow as a temperature (approx. 40 %).
indicator which turns a light More complex shaping of the
In any case, it is very important to brown colour at 340 °C. Heat extrusions may be done in the T1
use equipments dedicated to alu- indicator crayons or even a stick or T4 condition, before ageing to
minium. pyrometer may also be used. full hardness in T5 or T6. In this
case it is beneficial to do the
Most aluminium alloys used in If necessary, inter-stage anneal- forming within a short time win-
commercial vehicles belong to ing can be repeated between dow of a few days after the solu-
the family of aluminium-magne- shaping operations, however tion heat-treatment to T1 or T4,
sium alloys (5000 series) for rolled there is one golden rule: only
products or to the aluminium-sili- anneal the metal if it becomes
con-magnesium family (6000 difficult to work, in other words 1. Please refer to EN 485-2.
series) for extruded products. when the work-hardening rate 2. For 5000 alloys with Mg content
above 3%, this must be done very care-
is greater than or at least equal
fully to prevent sensitization to inter-
to the so-called critical work- granular corrosion. See also Chapter XI,
hardening rate. section 2.2.6.
3. Please refer to Chapter V section 5,
for an explanation of these tempers.
92
ALUMINIUM IN COMMERCIAL VEHICULES CHAPTER VII FABRICATION 92 | 93
2. Fabrication
of products from plate
i.e. before that the material gets
hardened by cold-ageing.
If very extensive shaping is to be The general methods of aluminium They are best stored under cover
done, it is possible to do this in a alloy fabrication and the machines in a ventilated area and separat-
time-span of a few minutes after used are not very different from ed by timber blocks to prevent
the treatment to T1 or T4. those used for steel. Aluminium condensation stains.
alloys are easy to fabricate.
1.3. 7000 series alloys

However, their relative softness
These extrusions are used in must be taken into account and
some high-strength applications it is essential to use special tools
within transportation, automo- to avoid damaging aluminium
tive and sports equipment. The surfaces. Risks of contamination
main alloy elements are zinc and from traces of ferrous and
magnesium. cuprous metals must also be
The extrusions are used in the T5, avoided as these can cause local-
T6 or a T7 over-aged condition. ized corrosion. It is essential to
FIGURE VII.1
The shaping may take place in work in an environment where
the T1 or T4 condition, before such risks are minimized. STORAGE
the material is artificially aged.
More complex forming is done in 2.1. Storage
the T4 condition, shortly after
the solution heat treatment, Aluminium sheets are classified
before ageing to T6 or T7. by family of alloy and stored
Before using 7000 alloys, prior upright when more than 0.8 mm
consultation with the supplier is thick (Figure VII.1). Thin sheets
strongly recommended. (less than 0.8 mm) should be
stored flat.
Aluminium sheets should never

be placed directly on the ground,
even if concreted, and should be
kept away from splash water,
condensation and hostile envi-
ronments.
93
2.2. Marking out 2.3. Cutting to shape 2.3.2. Circular saw
Scribing tools should not be Plate or crocodile shears can be As with the band saw, the saw
used, since any tracing marks used to make straight cuts. The pitch varies with the thickness or
which might be left on the fin- rating of the shear should be section to be sawn but the process
ished component can become more or less the same as for cut- of cutting, which is a function of
crack starters under high loads. ting non-alloyed steel with low the machine characteristics, makes
carbon content and the same it similar to milling (Figure VII.3).
This precaution is not necessary thickness.
FIGURE VII.3
where the scribe indicates a cut-
SAW - MILLING OR CIRCULAR
ting line. Sawing is a common cutting
process which is very economical t ® t ®
® ®
As a general rule it is advisable to for aluminium alloys. t ® ® ®t
®
trace using a hard pencil (e.g. – –
p ®
3 3
®
®
®
5H) which is easier to see and 2.3.1. Band saw 60° 60°
®
h d ® ®
®
easy to erase in case of error.

®
®
The most common type of saw is ®

®
25°
the band saw. This can be a sim-
ple timber band saw but with a d: draw of 8°
FIGURE VII.2 over 1 mm of width
blade of specially designed pro-
BANDSAW
file to break and dislodge the
aluminium chips from between With the band saw and circular
2,5 to 8 mm the saw teeth. saw, the cutting speeds for
®
®
1,8 t
®
® 3000, 5000 and 6000 series
This is achieved by the alterna- alloys are as follows:
tion or pitch of the teeth and by • HSS blade: 600 m/min to 1000
the clearance angle defined m/min.
®
55° Figure VII.2. • Carbide blade: 800 m/min to
®
® t ® 1500 m/min.
®
3° to 0°
The portable milling saw is a tool
that can be used to straight cut
products up to 20 mm thick and
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A BAND SAW FOR ALUMINIUM ARE AS FOLLOWS: with good rates of advance.
It may be preferable to use a jig-
Diameter of flywheel
• E (thickness) = saw for thicknesses of 6 mm or
1000
• Width = 10 to 30 mm less. The jigsaw is highly
• Tooth pitch = 2.5 to 8 mm; two teeth must always be in action manoeuvrable and can be used
• Lubricant = tallow or soluble oil. to cut complex curves.
94
Water jet cutting (SAG)
2.3.3. Fluid jet of garnet, corundum or other Its performance is also excellent,
very hard minerals are used. and in aluminium, thicknesses
Metals, including aluminium between 1 and 100 mm can be
alloys, can be cut using water The advantage of this process is cut at rates of 3500 mm/min
jets bearing abrasive particles that it does not affect the metal- down to 30 mm/min for the larg-
(PASER process) at high pressures lurgical condition of the product er thickness.
(3000 bars and over). Granules and is very versatile.
95
2.3.4. Plasma Compared to traditional plasma, The plasma is formed in a special

water VORTEX plasmas facilitate torch, and an inert gas (usually
There are two plasma cutting greatly increased cutting speeds argon or nitrogen) moving at
techniques (Figure VII.4): and reduce nuisance factors such great speed is dissociated under
• traditional plasma, with a draft as smoke, noise, ozone discharge. the effect of an electric arc to
of some 6°, The process requires substantial attain the plasma state.
• water VORTEX plasma, with amounts of power however.
a very small cutting draft, of the Owing to its high cutting speed
order of 2°. (several metres per minute), its
quality and precision of cut and
FIGURE VII.4 suitability for automation, a plas-
ma cutting machine can be a
PLASMA TECHNIQUES
highly profitable investment,
even for short production runs.
Plasmagen gas Plasmagen gas
-
- 2.3.5. Laser cutting
®
®
This process is mainly used in the
®
®
® automotive industry.
Electrode Electrode
® More information can be found
in the Aluminium Automotive
®
®
®
Cooling Manual (www.eaa.net/aam).

Water cone Copper water
® + +
Note:
®
The width of the heat affected
Vortex water inlet Plasma column
zone is less than 1 mm whatever
Plasma in vortex Plasma in free air the alloy and for all thicknesses.
However cracking is sometimes
observed in the short transverse
FIGURE VII.5
dimension (Figure VII.5) that can
FIBRE ORIENTATION
attain a depth of some 2 mm.
Whatever the thickness of the
o lling product, machining off 2 mm of
of r
short transverse
n ®
ctio material will restore the metal's
direction
Dire
®
original qualities.
tion
irec
®
al d This is obviously unnecessary if

din
®
tu
Transve
rs e directi
®
® Lo ngi the cut pieces are intended for
o n use as welding blanks.
96
2.4. Edge rolling 2.5. Bending 2.6. Non-machinable faces
This shaping technique requires For multiple folds, holes should As with bending, one worth-
no special equipment for alu- be used to mark the crossover while precaution is to remove all
minium. The rollers must of points of the fold lines to avoid score marks from the edges
course be clean and have causing cracks when the folds caused by cutting so as to pre-
smooth surfaces. are made. vent the formation of cracks at
points of deep deformation.
Aluminium does not require any
special bending tools, and con- Shaping is carried out on the
ventional table bending 5754, 5086 and 5083 grades
machines or presses are perfectly (and on other alloys in the same
adequate provided the working family) in the annealed or H111
parts of the tooling are free from condition. In some cases shaping
unacceptable irregularities. may call for inter-stage anneal-
ing1, and this can be done as
The bending radii to be observed described before using an
as a function of the thickness are annealing torch and tallow as
given in standard EN485-2. temperature indicator.
Plasma cutting (Benalu) Inter-stage annealing can be
carried out several times in the
course of the shaping opera-
tion; however care should be
taken to avoid annealing a
metal that is only slightly work-
hardened to prevent the risk of
grain enlargement.
1. For 5000 alloys with Mg content

above 3%, this must be done very care-
fully to prevent sensitization to inter-
granular corrosion. See also Chapter XI,
section 2.2.6.
97
3. Fabrication of products from extrusions
Extrusions are usually individually 3.1. Storage 3.2. Cutting

protected in packing cases to
prevent problems such as fret- Extrusions are best left in their The processes of sawing
ting in transit. original packing cases until described above are also suitable
required. As with aluminium for cutting aluminium extrusions
sheets, they should never be set .
down directly on the ground, 3.3. Bending
even if concreted, and should be
kept away from splash water, The bending of extrusions on an
condensation and hostile envi- industrial scale may be carried
ronments to prevent possible out with different methods and
corrosion during storage. means.
3-point press bending (Benalu)
98
3.3.1. Bending by 3-point 3.3.2. Bending by 3-point 3.3.3. Bending by

press-bending press-bending with rotating compression bending
dies
This may be done when the bend A sliding tool forces the extrusion
radius is small compared to the This process is typically using a to follow a circular die. The
height of the extrusion section, tool in a press or a bending extrusion is not moving length-
and when the accuracy (spring- machine. The rollers may be wise relative to the die.
back) of the bend as well as the kinder to the extrusion work piece
optics are not so important. It is than by the method in 3.2.1 due
typically performed in a simple to less abrasive sliding action
tool in a (mostly) hydraulic press. between tools and work piece.
99
Bending over rotating tools
3.3.6. Stretch-bending over a

fixed tool (“swing arm
stretch-bending”)
The ends of the profile are gripped

to stretch-bend the profile against
a fixed last which has the form of
the finished product. In many
cases this form may be a bending
sweep built-up by compounded
radii. Nearly all of the cross section
of the extrusion will be subjected
to tensile stress above the yield
stress limit, and this applies to the
full length of the work piece. This
means that the spring-back effect
on global shape will be little, con-
stant and predictable. When a
closed extrusion is formed in this
way, the outer wall may be sub-
jected to sagging. This may be
countered by using a basic extru-
sion with an outer wall which is
barrel-shaped outward or by
inserting a suitable elastic material
(e.g. rubber). The operation may
3.3.4. Bending by 3.3.5. Bending by rotary be performed by a dedicated tool
compression roll-forming draw bending in a press or in a stretch-bending
machine.
It is identical with 3.3.3, but with It is mostly performed in stan-
a rotating wheel instead of the dard tube-bending machines.
sliding tool. Very severe reforming
may be made. It is usually per-
formed in roll-forming machines
with purpose-built tools.
100
3.3.7. Stretch bending between extrusion and dies. 3.3.10. Mechanical calibration
by rotating dies (rotary Rotary stretch bending can be of parts of the extrusion
stretch bending) implemented in a dedicated
press tool or in a stand-alone This is usually performed by com-
By this method the extrusion is bending machine. pression-stretching or expansion-
gripped at its ends and bent over stretching in a dedicated tool in a
one ore two (normally two) 3.3.8. Three-dimensional press.
rotating dies having a contour stretch-bending
corresponding to the final prod- 3.3.11. Achievable bending
uct shape. The stretching comes Over fixed or rotating dies (lasts), radius
as a result of the rotation and the extrusion si gripped at its
may effectively be controlled by ends, and stretched into a three- The achievable radii for bent
the location of the rotary axes. dimensional shape (“out of the extrusions are highly dependent
As opposed to the situation in plane”). This may be done with on the geometry of the profiles
conventional stretch bending tools where the movements are and are difficult to predict.
method (3.3.6), the bending defined mechanically, or in pro- Therefore it is advisable to carry
starts at the end and propagates grammable tools or machines. out tests on specimen. Table VII.1
towards the centre of the extru- gives guidance for bending of
sion. The primary bending 3.3.9. Manipulation hollow circular tubes. If smaller
moment is generated by the of the cross section radii are needed, filling of the
rotating dies, and is typically con- tubes with sand before bending
stant along the workpiece. The This is usually performed by is helpful.
process is characterized by very indenting or pressing in a dedi-
low transversal (shear) forces and cated tool in a press.
thus also low contact forces
TABLE VII.1
BENDING HOLLOW TUBES (D ≤ 90mm) BENDING RADIUS AS A FUNCTION OF RATIO D/t
Ratio D/t
Alloy Temper
5 10 15 20 25 30
5754 H111 1 to 1.5 D 2.5 to 3 D 3.5 to 4 D 4.5 to 5 D 6 to 7 D 8 to 9 D
6060 O 1 to 1.5 D 2.5 to 3 D 3.5 to 4 D 4.5 to 5 D 5 to 6 D 7 to 9 D
T5 2 to 2.5 D 3 to 4 D 4 to 5 D 6 to 7 D 8 to 10 D 12 to 15 D
D: Outside diameter t: Thickness
101
4. Drilling
Drilling aluminium alloys is a sim- 4.1. Twist drill 4.3. Gun drill
ple operation but calls for careful
sharpening and polishing of the To have a substantial sharpening This type of drill is excellent for
drills given the relative softness gradient, the helix angle must be large diameter holes of 20 mm
of the aluminium alloys used in 40° while the point angle varies and over, also for drilling stacked
the manufacture of commercial from 120° to 140° according to sheets. The drilling conditions are
vehicles. If inadequate sharpen- the shape of the neck, with a the same as for the standard
ing causes the drill to bend or clearance angle of 8°. The other twist drill.
buckle, it will tear the metal characteristics of the twist drill
around the part of the hole that are as follows: 4.4. Half-round or three
is already drilled. • cutting speed 30 to 80 m/min quarter round drill
depending on rating and the
The following types of drill can be desired quality - for very accurate These drills are used mainly in
used for drilling aluminium alloys3: holes the ideal speed is 30 m/min, boring operations. The accuracy
• the standard twist drill - the • penetration rate determined by of the bore diameter achieved
most common type, the drill diameter: 0.05 mm/rev with these tools is of the order of
• the straight flute drill, for a 2 mm diameter drill, to 0.3 0.02 mm:
• the gun drill, mm/rev for a 30 mm diameter • cutting speeds are between 10
• the half-round or three quarter drill, and 15 m/min,
round drill. • soluble oil cooling, • rate of advance is 0.05 mm/rev,
• point height : this must • cooling is with cutting oil.
exceed the thickness of the
drilled material.
4.2. Straight flute drill
This drill facilitates rapid chip

removal and is more efficient for
aluminium alloys of medium
hardness than the twist drill. The
four cylindrical witnesses also
prevent "triangulation" of the
hole and provide drill guidance.
3. Steel twist drills can be used for small
runs with mainly manual tools.
102
5. Tapping
Threads in aluminium may be If threads are made in alumini- There are two methods of tapping:
made, when other joining tech- um, care should be taken to • by chip removal,
niques are not applicable4. ensure that the thread length is • by upsetting.
sufficient for the purpose. The
thread length may be between 1
4. In a connection, where continuous and 2 times the major diameter
joining methods such as welding or of the threads, and must depend
bonding are used, no additional fasten- on the application, the alloy as
ers should be applied.
well as the temper of the materi-
Threaded holes in aluminium should
only be used where no other possibility
al. For example, the necessary
exists and the yield strength of the metal thread length of a high strength
exceeds 200 N/mm2. The bearing length 6000 alloy in T6 may be 1.2 times
of the bolt should be 1,5 x diameter of
the major thread diameter.
the bolt. If the bolts must be used for
repeated loosening and tightening, Conversely a softer alloy demands
inserts should be applied e.g. Helicoils. a longer thread length.
TABLE VII.2
DIAMETER OF PILOT HOLES FOR THREAD TAPPING
∅ nominal 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Pitch 0.70 0.80 1 1.25 1.50 1.75 2 2 2.5 2.5
Diameter 3.2 4.2 4.9 6.6 8.3 10 11.7 13.7 15 17
5.1. Chip removal in the annealed condition must The cutting speed varies from 10
be some 3-5% bigger than in to 50 m/min depending on the
Only taps with straight threads Table VII.3 and for castings with machine and method of clamp-
should be used to avoid seizing 12 and more % silicon content ing the tap, whether floating or
the metal at the flanks. Table some 2% smaller. in a chuck. Cooling is done with
VII.2 gives diameters for pilot cutting oil.
holes for tapping aluminium
alloys in the 5000 and 6000
series. Pilot holes for these alloys
103
6. Deep drawing
5.2. Upsetting 5.3. Threaded inserts Deep drawing is mainly used in

the automotive sector.
The thread is achieved by plastic It is usual to use threaded inserts For more information on that
deformation of the metal using a – available in diameters M2 to technique, please refer to the
tap with- a rounded polygon sec- M68 (Figure VII.9) – when Aluminium Automotive Manual:
tion that has no cutting wedge. screwed aluminium alloy assem- http://www.eaa.net/aam/
blies are required to be frequent-
The diameter of the pilot hole ly dismantled. The inserts are in
will depend on the desired the form of a spring made from
thread depth, and must be rolled wire or are a diamond sec-
drilled accurately. Upsetting tion made of stainless steel.
speeds can attain 50 m/min,
cooling is done with cutting oil. Captive threads can also be used.
These have one or two flights
Tapping by upsetting offers a that grip the flanks of the screw
number of advantages with alu- thread and counteract the loos-
FIGURE VII.9
minium alloys: ening effects of dynamic stress-
HELI-COIL INSERTED THREAD
• the tap has a long life, es, vibrations or thermal shock.
• it increases the hardness of the Boring is done using a standard
thread, its tearing resistance and twist drill, but tapping must be
fatigue strength, done with a special tap. All chips
• no chips. and cutting fluid must be
removed from the bore before
the insert is fitted.
Threaded inserts are fitted with

pneumatic hand tools which
hold them by a driver at the top Notch
end of the thread. This can then ®
be broken off after fitting.
®
Threaded inserts can also be
Driver
used to repair a tap in aluminium
that is worn or has been rejected
during manufacture.
104
Spinning
of an aluminium tank-end
(König)
7. Spinning
Spinning is a forming technique

used in the commercial vehicle
industry to make some compo-
nents such as tank-ends.
7.1. Advantages of
spinning
The tools used in spinning are
very simple, being basically the
internal shape of the required
form. However production times
can be up to 20 longer than for
deep drawing.
Calculations combining the cost 7.2. Diameter of spinning ning, the diameter of the blank is
of tooling and production costs blanks less critical for the success of a
show that spinning is competitive part than it is in deep drawing,
for short runs. Three formulae are used to and it is only the cost of the
quickly determine the diameter material that dictates shape opti-
of blanks for the most common mization. A simplified calculation
shapes (Figure VII.10). In spin- is adequate for prototypes.
FIGURE VII.10
DIAMETER OF SPINNING BLANKS
®
H
h
®
®
® D ® d ® D
® ® ®
∅ blank = D × Π ∅ blank = H + d ∅ blank = 4 h + D

2 3
105
EUROPEAN
EUROPEAN ALUMINIUM
ALUMINIUM ASSOCIATION
ASSOCIATION
106
CHAPTER VIII
WELDING
1. FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2. TIG WELDING (TUNGSTEN INERT GAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.1. Manual TIG welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.2. Automatic TIG welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.3. TIG welding with AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.4. TIG welding with DC, reverse polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.5. Edge preparation for TIG welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.6. Choice of filler wire or rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.7. Selection of welding process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3. MIG WELDING (METAL INERT GAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.1. Manual MIG welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.2. Automatic MIG welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.3. Smooth current MIG Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.4. Pulsed current MIG welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.5. Wire pulsation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.6. CMT – Cold Metal Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.7. Edge preparation for MIG welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.8. Choice of filler wire or rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.9. Selection of welding process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4. PLASMA MIG WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5. LASER WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6. LASER MIG WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7. RESISTANCE WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8. FSW - FRICTION STIR WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
9. SURFACE PREPARATION BEFORE WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
10. QUALITY CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10.1. Approval procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10.2. Inspecting welded joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10.3. Weld defects & approval criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
11. DESIGN AND PREVENTION OF DEFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
11.1. Causes of deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
11.2. Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
107
Welder (STAS)
1. Foreword
Welding is the most common welds this layer must be removed are taken. One method of mini-
method of joining used in the or at least broken up. mizing distortion is to select a
manufacture of commercial vehi- Despite the fact that the melting process with small energy input.
cles and their bodies e.g. tanks, interval of aluminium is by far
tippers, dumpers, chassis etc. lower than that of steel, the high TIG and MIG arc welding are the
The different physical, chemical thermal conductivity and the two processes most commonly
and mechanical properties of high melting energy make that, used in the commercial vehicle
aluminium compared with those for arc welding, aluminium industry. The technical progress
of steel lead to the specific requires about the same amount made by other techniques such
behaviour of aluminium during of energy as steel. as plasma, laser, resistance or
welding. In an atmosphere con- friction stir welding and the ever
taining oxygen, a well anchored The thermal elongation of alu- growing diversity of semi-fin-
oxide layer builds up on alumini- minium is twice that of steel and ished products will encourage
um. This layer has a melting point the loss in volume of the weld the application of such welding
of some 2000°C against the pool during solidification is methods which have up to now
melting interval of 630-660°C for important, causing distortion of been little used in the commer-
the metal underneath. For quality the joint, if no remedial measures cial vehicle industry.
108
ALUMINIUM IN COMMERCIAL VEHICULES CHAPTER VIII WELDING 108 | 109
2. TIG welding (Tungsten Inert Gas)
In this process, an electric arc is positive phase ensures penetra- is weaker but the welding power
struck between a refractory elec- tion and cooling of the electrode. is higher and products 10 to 12
trode made of tungsten and the TIG welding is suitable for metal mm thick can be welded with a
workpiece, while a shroud of thicknesses between 1 and 6 mm. single pass. However this process
inert gas, usually argon, shields is strictly for automatic welding
the electrode and protects the There is a TIG version where heli- only owing to the difficulty of
molten pool against oxidation. um is used as the shielding gas. keeping the arc at a constant
This process uses a high-frequen- This helps achieving a high tem- controlled height within 0.5 mm.
cy stabilized AC power source. perature in the arc but requires
The oxide film is removed during direct current with straight polarity.
the negative phase, while the The effect of oxide film removal
FIGURE VIII.1
PRINCIPLE OF TIG WELDING
® Tungsten Electrode
Contact (for current) Welding Power
Shielding Gas ®
Source
Shielding Gas Nozzle ®
®
®
Filler
Metal
®
®
Weld Seam
®
Arc Work Piece
109
2.2. Automatic TIG

welding
Here, the welding torch is auto-

matically guided and, if filler is
TIG welding of an air pressure vessel (SAG)
used, it is fed automatically from
a reel.
Automatic TIG welding is an
attractive proposition for welding
2.1. Manual TIG welding into the weld pool. The manual large production runs, especially
process is used mainly for small when there is no access to the
For manual TIG welding, the filler welds, circular welds and rela- back of the weld.
material is a hand-held rod fed tively thin components. The fabrication of compressed air
reservoirs is a good example of
the use of automatic TIG weld-
ing. These reservoirs consist of a
FIGURE VIII. 2
sheet rolled and welded to form
MANUAL AND MECHANISED TIG WELDING
the straight cylindrical centre sec-
tion to which two deep-drawn
ends are welded. If the ends are
butt joined to the centre without
any backing to prevent the prob-
lems associated with moisture
retention, automatic TIG welding
can be used to make an easy
connection. It is also possible to
support the weld pool by supply-
Manual TIG Welding Fully Mechanised TIG ing the argon from inside the
Welding
reservoir.
110
2.3. TIG welding with AC 2.4. TIG welding with 2.5. Edge preparation for
DC, reverse polarity TIG welding
It is especially well suited for butt
and corner welds on pieces in In this process the arc length is In EN ISO 9692-3 this information
the thickness range 1-6 mm. Full below 1 mm, ideally 0.5 mm, is given comprehensively, so that
penetration welds can be made which means that it is mainly we just indicate a few examples
without backing bar. Tack welds used for machine welding. For for typical joints in vehicle manu-
must not be removed before exe- manual operation only short facturing (Table VIII.1, p. 115).
cuting the seam weld. Changes lengths can be executed in prac-
in weld direction are easy to fol- tice. One such application is To avoid sharp notches, especial-
low with the torch and do not stitch welding of assemblies ly at the root of the weld, all
require any dressing. The process before the seam welding. The edges must be carefully de-
can also be used to smooth the small cross section of these burred before welding. Instead
surface of a MIG weld. stitches is such that they are of grinding discs, milling tools
The welding speed is lower than completely molten up while lay- should be used, because residues
for MIG weld and, for work ing the first pass of MIG weld of the disc on the surface can
pieces thicker than 6 mm, pre- over it and don’t need to be cause porosity in the weld.
heating is required. The slow reduced in cross section by
welding speed is also responsible mechanical means.
for a wider heat affected zone 2.6. Choice of filler wire
and greater distortion of the The oxide film removal is weaker
or rod
assemblies. with this process so it is neces-
For fillet welds extreme care is sary to reduce the oxide layer by See section 3.8
needed to achieve full penetra- mechanical means before weld-
tion without lack of fusion at the ing.
root.
2.7. Selection of Welding
In the tank and silo production,
double side TIG welding of butt
process
welds in vertical upwards posi- See section 3.9
tion leads to excellent quality,
provided the two operators con-
trol the process well.
111
3. MIG welding (Metal Inert Gas)
With MIG welding the alumini- polarity (i.e. minus to the work- 3.1. Manual MIG welding
um alloy wire is both the elec- piece) to ensure removal of the
trode and the filler material. It oxide film and the fusion of the In its manual version, MIG is cer-
uncoils automatically from a reel wire electrode at the same time. tainly the most common weld-
to the welding tool (gun or torch) ing process used in the commer-
as it is used up. The welding Several MIG processes do exist... cial vehicle industry, producing
energy is supplied by a DC power high quality welds at an attrac-
source (smoothed current). tive quality/cost ratio.
Connection is made with reverse As the filler wire, that is the con-
sumable electrode, is always
automatically fed from a reel, the
FIGURE VIII.4
manual MIG welding is also
PRINCIPLE OF MIG WELDING
known as "semi-automatic MIG
welding".
Manual MIG welding is used for
® all welds of a complex nature
Wire Transport Rolls
where the dimensions and thick-
Wire Electrode ® ness of the products are compat-
Contact Nozzle ible with the MIG process and
®
(for Current) when automation is not consid-
Welding
Shielding Gas ® ered to be profitable.
Power
Nozzle ® Source If we consider the example of a
tank consisting in sheets rolled
®
and welded to form cylindrical

Arc sections, we can see that the lon-
®
Workpiece
gitudinal weld can be made by
Weld Seam
automatic MIG while the circular
welds which join the sections to
one another are usually made
manually on a turntable in two
opposing passes. The choice
between manual or automatic
MIG will depend largely on
accessibility.
112
3.2. Automatic MIG 3.3. Smooth current MIG Thin gauge material below 3 mm
welding Welding is difficult to weld with this
process because of the high
Here, the welding torch is auto- This fast and economical process energy of the arc. If no other
matically guided. allows depositing a great quanti- equipment is available, then a
This is normally used for very ty of filler metal per unit of time. thin gauge filler wire may be
long straight welds where an The energy input is such that used with reduced energy input,
automatic system is profitable. A butt welds can only be produced but then the wire feed can cause
good example is fabrication of with the use of a backing bar, instability of the process even if a
chassis side members consisting either integrated into the shape push-pull equipment is used.
of two “T” sections welded to of the extrusion or as temporary If the preassembly of structures is
either edge of a central plate removable feature in stainless carried out with stitches in the
which forms the web of the steel, copper or even aluminium. MIG process, these short runs
built-up beam. The two welds Due to the relatively high weld- must have a similar cross section
would normally be made auto- ing speed, the heat affected as the first weld pass and be
1
matically and at the same time to zone is narrower than with TIG some 100 mm long to be sound.
avoid problems of deformation. welding and thus the distortion Before production welding, these
Automatic welding is also pre- of the assemblies is less. stitches must be reduced in cross
ferred where an attractive section by mechanical means (no
appearance is desirable, e.g. for disc grinders), so that they can
stiffening channel welded to the be molten up with the weld pass
1. The extent of the heat affected zone
side panels of vehicle bodies. and do not leave imperfections
and the strength in the heat affected
Here the appearance and size of zone are given in EN 1999-1-1. near the root.
the weld bead can be repeated
to achieve the impression of con-
sistency.
Finally, automatic welding - both
TIG and MIG - provides a repeat-
able welding quality provided of
course that the welding parame-
ters are fully defined to begin
with.
Welding of side panels

for tippers (Menci)
113
Welding
of a truck door
3.4. Pulsed current MIG The pulsed MIG process is limited the previously described “current
welding to thin products of 2 < t ≤ 5 mm pulsation” in order to improve the
and to vertical fillet welds. arc stability. This “wire pulsation”
An improvement of the MIG This process makes it possible to induces a double pulsation to cur-
process has been achieved by weld thin gauge material with rent signal and consequently to
superimposing a pulsed current standard filler wire. As the weld the heat input. For T-joint of dis-
over the main current, the object pool can be better controlled, similar gauges, the heat input dis-
being to maintain a low average butt welds up to 5 mm thickness tribution is difficult to maintain
current level without sacrificing can be executed without backing constant with classical pulsed cur-
arc stability. bar. Furthermore it is very helpful rent. This double pulsation of cur-
The filler metal is transferred to for welding in the vertical and rent insures the concentration of
the weld pool every time the cur- the over head position. The opti- heat input at the exact location of
rent is high (i.e. one drop of metal mal machine setting is more the joint.
per pulse). The "cold times" demanding than for standard
when the current is low ensure MIG because there are much 3.6. CMT – Cold Metal
that arc stability is maintained. more parameters to be defined. Transfer
The width of the heat affected
There are three operating modes: zone is analogue to the one for For MIG welding gauges lower
• synergetic mode: only the standard MIG as is also the than 1 mm, the CMT process
rate of uncoiling has to be regu- amount of distortion of the work (Cold Metal Transfer) could be
lated. The voltage and frequency pieces. used. When detecting a short-
are regulated by electronic logic For welding over stitches see circuit, this process retracts the
circuits; remark under 3.3 above. wire so as to help detach the
• manual mode: all the weld- droplet. The thermal input is
ing parameters are adjustable; 3.5. Wire pulsation immediatly reduced and the
• programme mode: each short-circuit current is kept small.
parameter can be stored for For gauges between 1 and 3 mm,
use according to production a complementary option “the
requirements. wire pulsation” could be added to
114
3.7. Edge preparation for Just the most frequent examples For more details please consult
MIG welding are given in the Table VIII.1 EN ISO 9692-3.
TABLE VIII.1
EDGE PREPARATION
Process Welding Weld Thickness Preparation Remarks

position bead
TIG All positions One side only 0.8 < t <1.5 A slight peak formed by
the edges limits
deformation
TIG Horizontal One side only 0.8 < t < 5 Chamfered card, stainless
steel support, clamped weld
TIG All positions One side only 1.5 < t < 5 Tack-welded free edges
back-weld
possible
80° Tack-welded free edges.

TIG All positions One side only 4<t<6 Angle same principle but
with offset bevel
2 mm 1 mm
MIG All positions One side only 2.5 < t < 6 Back-weld necessary after
with back-weld gouging to base of
1 mm first pass
MIG All positions One side only 2.5 < t < 6 Stainless steel support
e
e
MIG All positions One side only 2.5 < t < 6
MIG Horizontal One side only 6 < t < 25 80° Back-weld necessary after
and overhead* with back-weld gouging to base of first
pass.
2 mm 1 mm Clearance: 1.5 mm max.
80°
MIG Horizontal One side only 4 < t < 25 Ribbed stainless
and vertical* steel support
1 mm
* X-shaped bevels are preferred for components 6 mm > t > 25 mm to restrict deformation due to welding.
115
TABLE VIII.2
CHOICE OF FILLER METALS AS A FUNCTION OF THE ALLOY COMBINATION
Each combination has three possible choices - indicated where the lines intersect - depending on the selected criterion:
Optimum mechanical properties: top line – Optimum resistance to corrosion: middle line – Optimum weld-
ability: bottom line
The filler metal indicated is: 4 : series 4xxx ¡ 4043A, 4045, 4047A – 5 : series 5xxx ¡ 5356, 5183, 5556A
Alloy A
Wrought 5
5000 Series 5 (a)
Mg < 3% 4 - 5 (b)
Wrought 5 5
5000 Series 5 5
Mg > 3% (a) 5 5
Wrought 5-4 5-4 5-4
6000 Series 5 5 5
4 4 4
Wrought 5-4 5-4 5-4 5-4
7000 Series 5 5 5
without copper 4 4 4
Cast 4 (e) 5 - 4 (e) 4 4 4 (d)
Si > 7% 4 5 4 4
(c) 4 4 4 4
Wrought Wrought Wrought Wrought Cast
Alloy B 5000 Series 5000 Series 6000 Series 7000 Series Si > 7%
Mg < 3% Mg > 3% without copper (c)
(a) 5000 series alloys with more than 3.5% Mg are sensitive to intergranular corrosion when exposed to temperatures over 65°C
and when used in certain aggressive environments (see section 2.2.6 in Chapter XI).
(b) 5000 series alloys with less than 3% Mg and 3000 series alloys that contain magnesium may be sensitive to hot cracking.
(c) The mechanical performance of the weld depends on the internal soundness of the castings. Gassed materials and injection
mouldings are considered to be non-weldable.
(d) The percentage of silicon in the filler wire must be as near as possible to that in the casting.
(e) The welding of aluminium-silicon castings (40000 series) to 5000 series alloys should be avoided where possible as Mg2Si inter-
metallics form in the weldment and weaken the joint.
116
3.8. Choice of filler wire or rod
Most of the alloys listed in of the best suited weld consum- The weld consumables should be
Chapter V are weldable and also able, we distinguish between dif- stored in their sealed package
combinations of these alloys are ferent requirements for the weld: and once a package is open, it
possible. Welding consumables optimal strength, good corrosion should be kept in a dry atmos-
are not available in exactly the resistance and weldability. A phere, because humidity on the
same chemical composition as choice must be made according surface of the wire or rod causes
the base metal to be joined. to the relative importance of porosity in the weld. If open reels
There are wires and rods in the these three requirements. of filler wire are exposed to
4XXX and 5XXX series, namely ambient climatic conditions for a
4043A, 4045, 4047A, 5183, longer period (months), it is rec-
5356 and 5556A in the market ommended to dry them in a
(see also ISO 18273). In the Table warming box at approx. 80° C for
VIII.2 , with the recommendation one night before use.
3.9. Selection of welding process
TABLE VIII.3
SELECTION OF WELDING PROCESS
Process TIG MIG

Atmosphere Inert Inert
Electrode Refractory Consumable
Current A.C. D.C. Smooth Pulsed Pulsed Pulsed
Special effect Wire pulsation Cold Metal Transfer
Suitability
Thickness range (mm) 0.8 ≤ t ≤ 5 0.2 ≤ t ≤ 10 3≤t 2≤t 1≤t≤5 t≤1
Manual yes no yes yes difficult no
Automatic yes yes yes yes yes yes
Industrial robot no no yes yes yes yes
117
4. Plasma MIG welding
This process combines the high of the torch and the work piece, The process is well suited for
melting capacity of the MIG the MIG arc is in the centre of applications with high require-
process with the nearly ideal the plasma arc. Both arcs have ments for tightness and surface
shape of the plasma arc and its the same polarity where the high aspect. It is possible to carry out
very good gas shield for the kinetic energy of the plasma arc butt welds of up to 10 mm thick-
welding pool. The result is an destroys the oxide layer on the ness in one pass with the edge
extremely good quality of welds, work piece. Mechanical removal preparation in V. The welding
especially the absence of porosi- of the oxide layer can be dis- speed is higher than for MIG
ty. The plasma arc is maintained pensed with. welding.
between the plasma ring nozzle
5. Laser welding
Laser welding of aluminium room, where during operation of The achievable welding speeds
alloys is developing rapidly paral- the equipment, nobody without are up to 12m/min with thick-
lel with the development of ever adequate eye protection has ness of around 1mm and still
growing power of laser sources. access. The sensor which emits 1-3 m/min with thicknesses
There are on one side CO2 lasers the signals necessary for the between 1.5 and 3 mm.
of up to 20 KW and more and motion control of the laser beam Compared with standard arc
Nd:YAG lasers of 6 KW and must be very effective for not welding, laser welding allows the
more. With the CO2 laser, the ori- being disturbed by reflections. production of components with
entation of the beam is limited, The process is mainly used for reduced geometrical distortions
whereas with the Nd:YAG laser thin gauge materials (1 – 4 mm) and residual stresses, as well as
optical fibres allow to bring the and the pieces to be joined must narrower heat affected zone, a
laser beam directly to the weld fit perfectly as is the case e.g. in direct consequence of the high
zone. This gives high flexibility the production of tailored blanks work speed and thus the low
especially for robot welding. The for the car industry. heat input.
high reflectivity of aluminium The laser welding process is
makes it necessary to install the preferably used with filler wire
laser equipment in a separate for aluminium alloys.
118
Laser welding
6. Laser MIG welding
The combination of a standard The laser beam runs ahead of the one pass, where the require-
arc welding process with the MIG arc but both focus on the ments for fit up of the pieces to
laser welding process allows to same point of the metal surface. be joined is less stringent than
benefit from the advantages of The shielding gas is provided by for pure laser welds.
both processes, which are good the MIG torch. Preferably a mix- The same safety measures as for
process stability, high welding ture of helium (70%) and argon laser welding must be applied.
speed and enhanced bridging (30%) is used. This process is
capacity. ideal for continuous automatic
welds up to 10 mm thickness in
119
7. Resistance welding
This technique is very common in For this reason, we do not give Interested readers should refer to
the automotive industry and not details here. the Aluminium Automotive Manual:
so widespread in the Commercial www.eaa.net/aam
Vehicles industry.
8. FSW - Friction Stir Welding
rotational speed along the con- • Low distortion, even in long

tact line between the two parts welds
to be joined. The friction of the • Excellent mechanical proper-
tool in the metal supplies the ties as proven by fatigue, tensile
needed energy to heat the local and bend tests
zone to the desired temperature. • No fume
Through the rotation and the • No porosity
translation of the tool the mate- • No spatter
rial in the weld zone is plastically • Low shrinkage
Friction Stir Welding deformed to create the weld. • Can operate in all positions
The process can be used for butt • Energy efficient
welds, overlap welds, T – sec- • No consumable tool ( one tool
This is an innovative process tions and corner welds. For each typically can be used for up to
which had been developed by of these joint geometries specific 1000 m of weld length in 6000
TWI Ltd (The Welding Institute) tool designs are necessary. The series alloys)
and is protected by patents in process can be used in all posi- • No filler wire
Europe, USA and Australia. tions i.e. horizontal, vertical, • No gas shielding
Anyone using the process needs overhead and orbital. • No welder certification
a license from TWI. • Some tolerance to imperfect
The process operates in the solid The process can be used for weld preparations – thin oxide
phase of the metal below the welds up to 50 mm thickness layers can be accepted
melting point of the alloy. A tool from one side and up to 100 mm • No grinding, brushing or pick-
in the form of a finger with a from two sides. Advantages are: ling required in mass production
shoulder is rotated and moved • High productivity, i.e. low cost
into the metal with a defined potential
120
Friction stir welded taillift profiles
The limitations of the FSW process The relatively high investment Up to now the dimensionally
are continuously reduced by inten- requires a high degree of biggest equipment can cope
sive research and development. repeatability in order to material- with work pieces up to 20 m
However, the main limitations of ize the cost saving potential long.
the FSW process are at present: Work pieces must be rigidly
clamped
Backing bar required (except
where self-reacting tool or direct-
ly opposed tools are used
Keyhole at the end of each weld
Cannot make joints which
require metal deposition (e.g. fil-
let welds)
121
9. Surface preparation before welding
For quality welds it is recom- The metal to be welded must be degreased using a solvent such
mended to machine the edges dry and without contamination as acetone or industry alcohol.
(see section 3.7) of sheet to be of any grease or other products Avoid trichlorethylen, which
welded after water jet, plasma or that evaporate under the action transforms under the effect of
laser cutting to remove this of the arc. To achieve this clean the arc into the poisonous gas
rough surface with a thick oxide surface, the pieces to be welded phosgene. When the solvent on
layer and also with micro cracks should be brought into the work- the surface has evaporated, a
in order to avoid weld defects shop two days before produc- further cleaning with a stainless
such as cracks and oxide inclu- tion. This will allow condensation steel wire brush (hand-operated
sions. The same should be done that might occur when the tem- or rotary) is recommended.
for plate with thickness over 10 perature in the storage area is
mm that has been sheared. lower than in the workshop to Outdoor welding is not advis-
There is a great risk of cracks in dry off. able. If it cannot be avoided, the
the short transverse direction, welding environment must be
where a removal of 2 mm via Immediately before welding, the screened off.
milling or routing is adequate. edges to be joined and their sur-
roundings must be properly
Welding of tipper body (SCHMITZ)
122
10. Quality control
Quality control enables manufac- The level of acceptable defects is • the technical and financial
turers to judge the quality of the determined by: impact of the failure of the weld-
products they fabricate and more • the types and directions of ed structure,
specifically to grade the quality load (static and dynamic), • the possibility of routine oper-
of a welded joint against an • the levels and variations in ational inspection and control.
acceptable level of defined stress,
defects. • possible hazards to personnel,
10.1. Approval procedures 10.2. Inspecting welded joints
The procedures are either con- The type of inspection carried An inspection plan must be
tractual between client and sup- out on welded joints will natural- made containing:
plier or self-regulated by the fab- ly depend on the work rate of • extent of inspection before
ricator. Welders must be certified the weldments. welding
and qualified in accordance with In the fabrication shop it is possi- • extent of inspection and NDT
EN ISO 9606-2. Welding proce- ble to perform the following • NDT methods to be used
dure specification must be in non-destructive tests (NDT) in • acceptance criteria (quality level)
accordance with EN ISO 15609- addition to visual inspection: in accordance with EN ISO 10042
1, EN ISO 15612, EN ISO 15613 • dye penetration tests are valu-
and EN ISO15614-2. able for detecting leaks and
Test specimens must be submit- emergent cracks,
ted for tensile or bending tests. • weld shape tests (geometrical
Bending tests are important shape),
because they: • radiography, used to detect
• detect bonding that is hard to internal defects (porosity, cracks,
identify in non-destructive testing, inclusions) in butt joints,
• help achieve a good balance • ultrasonic tests
of parameters with a view to pre- It may also be prudent to per-
venting these defects. form some destructive tests on
reference specimens.
123
10.3. Weld defects & approval criteria
Weld defects and quality levels is given in EN ISO 6520-1 which • Group 400: Lack of fusion and
are given in EN ISO 10042. lists 6 groups of imperfections: penetration
Guidance for choice of quality • Group 100: Cracks • Group 500: Defects of shape
level is given in EN 1090-3. • Group 200: Cavities and • Group 600: Sundry defects
An international nomenclature of wormholes
defects has been established and • Group 300: Solid inclusions
TABLE VIII.4
LISTS SOME COMMON WELD DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES
N° Type of Defect Likely Cause Photos of Imperfections
101 Cracks Base alloy unsuitable

Poor choice of filler metal
Incorrect welding sequence
Excessive clamping
Sudden cooling
104 Crater cracks Pass finished with sudden arc cutoff

Defect 101
2012 Irregular wormholes Work inadequately degreased
Work and/or filler wire dirty or wet
Insufficient protection by inert gas
(low gas flow or leak in the system)
Pass begun on cold component
High arc voltage
Weld cooled too quickly
2014 Aligned wormholes Incomplete penetration (double pass) Defect 104

Temperature gradient between
backing and work too abrupt
Excessive gap between edges of the joint
300 Solid inclusions Dirty metal (oxides, brush hairs)
303 Oxide inclusions Poor gas shielding

Metal stored in poor conditions Defect
Castings 2012
124
N° Type of Defect Likely Cause Photos of Imperfections
3041 Tungsten inclusions Electrode diameter too small

(TIG) Poor handling by welder
Excessive current density
Poor quality of tungsten electrode
402 Incomplete penetration Inadequate cleaning (presence of oxide)

Incorrect bevel preparation on thick work
Defect 300
(too tight, excessive shoulder)
Gap between workpieces too small
(or incon-sistent)
Low current, especially at the start
of the seam
Welding speed too fast
High arc voltage Defect 402
4011 Lack of fusion High arc voltage
on edges Low current, especially at the start
of the seam
Work cold (difference in thickness
between materials to be welded)
502 Excessive thickness Poor power control

(poor U/I match) Defect 402
Welding speed too slow
Poor edge preparation on thick work
Insufficient starting current
507 Misalignment Work positioned incorrectly

508 Angle defect Excessive welding power Defect 502

509 Collapse Wire speed too fast

Torch speed too slow
Poor torch guidance
602 Splatter (or beads) Incorrect arc control

Problem in electrical contact to ground Defect 507
125
11. Design and prevention of deformation
11.1. Causes tank and by which the bulkhead 11.2. Solutions

of deformation is welded to it. This approach
should prevent the problem of There are a number of solutions
In machine welded structures, punching due to the weld con- to the above problems:
deformation can be caused by: tracting and should minimise
deformation (Figure VIII.4). 11.2.1. Use of extrusions
11.1.1. The direction Similarly, where the body of a
of the welds tank has to be stiffened, it is It is worthwhile using extrusions
essential to place a support plate in the fabrication of chassis as
It is a well known fact that a bead between the stiffener and the this can help to:
contracts most at the end of the skin of the tank to prevent defor- • position assemblies in less
weld, which is why the greatest mation by the effect of punching stressed areas,
deformation occurs in the end due to weld contraction (Figure • make welds that eliminate
zones. So far as possible therefore VIII.5). In the absence of a sup- deformation.
it is essential to orient the weld port plate the tank would
towards the outside of the work- deform under the effect of sub-
piece so as to release as much sequent dynamic stresses.
stress as possible. Otherwise, with
FIGURE VIII.4
the weld facing the middle of the
UPSTAND WELDING
component, the contraction
stresses are “trapped” and defor-
mation will be greater as a result.
The end of the weld must be fin-
ished to prevent any danger of
cracking on the end crater.
11.1.2. The effect of punching
This is normally due to design

error. If we take the example of a
bulkhead inside a tank, it is
®
essential that the bulkhead,

which is either deep-drawn or Upstand
spun, has a down flanging rest-
ing flat against the body of the
126
Chassis side members for 11.2.2. End stops 11.2.3. Predeforming

instance are usually fabricated
from two extrusions forming the These must be positioned so as Some weld deformations can be
two flanges of the member and to allow free elongation of the offset by predeforming the areas
a sheet for the web. assemblies during welding. to be welded in such a way that
The assembly shown in Figure "Compressing" a weld, i.e. pre- the assembled components
VIII.6 can be automatically MIG venting its elongation, greatly "come right" after welding.
welded with two welding torch- exaggerates contraction and If the metal is only predeformed
es operating simultaneously. hence subsequent deformation. in the elastic zone by clamping,
Both methods of butt joining are the results can be very erratic,
possible, i.e. with the side mem- and it is therefore advisable to
ber positioned vertically or hori- predeform by bending the metal
zontally. The choice of position in the plastic zone. In this way,
will be dictated chiefly by the the results will be predictable
design of the welding bench. and repeatable.
When the side member is hori-
zontal a support will be needed
to counteract angular deflection.
FIGURE VIII.5 FIGURE VIII.6

WELDING WITH SUPPORT PLATE FABRICATING A CHASSIS MEMBER
®
®
Horizontal (flat)
Vertical
(flat)
®
®
127
EUROPEAN
EUROPEAN ALUMINIUM
ASSOCIATION
128
CHAPTER IX
OTHER JOINING
TECHNIQUES
1. ADHESIVE BONDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

1.1. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
1.2. Advantages and disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.3. Types of adhesives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.4. Application of adhesives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
1.5. Creep and ageing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2. SCREWING AND BOLT FASTENING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3. RIVETING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4. SNAP-LOCK & CLIPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
129
1. Adhesive bonding
1.1. Definition FIGURE IX.1

PRINCIPLE OF ADHESIVE BONDING
Adhesive bonding is defined as
a process of joining parts using a ADHESION
non-metallic substance (adhe- Physical attraction forces Chemical bonding Mechanical interlocking
sive) which undergoes a physical between adhesive and between adhesive between adhesive and
metal surface molecules and metal surface roughness of
or chemical hardening and by
atoms the parts to be joined
thus leading to a joining of the
parts through surface forces
(adhesion) and internal forces
(cohesion).
Adhesion can be physical attrac-

tion between the adhesive and
the metal surface, real chemical
bonding between the adhesive
molecules and the metal atoms
or mechanical interlocking
between the adhesive and the
surface roughness of the metal.
Cohesion is the inner strength
of the adhesive itself as a result
of physical and/or chemical COHESION
Physical and/or chemical interaction
forces between the components
between the adhesive molecules
of the adhesive.
Source: Talat lectures
130
ALUMINIUM IN COMMERCIAL VEHICULES CHAPTER IX OTHER JOINING TECHNIQUES 130 | 131
1.2. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Load distributed uniformly at right 1. Influence of time on process properties

angle to loading direction
2. Pre-treatment of joined surfaces
2. Microstructure unaffected necessary
3. Distortion-free joining 3. Limited form stability
4. Different materials can be joined 4. Process parameters must be held in

narrow ranges
5. Very thin parts can be joined
5. Change of the properties in time
6. Weight saving
(ageing of the adhesive)
7. Heat-sensitive materials can be joined
6. Complicated control of process
8. Metals with different electrochemical
7. Low peeling strength
potentials can be joined (insulating
effect of adhesive) 8. Low adhesive layer strength requires
9. High strength joining in combination large joining areas
with other methods (screwing, 9. Limited repair possibilities

welding…)
10. Difficult strength calculation
10. High fatigue strength and good
vibration damping
Source: Talat lectures
1.3. Types of adhesives
Combination of adhesive bonding Adhesives can be divided into 3 sub- reaction. Thermoplastics like
and mechanical joining (e.g. rivet- groups depending on their forming polyamides and polysulfones as
ing or bolting) can eliminate some reaction and polymer structure: well as duromers like phenol
of the above-listed disadvantages. • Polymerisation: An exothermic formaldehyde resins, urea resins,
process in which monomers link melamine resins and polymides, are
together to form macromolecules all produced by polycondensation.
(polymers). Thermoplastics like • Polyaddition: During this
methylacrylates, polyvinyl chlo- process the hydrogen atoms are
rides, polyvinyl acetates and rub- rearranged. Very common adhe-
ber polymers belong to this group sives for metal bonding like
• Polycondensation: Water is pro- epoxy resins and polyurethanes
duced as a result of the chemical are produced by polyaddition.
131
Prototype floor section made

of bonded sheets and extruded
stiffeners
1.4. Application
of adhesives
As adhesive bonding is working

by surface forces, prerequisites
for a well functioning adhesive
joint are
a) the choice of an appropriate
adhesive for the materials to be Patented by Alcan
combined
b) the existence of a suitable
material surface The joint construction should be 1.5. Creep and ageing
related to the adhesion process
A suitable surface means, that and its requirements for large The durability of adhesive joints
the surface area must be large bonding areas. Peeling and depends on factors such as prop-
enough to transfer the applied cleaving forces on adhesive er pre-treatment, chemical com-
forces and that it is capable to joints must be avoided and position of the adhesive and
ensure a proper bonding. This bending forces should be service conditions like stresses,
can be achieved through a reduced to a minimum. temperature, humidity and expo-
suitable pre-treatment. Any The adhesive can be applied sure to ultraviolet radiation (poly-
residues of dirt like moisture, manually (e.g. with the use of mers are sensitive to this kind of
oils, dust etc. must be removed cartridges) or for larger areas radiation and tend to lose their
prior to application of the adhe- with automated machines. The mechanical properties).
sive. This can be done by chem- bonding should take place in a The ageing of bonded joints can
ical means with the use of dry and well ventilated and be caused by creep under stress
detergents, degreasers or etch- dust-free workshop. (creep can be defined as time-
ing agents or mechanically by The work must be done in strict dependent increase in the
grinding. In any case the surface compliance with the manufactur- length of visco-elastic sub-
must be absolutely clean before er´s rules. The production param- stances subject to a constant
gluing. It might be favourable to eters such as resin/hardener ratio, tensile load).
use a primer for better wetting duration and pressure component Adhesive joints should therefore
of the metal surface by the fit up during adhesive curing, curing be inspected regularly to pre-
adhesive as well. temperature, etc. must be con- vent damages and to enable
trolled properly. repair prior to a possible failure.
132
2. Screwing and bolt fastening
Bolting creates a joint which can steel and aluminium (e.g. the result of the calculation of the
be opened and closed as many connection between chassis and applied stresses. In the combina-
times as necessary. It is besides tank or tipper body). Special tion of steel screws with alumini-
welding the most conventional precautions should be taken to um plates, the risk of galvanic
method for joining metals. In avoid galvanic corrosion, please corrosion must be considered:
contradiction to welding, differ- refer to Chapter XI. insulating gaskets should be
ent metals can be joined. In placed around the contact area
commercial vehicles this is most The choice of the fastening between both metals.
likely the connection between geometry will depend on the
3. Riveting
Riveting is today a widespread • Optical appearance: Machine bolt, but unlike conventional
joining method in different sec- riveting can be combined with a nuts and bolts; they will not
tors of industry, including com- plastic capping of the rivet work loose, even during
mercial vehicle construction. As • It does not require skilled extreme vibration. They can only
it is a very safe and easy-to- operators be used when both sides of the
apply technique, riveting has • Mixed joints are possible: dif- joint are accessible. Lockbolts
become a very common method ferent metals, plastics, sandwich consist of a pin which is inserted
for joining assemblies e.g. in the or honeycomb panels in the hole and a collar which is
construction of the bodies of placed on the pin from the
refrigerated trailers. Rivets can be divided into opposite end. The tool is placed
2 main subcategories: self pierc- over the fastener pintail and
Machine riveting has a lot of ing rivets and conventional riv- activated, the pin head pulls
advantages: ets which require holes that against the material, the tool
• High-speed: Machine riveting must be drilled prior to riveting. anvil then push’s the collar
allows fast operations with the use against the joint, at this stage
of pneumatic or hydraulic tools Conventional can be sorted into the initial clamp is generated.
• Ease of control: the clamping two families: The tool then swages the collar
force is always guaranteed by • Lockbolts which visually look into the pin. The pintail then
the system as it is less than the like they create the same type of breaks and the installation is
force needed to snap the rivet connection as a conventional complete (Figure IX.2).
133
FIGURE IX.2
LOCKBOLTS
Lockbolt strength
characteristics
Clamp force or pre-load: dur-
ing the installation process, as
the tool engages and pulls on
the pintail, the joint is pulled
together before the conical
FIGURE IX.3
shaped cavity of the nose
assembly is forced down the BLIND RIVET
collar, progressively locking
(swaging) it into the grooves of
the harder pin. The pin and
swaged collar together form
the installed fastener.
The squeezing action reduces
the diameter of the collar,
increasing its length, which in
turn stretches the pin, generat-
ing a clamp force over the
joint. FIGURE IX.4
Shear strength of lockbolts SELF-PIERCING RIVET
varies according to the materi-
al strength and minimal diam-
eter of the fastener. By increas-
ing the diameter or the grade
of material, the shear strength
of the fastener can be
increased.
The tensile strength of lock-
bolts is dependent on the
shear resistance of the collar
material and the number of deformation of the rivet (there- further closing motion of the
grooves it fills. fore they are often called tool, together with the specially
• Blind rivets, which are used “breakstem rivets”). (Figure IX.3) shaped counter die causes the
when only one side is accessible. • Self piercing rivets do not rivet head to be formed in such
Blind rivets are characterised by require previous drilling. The a way that the pierced sheet is
breaking off of the rivet stem rivet part of the bolt is pierced covered over in the joining
after fastening the connection by through the metal sheet. The region. (Figure IX-4).
134
4. Snap-lock & clipping
The Snap-Lock is a design which FIGURE IX.5

uses serrated components mak- CLIPPING PRINCIPLE
ing assembly easy and quick.
The snap-lock design allows sid-

ing to be notched and locked
into place without face nailing.
Stresses are distributed over the

entire length of the profile and
not merely concentrated on the
mechanical fixing point (rigidity).
Reefer floor assembled

by bonding (Schmitz)
135
136
CHAPTER X
D E C O R AT I O N
AND FINISHING
1. FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2. POSSIBILITIES WITH ALUMINIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3. MECHANICAL FINISHING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.1. Brushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.2. Polishing / Buffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4. CHEMICAL DECORATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.1. Anodizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.2. Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
137
1. Foreword
Although aluminium can be used is most likely to use different sur- tect it from severe atmospheric
without any surface protection face treatment methods to opti- conditions and to give space for
and keeps its natural beauty mise the attractiveness and opti- company logos or advertise-
throughout a whole trailer life, it cal appearance of a trailer, to pro- ments.
Aluminium tanker (Trailor)
2. Possibilities with aluminium
There are several methods for softness of the surface and the - Polishing (or “buffing”)
decoration and finishing of an existence of the oxide layer have • Chemical Finishing
aluminium surface. Although all to be considered. - Anodising
of the methods used for other - Painting
materials are applicable, special There are 2 main methods of Today, painting is the most com-
attention has to be paid to alu- decoration and finishing: mon way to decorate trucks and
minium´s characteristic proper- • Mechanical finishing trailers.
ties. In each case, especially the - Brushing
138
ALUMINIUM IN COMMERCIAL VEHICULES CHAPTER X DECORATION AND FINISHING 138 | 139
3. Mechanical finishing
3.1. Brushing 3.2. Polishing / Buffing Mirror finished plates are fabri-
cated in the rolling mill by the
Brushing is a rather seldomly Polishing or buffing is a quite use of a special rolling routine
used method for the decoration common method in the North with work rolls which have near-
of trucks and trailers. It can American market to provide a ly no surface roughness. This
mostly be seen on tankers for decorative surface finish. 3 main makes it a very demanding
the transport of fluid goods. methods can be applied: process and great care must be
Like polishing, brushing is based • Use of mirror-finished alumini- taken to secure a reliable and
on abrasion effects between the um sheets and plates fabricated constant quality of the sheets.
brush surface and the alumini- in the rolling mill
um surface. Due to the brush • Polishing / buffing of mill finish Buffing or polishing of large
being the harder part, alumini- sheets to the desired surface plates is done on automatic lines,
um is removed from the surface appearance where the surface is polished
by an abrasive effect. Brushing • Manual polishing with rotary polishers across the
is done with rotary brushing whole width of the sheet at the
tools or machines. Normally no The use of mirror-finished plates same time. The rotary polishers
additional brushing compounds or the use of already buffed or have special pads on their sur-
or chemicals will be used. polished sheets has the advan- face, which polish the aluminium
tage, that the work on site is surface under the help of polish-
Like for every surface treatment of reduced to the manual polishing ing compounds. The polishing
aluminium, the part to be brushed of weld seams or places which compounds works as a slight
has to be cleaned and degreased have been damaged during fab- abrasive and removes the top
properly before applying the rication. Great care must be layer of the aluminium surface in
brushing process. The cleaning is taken when handling or working the range of the surface rough-
done to remove any dust, dirt, oil, with these sheets, as every little ness produced by the rolling mill.
emulsion or other residues from trace of a mechanical defect As the result of polishing is very
the rolling process prior to brush- caused by fabrication must be much depending on the type of
ing and to prevent particles from manually polished. alloy and temper, the surface
being squeezed into the surface hardness, the type of polishing
during brushing. To secure a uni- paste and the machine setting
form surface appearance, it is of (like rotational speed, pressure
great advantage to use an auto- and type of pad), this is a method
matic process with several brushes of “trial and error” to find the
in one single station, which are right setting per specification.
simultaneously controlled.
139
ting abrasive paste. The pad

should be a wool compounding
type. Speed of the polisher must
be limited to prevent burning of
the surface. The polisher should
be moved back and forth, up and
Aluminium tank (LAG) down to ensure a uniform abra-
sion of the surface. As the pad
will suddenly turn black (caused
by the polishing residue), great
care must be taken to regularly
clean or change the pad. After
the rough first polish, the type of
paste should be changed to one
with lower abrasion. Before
applying the final polishing step,
it is useful to clean the surface
again to remove the black
residue, which might be trapped
into the surface. The final result
of manual polishing should be a
mirror-like, uniform, swirl-mark,
black speck- and bright sparkle-
free surface.
Aluminium tipper (Benalu)
To keep the mirror-like surface

In any case, before polishing, the The same rules apply for manual throughout a long period, it
aluminium plates should be polishing. This process is difficult makes sense to apply a clear coat
degreased and cleaned to remove to apply and a large and exten- system, as exposure to normal
any kind of dust and dirt to prevent sive experience is necessary to atmosphere would lead to a
abrasive particles from being reach a satisfactory and repro- bleaching of the polished surface.
ground into the aluminium surface. ducible result. After removal of
surface dirt or oil, the manual
process starts with a rotary pol-
isher and the use of quick- cut-
140
4. Chemical decoration
4.1. Anodizing certain thicknesses of the oxide 4.2. Painting

layer (in the range of 1000 times
Anodizing is an electrochemical proof the natural oxide film). 4.2.1. Introduction
cess to reinforce the natural oxide Anodising not only produces
film on the aluminium surface. most frequently a silver- matt sur- Painting is the most usual way of
face, but at the same time decoration for commercial vehi-
Anodising is done in a sulphuric enables increasing hardness, cor- cles. Due to the natural oxide
solution at a certain electric cur- rosion resistance and resistance to film on the aluminium surface, it
rent. The natural oxide film is abrasion. The process is applied is of vital importance for a well
thereby newly built and the discontinuously on components adherent and durable organic
process can be controlled to reach like castings, extrusions and plates coating to apply an efficient sur-
or continuously on coils. face preparation.
FIGURE X.1
The structure of the anodic film is It is therefore not sufficient to
STRUCTURE OF THE ANODISED LAYER
determined by the process clean the bare aluminium surface
parameters (type of bath, applied and to degrease it prior to paint
current etc.) and consists of application. It is essential to
Pore Sealed hexagonal cells. The center of the remove also the natural oxide
cells cells includes a micro-pore with a layer, because it disturbs adhe-
diameter of micrometers. These sion of the paint system.
®
pores have to be sealed to close This can be done in 2 ways:

them and to guarantee an excel- Chemical pre-treatment
®
lent corrosion resistance. This is by etching (after degreasing

done in boiling water under the or by a combine
Cell wall use of sealants. (Figure X.1) degreasing/etching process)
®
Degreasing of aluminium sur-
Notch
faces can be done with fluid
®
degreasing solvents, supplied
®
e.g. by paint producers. The

objective of cleaning and
®
degreasing are:
Barrier layer
(base of the Aluminium • to remove any kind of fatty or
cell) oily residues, or traces of dirt and
dust from the surface
• to prevent electrostatic charging.
141
Cleaning before painting (LAG)
To apply a degreasing solvent acidic solutions with phosphoric machine. It is essential to use
properly, it is necessary to wipe acid or nitric acid. Etching leaves iron-free blasting abrasives like
the surface with a fresh mois- a rough and very moisture-sensi- non-recycled corundum, as iron
tened cloth and then clean it tive surface behind. It is therefore can lead to corrosion problems1.
with a new, fresh and dry cloth. essential to rinse carefully with The rate of abrasion during blast-
Aluminium has amphoteric prop- fresh water after etching (about ing is very low and well below
erties, which means that it can 20 minutes). 0.1 mm and therefore in the
be dissolved either in an acidic or same range as etching.
alkaline environment. Etching of Mechanical treatment After grinding (which is also used
commercial vehicles is normally sby grinding or blasting to flatten the welding seams and
done by applying the etching Grinding is to be done on a clean to plane out scratches) or blast-
agent by spraying. Alkaline etch- and degreased surface to prevent ing it is necessary to remove
ing agents are based on caustic oil being trapped into the alumini- traces of the abrasives by com-
soda, silicates, phosphates, car- um, which could lead to adhesion pressed air and then to clean the
bonates and sodium hydroxide. problems of the paint. The grain- surface again.
The concentration of sodium ing of the grinding disk should
hydroxide and the temperature have a grain size of 120-180.
of the etching agent have a large Blasting allows a more uniform 1. The incrustation of iron particles on
the aluminium surface is a source of gal-
influence on the speed and rate treatment of the vehicle and
vanic corrosion that will lead, in the
of the etching process. Etching reaches areas which cannot be presence of moisture, to superficial
can also be done on the base of reached by a manual grinding micro-pitting.
142
4.2.2. Application of the primer The final coating system can be sep- • Removal of unevenness with a
arated into 2- or 3-layer systems filler; grinding of the filler layer
The primer should be applied with or without the use of fillers and • Removal of dirt and dust by
directly after the pre-treatment of basecoats. Fillers are needed to flat- wiping with a moisturized cloth
the surface to prevent the rebuild- ten unevenness and/or to increase • Application of the 1st paint
ing of the oxide film or to prevent thickness of the coating system. layer (basecoat or wet-in-wet
any dust being attracted by the For preparation of the surface, the filler) in 2 steps with a combined
vehicle during longer periods of primer layer has to be ground with layer thickness of 60-70 µm.
waiting time. Primers (or “wash a smooth grinding disk (roughness Special attention should be paid
primers”) are used as adhesive 300-400). Fillers have also to be to the area of stone chipping.
agents to maintain the necessary ground before application of the • Application of the topcoat
bonding forces between the sub- topcoat system. (clear-coat) in the desired colour
strate (aluminium surface) and the The paint is normally applied with after max. 2 hrs. Final coating
paint system. They are also work- spray guns. Drying times and tem- thickness 50 – 60 µm.
ing as corrosion inhibitors, as they peratures have to be controlled. It • Drying of the top layer
prevent water vapour diffusion might be necessary to apply an Extrusion profile systems used e.g.
through the paint system from intermediate fine grinding of the in tipping trailers can be painted
getting in contact with the alu- single paint layers. in 2 ways: either the trailer can be
minium surface. Primers made of A typical painting procedure of a painted as a whole or the profiles
epoxy- resins are a well suited silo tank trailer could be2: can be painted individually and
material for pre-treating alumini- • Etching / degreasing inside and then being assembled. The gener-
um, but need a thoroughly treat- outside by spraying with an inhibit- al rules for decoration mentioned
ed bare metal surface. The primer ed etching agent based on phos- above are also valid for these
is normally applied by spray gun phoric acid types of constructions.
and the thickness of the wash • Rinsing with fresh water for In any case it is essential for a suf-
primer or reaction primer layer is about 20 minutes ficient and long lasting paint dec-
about 10 μm. • Final assembly of the vehicle oration to apply a well conduct-
• Grinding of the tank surface with ed preparation of the surface as
4.2.3. Final coating a manual grinding machine to mentioned before. Problems with
remove small surface damages the paint decoration often are
The application of the final coating • Cleaning and degreasing with not related to the paint or the
system can be done in different degreasers or silicone removers aluminium itself, but more with
ways, but is anyhow not specific for • Application of the wash primer an insufficient pre-treatment.
aluminium. In any case, it is of vital onto the outer tank surface. Layer
importance to use paint systems thickness 8-10 µm.
with coordinated properties. The • Drying of the tank at room tem-
2. Koewius, Gross, Angehrn Aluminium-
technical rules of the paint suppliers perature (20°C) or at elevated tem- Konstruktionen des Nutzfahrzeugbaus,
have to be strictly obeyed. peratures up to 80°C Aluminium Verlag, Düsseldorf, 1990.
143
144
CHAPTER XI
C O R R O S I O N R E S I S TA N C E
1. DEFINITION OF CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

2. CORROSION OF ALUMINIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.1. The natural oxide layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.2. Types of aluminium corrosion in commercial vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
2.3. Further references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
145
1. Definition of corrosion
Corrosion is a electrochemical to impairment of the function of Corrosion can occur locally (“pit-
interaction between a metal and the metal, the environment, or ting”), or it can extend across a
its environment which results in the technical system of which wide area to produce general
changes in the properties of the these form a part (definition as deterioration.
metal and which may often lead per EN ISO 8044).
2. Corrosion of aluminium
2.1. The natural oxide layer
A clean aluminium surface is very which are present in seawater or Vehicle manufacturers or fleet
reactive and will react sponta- road salts. operators should contact the alu-
neously with air or water to form Some alloying elements might minium supplier in any case of
aluminium oxide. This oxide increase the corrosion resistance critical working conditions like
builds a natural protective layer of the oxide layer, while others elevated temperatures or aggres-
on each aluminium surface with can weaken it. sive loads.
a thickness of around 1 – 10 nm.
The oxide layer is chemically very FIGURE XI.1
stable, has a good adhesion to
the metal surface, repairs itself
and protects the aluminium from
further corrosion. (Figure XI.1)
Natural oxide
The oxide layer can be destroyed layer (Al2O3)
in strong acidic or alkaline envi-
ronments or where aggressive
ions are present. Aggressive ions
can destroy the layer locally and Aluminium substrate
lead to local corrosion attack
(“pitting”). A typical case for this
reaction is the contact between
aluminium and chloride ions,
146
ALUMINIUM IN COMMERCIAL VEHICULES CHAPTER XI CORROSION 146 | 147
2.2. Types of aluminium corrosion in commercial vehicles
Although highly resistant to cor- 2.2.1. Galvanic corrosion aluminium is used in combina-
rosion through its natural oxide tion with other metals under the
film, the following types of corro- Galvanic or bimetallic corrosion presence of an electrolyte (such
sion can occur in commercial can occur when two different as water). In an electrochemical
vehicle construction or operation: metals (or electroconductive reaction, the aluminium is work-
• Galvanic corrosion non-metallic materials) come ing as an anode and is dissolving,
• Crevice corrosion into direct or indirect contact while the other metal retains its
• Pitting corrosion with each other in the presence integrity.
• Filiform corrosion of an electrolyte. The reason for
this type of corrosion is the dif- In this case, the aluminium ions
ference in the electrochemical react with the oxygen of the
potential of the two metals. water to alumina (Al2O3), which
Aluminium is a very electronega- builds a white layer on the alu-
tive metal and therefore special minium surface.
attention has to be paid when
147
There are 3 main prerequisites for FIGURE XI.2

galvanic corrosion: PRINCIPLE OF A GALVANIC CELL BUILT WITH ALUMINIUM
AS ANODE
• 2 different metals with differ-
ent electrochemical potential
• presence of an electrolyte
• direct or indirect contact
e-

between the 2 metals
Electron Flow
The electrolyte enables the flow Anode Cathode
of electrons between the 2 met- (Aluminium) (e.g. copper)
als. This can happen if the metals
are wetted by the electrolyte
(e.g. water containing salt) or
emerged in the electrolyte. In
commercial vehicles, this type of
corrosion can occur where steel
Electrolyte
and aluminium parts are bolted,
riveted or screwed together and
where rainwater or road splash 2Al 2Al3+ + 6e- 6H+ + 6e- 3H2
water can come in contact with

the metal parts. (Figure XI.2)
To avoid direct contact between

FIGURE XI.3
the 2 metals and to prevent
entrapment of water, it is neces- PREVENTION OF GALVANIC CORROSION
sary to work with insulating
material (such as neoprene or
other elastomers) between the
metals and to use sealing com- ®
Aluminium
pounds to close constructive ®
Sleeve and
gaps. (Figure XI.3) ® Gasket ( PVC,
insulating elastomer)
washers ®
®
Bolt ® Other metal

(Steel…)
148
FIGURE XI.4
CREVICES AND HOW TO PREVENT THEM
Tight fastening
of bolts and rivets
necessary
Sealing of access
2.2.2. Crevice corrosion to crevice
Crevice corrosion occurs in small ® ® Possible
®
constructive recesses. In a crevice crevice
there will be the possibility for
accumulation of moisture
Sealing of the
because of capillary forces and
crevice itself
deposits of aggressive media.
Therefore, especially in the road
water splash zone, constructive FIGURE XI.5
gaps should always be closed as PITTING CORROSION
far as possible, as the penetrat-
ing water might contain aggres-
sive ions (e.g. from road salts).
The corrosion rate of crevice cor- Alu
a mi
rosion is normally very low due to in na
um
the corrosion product – alumina Al
– being very stable and building a Corrosion
Attack ®
sealing of the crevice. (Figure
XI.4) CI-
CI-
®
®
CI-
®
2.2.3. Pitting corrosion

®
Pitting corrosion is the most com-

mon corrosion form seen on alu-
minium, characterised by the ing related circumstances (areas um and by this slows down the
development of small local pits in which have been ground, weld corrosion speed. (Figure XI.5)
the surface. The diameter and the discontinuities etc.). The pits are
depth of the pits varies and formed with a rapid increase in This slowdown in the rate of pit-
depends on different parameters depth after initiation followed by ting corrosion explains the fact
related to the aluminium itself a slower growth. This is due to that aluminium equipment can be
(type of alloy, rate of cold working, the corrosion product - alumina – used for decades in certain envi-
heat treatments) or to its environ- that is not soluble in water and ronments (country air, sea air, sea
ment (presence of aggressive ions). therefore adheres to the surface water) without any protection.
Pitting corrosion occurs on sites of the metal inside the pits. The
where the natural oxide film is alumina then obstructs the direct In other words, pitting corrosion
damaged or imperfect due to contact between the aluminium is quite normal and does not
diverse reasons like manufactur- surface and the corrosive medi- impact the durability of vehicles.
149
FIGURE XI.7
2.2.4. Constructive measures
to prevent corrosion
Unsuitable solutions
Some general rules shall be
applied to prevent corrosion (in
most cases to prevent any kind of
water trap or areas where con-
densation can occur):
• Constructive gaps should be
avoided or, if not possible, should
Better solutions
be sealed. (Figure XI.6)
Run of
FIGURE XI.6
Run of
Watertight seal
®
• Water traps should be avoid- have a worm-like appearance

ed. Assemblies should be con- and are readily visible. Filiform
structed with the open side corrosion does not attack the
downwards. (Figure XI.7) metal surface, but affects the
• Weld discontinuities shall, also surface appearance.
with regard to other issues like The mode of corrosion is quite
stress, fatigue etc., be strictly similar to pitting with the front of
avoided. (Figure XI.8) the attack being supported by
• Materials having different elec- moisture which penetrates the
trochemical potential have to be surface layer and leads to oxygen
separated from each other by concentrated areas and by thus
coatings or insulating materials. acting as an anode. Filiform corro-
FIGURE XI.8
sion is mainly an aesthetic effect,
2.2.5. Filiform corrosion but could lead in certain construc-
Weld discontinuities tion parts to delaminating of the
Filiform corrosion (also known as surface layer system.
under-film corrosion) occurs To prevent this type of corrosion it
®
under paint or enamel layers. It is of vital importance to follow the

®
depends mostly on environmen- instructions of the paint supplier,

tal conditions and the quality of especially with regard to a proper
the surface treatment prior to surface treatment under the use
painting. The corrosion filaments of a suitable primer system.
150
2.2.6. 5000 series alloys • Manufacturing processes like magnesium is strongly recom-
and elevated temperatures forming and thermal joining mended where exposure for long
(welding) might reduce resistance periods to temperatures in excess
When held for long periods at of final product to sensitization. of about 75°C occurs. When the
elevated temperatures (between • The thermal load (i.e. temper- use of 5000 alloys with higher
65°C and 200°C), aluminium- ature multiplied by time of expo- Mg content is desired, consulta-
magnesium alloys containing sure) is more important than the tion with the material producer is
more than 3% of magnesium temperature alone. For example, recommended and their applica-
undergo metallurgical changes if 65°C is often given as a limit in bility must be evaluated in detail,
that can lead to intergranular catalogues or manuals, it takes taking into account the thermal
corrosion if the two conditions two years to sensitize a 5086 exposure of the part during its
below are both satisfied: alloy at that temperature, while total lifetime.
• Precipitation of a continuous at 100°C, several months are
bead of Al8Mg5 intermetallic necessary. The fastest sensitiza- 2.2.7. Other forms of corrosion
compounds occurs along the tions are generally observed
grain boundaries (sensitization). between 130°C and 200°C. Other forms of corrosion do exist,
These Al8Mg5 precipitations are but the alloys and tempers most
anodic to the bulk material. But even if a material is sensi- currently used in commercial
• Presence of an aggressive tized, corrosion will only happen vehicles are not prone to these
medium, e.g. a saline solution on in aggressive environments, i.e. types of corrosion.
the bare surface of the material. when a corrosive electrolyte gets
in contact with the metal surface.
This phenomenon has been studied Experience has confirmed this.
many times with a view to gauging There are road tankers for heavy 2.3. Further references
the influence of the following fuel oil, which have seen 20 years
parameters for sensitization: and more of service, running 8 to • Corrosion of aluminium,
• The magnesium content and the 10 hours a day, which is at least C. Vargel, ed. Elsevier
production process largely deter- 50,000 hours of cumulative • www.corrosion-aluminium.com
mine the kinetics of sensitization of operation at 65-70°C.
5000 series material. Proper routes
to minimize susceptibility are well As a general guideline, the use of
established at suppliers. alloys with a maximum of 3% of
151
EUROPEAN
EUROPEAN ALUMINIUM
ASSOCIATION
152
CHAPTER XII
CLEANING OF ALUMINIUM
COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2. THE NATURE OF STAINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3. THE CHOICE OF DETERGENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4. APPLICATION OF THE DETERGENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
153
Commercial vehicle cleaning station (Interservice Arras)
1. Introduction
Regular cleaning of a commercial In case of tank trailers, there are In general, cleaning of an alu-
vehicle is a prerequisite to ensure often strict legal regulations con- minium vehicle is not different
a long lifetime. Any kind of dirt is cerning the transport of food- from cleaning any other vehicle.
removed, the optical attractive- stuff or there are other regula- It can be done on automatic
ness is kept and critical parts like tions for strict cleaning when dif- washing lines as well as manual-
wheels, axles, brakes and ferent chemicals are transported ly with the use of high pressure
hydraulic systems can be better which might interfere with the spray guns, brushes and cloths.
optically controlled. Corrosion is goods transported before. In
prevented and damages due to some cases, aluminium cannot
mechanical friction between be used as a construction materi-
moving parts can be avoided. al due to the cleaning instruc-
tions, which specify the use of
strong aciduous or alkaline
chemicals
154
ALUMINIUM IN COMMERCIAL VEHICULES CHAPTER XII CLEANING OF ALUMINIUM COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 154 | 155
2. The nature • Allow an efficient removal of • Physical

aggressive dirt Stains are removed by decreasing
of stains • Create a bright visual appear- the surface tension. Therefore deter-
ance of the surface gents contain wetting elements
Stains on commercial vehicles • Build up a protective film on • Mechanical
may have the following origins: top of the paint Stains are removed by spraying
• Road caused: dirt, salts, mud, • Be in compliance with specific with pressurised detergent or by
water splash, tyre wear regulations abrasion when using brushes
• Fuel caused: diesel exhaust, soot • Be biologically degradable • Temperature
• Load caused: cement, asphalt, • Be harmless to the user Higher temperatures, or even
chalk, residues of agricultural water steam, increase the clean-
products etc. Detergents are a complex mix- ing effect by increasing the speed
• Environmentally caused: effects ture of up to 20 ingredients to of the chemical reaction between
of air pollution, dust enable diverse functions at the the detergent and the stain.
same time: degreasing, slight
All these elements, in connection etching, washing, conserving etc. Spraying should be done from
with humidity, can lead to local bottom to top of the vehicle to
corrosion and fading or destruc- prevent streaking. The residence
tion of the paint layer.
4. Application time should be sufficient to dis-
In this respect, residues of previ- solve the stains. The detergent
ously transported goods prior to of the detergent should not dry on the vehicle sur-
a new load might also be seen as face and washing should be fol-
contamination and require inten- The cleaning of a vehicle should lowed by intensive rinsing with
sive cleaning. not take place in direct sunlight. de-ionized water.
Each detergent should be tested
on a raw aluminium surface prior
3. The choice to first use.
of detergent The detergent can be used either

in automatic washing lines or can
The detergent used for cleaning an be applied manually with the use
aluminium vehicle must be com- of high pressure spray guns,
patible with aluminium, means it brushes, cloths etc. Its main
must not be too aggressive. cleaning effects are:
• Chemical
In general, a detergent has to: Some elements of the detergent
• Have a strong effect on all dissolve the dirt or mineral salts
kinds of dirt without attacking the surface
155
EUROPEAN
EUROPEAN ALUMINIUM
ASSOCIATION
156
CHAPTER XIII
REPAIR OF ALUMINIUM
COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
1. FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2. EXECUTION OF REPAIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3. REPAIR OF ALUMINIUM CHASSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4. MIG AND TIG WELD REPAIRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.1. Choice of alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.2. Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.3. Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
157
Inside view of a repaired aluminium tank (Feldbinder)
1. Foreword
Repair of commercial vehicles never just be “over-welded”. European Pressure Vessel

should be done with the same This method does not reflect a Regulation 97/23/EU. This
care as new construction. In reasonable way of repair. Any requires additional testing
general, all rules, materials and parts, which have been cut out methods for repairs and supervi-
methods used for new construc- due to damages, must always be sion by certified supervision
tion should also be applied for replaced with the same type of bodies (like TÜV).
repair causes. alloy as originally used. This has Repair should therefore be car-
Repair is a case-to-case decision, to be applied to ensure a safe ried out by the manufacturer of
whether small damaged parts and constant stress deviation the original vehicle or in certi-
can be repaired without dis- across the vehicle and to prevent fied repair workshops: qualified
assembling the structure or a weakening of the construction. welders, working methods
whether damaged components It has to be taken into consider- according to state-of-the-art
(plates, extrusions) must be cut ation, that especially tankers or technologies, suitable work
out and replaced completely. silo trailers are regarded as pres- organisation, etc. are necessary.
In any case, damages should surized vessels under the
158
ALUMINIUM IN COMMERCIAL VEHICULES CHAPTER XIII REPAIR OF ALUMINIUM COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 158 | 159
Outside view of a repaired aluminium tank (Feldbinder)
2. Execution of repair 3. Repair

of aluminium
A sophisticated repair of an alu- the repair zone
minium commercial vehicle • Fixing of the replacement part chassis
should be done according to the to the vehicle; if necessary addi-
following procedures: tional forming to the vehicle The case of aluminium chassis
• Identification of the damage contour to prevent too much deserves a particular attention,
- How much metal has been stress during welding as a non-professional repair may
destructed? • Joining of the replacement lead to a deterioration of both
- Any further damages which part to the vehicle structure by the static capacity and fatigue
could not be seen during first suitable welding methods. strength.
inspection? • Visual control of the weld quality
• Cut out of damaged compo- • If necessary or mandatory To avoid this kind of problems,
nents (pressure vessels), then non- please read Chapter VI, section
• Identification of originally destructive testing (ultrasonic, x- 8, dedicated to fatigue.
used material specification ray) of the weld seam
• Order of replacement material • Grinding or flattening of the Beginning with fatigue theory,
according to detected specification weld seam that chapter also illustrates how
• Order of suitable welding • Repair of the coating good practices for perforating
filler wire (according to norms or • Final control; it might be and welding can secure long
specific regulations) required to let all steps of repair lifespan to vehicle.
• Pre-cut of replacement part be checked by a supervisory
under consideration of the ther- organisation.
mal shrinking during welding
• Pre-form replacement materi-
al if necessary
• Removal of original coating in
159
Welding of silo body (Feldbinder)
4. MIG and TIG weld repairs
A road vehicle can sustain dam- tions: cleaning, degassing, with 4.2. Preparations
age and will need to be repaired. explosimeter checks, dust
Repairing a commercial vehicle removal etc. as necessary. This is the most important phase
made from aluminium alloys is as it will determine the quality
no more difficult than repairing a 4.1. Choice of alloy and strength of the repair:
steel vehicle, but should be done • for cutting out, preference
according to a strict procedure in The alloy of the semi-finished should be given to the plasma
a properly equipped workshop products used for the repair torch or a carbide cutting wheel
by skilled operatives under the work must be the same as (or rather than a high speed steel
supervision of an official body compatible with) the original (HSS) wheel or abrasive wheels
and/or classification society if the alloys as indicated in the manu- that might introduce inclusions
vehicle's duty calls for this. facturer's manual. into the weld seam,
• very carefully grind the area to
No repair work should com- be welded to remove all traces of
mence without-knowing the paint and various residues,
type of freight (liquid, powder • carefully degrease with suit-
etc.) which the vehicle has been able agent
used to carry and before taking
the appropriate safety precau-
160
4.3. Welding • pay particular attention to the Compact TIG welding machines
weld direction. The purpose of weighing less than 20 kg are
The rules for repairing are basi- this is to limit deformation and now available on the market
cally as described in Chapter VII minimize the risk of hot cracking. capable of delivering a welding
for forming and as described in Volume contraction in the weld current of around 160 A. These
this chapter for welding. When bead is approximately 6 % machines are easy to carry and
carrying out repairs it is essential between the fluid state and the are ideal for small, localized
to: solid state at ambient tempera- repairs.
• hold the components, e.g. ture. It is this phenomenon For minor repairs such as a
tank, chassis etc., securely in which causes the risk of cracking, breach in the skin of a tank, the
their relative positions. Clamps • change the path of welds in patch must be perfectly matched
should be adjusted to allow order to avoid going back over an to the shape of the breach but
expansion however, as too much original weld (Figure VIII.7), should be slightly enlarged by
restriction could aggravate the • perform any necessary tests, e.g. hammering to compensate for
adverse effects of contraction. It radiography, dye penetration etc., contraction following welding.
is also useful to mark areas of the • chose the right welding Without this precaution the
structure likely to suffer maxi- process (TIG or MIG). TIG weld- residual stress might well cause
mum stress, referring to the ing is preferable for minor repairs systematic cracking. This phe-
manufacturer's design calcula- where access from behind is not nomenon is more pronounced
tions if these are available, possible as it is easier to use and the smaller the patch.
• support built-up parts to con- allows better penetration control
trol clearances, than MIG welding.
FIGURE VIII.4
WELD REPAIR
New weld
®
161
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Main writers: Jürg Zehnder, Reinhard Pritzlaff, Steinar Lundberg, Bernard Gilmont.
Project team: Asmund Broli, Roald Pedersen, Benoît Lancrenon, Michele Triboldi,
Dietrich Wieser, Ralf Balduck, Klaus Vieregge.
Sponsoring companies: Alcan Engineered Products, Alcoa Europe, Aleris Europe, AMAG,
Elval, Hydro Aluminium, Metra, Novelis, Sapa
The project team is particularly grateful to Alcan Engineered Products for having
authorized to use some texts, tables and figures coming from the following
publications:
• Aluminium in Commercial Vehicles, Pechiney-Rhenalu
• Aluminium and the Sea, Alcan Aerospace, Transportation and Industry
PHOTO AND TABLE CREDITS

Page Company or brand Photographer or source Page Company or brand Photographer or source
1 Benalu Benalu 48 Menci Bernard Gilmont
4 Menci EAA library 48 Alcoa Europe Alcoa Europe
6, 8 Airbus Airbus 54 Brabant Alucast Bernard Gilmont
9 Hydro Aluminium Hydro Aluminium 75 Alcoa Europe Alcoa Europe
9 Babcock Babcock 76, 81 Benalu Benalu
10 Alstom, SNCF Alstom, SNCF 82 Aluminium-Verlag Aluminium-Verlag
11 Mercedes 86 Schrader Schrader
11 Hydro Aluminium Hydro Aluminium 87 Stas Stas
12 Aluminium-Verlag Aluminium-Verlag 88 Schmitz Schmitz
12 Alusuisse Alcan Engineered Products 89 Menci Menci
12 Trailor Trailor 90, 105 König Ursula Berndsen
16 Benalu Benalu 95 SAG Alutech SAG Alutech
17 Tang Fahrzeugbau GmbH Tang Fahrzeugbau GmbH
97, 98, 99 Benalu Bernard Gilmont
19 All American Marine All American Marine
100 Sapa Sapa
20, 36 Stas Stas, IRTE
108 Stas Stas
21 Alcan, Alcoa, Brabant Alucast Alcan, Alcoa, Bernard Gilmont
110 SAG Alutech SAG Alutech
23 Alcan Engineered Products Alcan Engineered Products
112 Menci Bernard Gilmont
24 Galloo Recycling Bernard Gilmont
114 Sachsenring Ursula Berndsen
25 ATM, PVC Transports Patrick Van Crombrugghe
26 Menci Bernard Gilmont 119 Alcan Engineered Products Alcan Engineered Products
26 Alcoa Wheel Products Europe Alcoa Wheel Products Europe 120 Sapa Sapa
27 Benalu Benalu 121 Hydro Aluminium Hydro Aluminium
28 Pezzaioli Pezzaioli 122 Schmitz Schmitz
30 Alcoa Europe Alcoa Europe 128, 132 Alcan Engineered Products Bernard Gilmont
31 Stas Stas 135 Alcan Engineered Products Alcan Rhenalu Issoire
32 Benalu Benalu 138 Trailor Trailor
33 Leciñena Leciñena 140 LAG LAG
34 Menci Menci 140 Benalu Benalu
37 Schrader Schrader 142 LAG LAG
40, 43 Alcan Engineered Products Alcan Engineered Products 152, 155 Interservice, Arras Christian Vargel
44, 45, 47 Various aluminium plants EAA library 156, 158, 159, 162 Feldbinder Feldbinder
Document produced by
European Aluminium Association AISBL
Avenue de Broqueville, 12
BE - 1150 Brussels - Belgium
Telephone: +32 2 775 63 40
Fax: +32 2 775 63 43
www.aluminium.org
Under the Direction of Bernard Gilmont
Designed: Marc Hernu, Plage
Coordination: Pierre Jouhaud, PLJ édition-communication
162

Aluminium in Commercial Vehicles

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aluminium in Commercial Vehicles

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ALUMINIUM

• The reasons for using it

• The design and calculation of structures, fatigue and collision behaviour

• The corrosion resistance of aluminium alloys under service conditions

• Cleaning and repair

II. ALUMINIUM IN TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

III. WHY USING ALUMINIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

IV. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS .......... 29

VI. DESIGN AND CALCULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

VIII. WELDING ................................... 107

IX. OTHER JOINING TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

X. DECORATION AND FINISHING ............ 137

XI. CORROSION RESISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

XII. CLEANING OF ALUMINIUM

XIII. REPAIR OF ALUMINIUM

Acknowledgments and photo credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162

1. ONE CENTURY OF ALUMINIUM IN TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1. One century of aluminium in transport

Cruise ship with aluminium superstructure

Catamaran UAI 50 (Babcock)

TGV Duplex (Alstom-SNCF)

In 1899, a small sports car with The average volume of alu-

Aluminium bumper system prepared for crash test

2. Evolution of commercial vehicles

3. Aluminium applications 4. Today’s

The rising diesel price and the

Any investment must therefore

Consequently, vehicle manufac-

WHY USING ALUMINIUM

1.1. Increased payload + Higher residual value = Additional incomes

1.2. Fuel saving + long life + reduced maintenance = Cost savings

A study conducted by the IFEU1 Aluminium’s well-known corro-

1.3. Make your own calculation on www.alutransport.org

1. Institut für Energie und Umwelt Forschung, Heidelberg, Germany

Road toll station

1.5. Reduced risk of work

Mini-trailer (Tang Fahrzeugbau GmbH)

2. Aluminium performance properties

2.1. High strength-to-weight and high stiffness-to-weight ratios

EQUAL STRENGTH EQUAL STIFFNESS

Unpainted aluminium patrol boat

tional ones, and this fact is taken

Correctly used, aluminium alloys

Achieving IRTE3 Class A4 tipping

Various aluminium products

This diversity of semi-finished 2.5. Easy to work with

3. Environmental and social Benefits

3.1. Aluminium reduces CO2 emissions 3.2. Aluminium as

Truck with crash-module

3.3. Aluminium improves road safety

Aluminium tipper on scrap yard (Galloo recycling)

3.4. Aluminium is easily and economically recycled

8 years old aluminium tipping body

Double wall extruded boards for tippers

4.2. Aluminium is easy

Forged aluminium wheel

1.1. What are the advantages of an aluminium vehicles?

1.2. Is there an additional cost for an aluminium vehicle?

1.3. What are the main benefits for the environment?

1. CO2 reduction potential of aluminium

Repair of an aluminium tipper (Stas)

1.4. Is it necessary to paint an aluminium vehicle?

1.5. Is it possible to repair an aluminium vehicle?