Geog 111 Final Review

What makes the Earth distinctive?

Answer: life, geologically active, N2-O2 atmosphere, oceans of water.
Solid land that makes up the Earth changes slowly. Sometimes, as w/ a volcanic eruption, earthquake, or landslide, it
changes rapidly.

Key contentious issues in the whole climate change issues: How much of what happened in the past can be applied to
predictions of the near future?
Near future = next 10, 20, 50 or 100 years. Ocean plays large role over what time period. To learn more about what will
be from what has been, have to apply time scale of the process. Natural variability on the time scale of the near future.

Multiyear oscillations which affect global air and ocean circulations. These all affect global circulation and local weather,
which affect plants, animals and people.
El Nino--Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
Northern Atlantic Oscillation (NAO)
Arctic Oscillation (AO)
Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)
All part of natural variability of the earth system!

Plate Tectonics and Oceans: about 4 MA, Plate tectonics caused Isthmus of Panama to close, separating tropical Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans. Created oceanic circulations similar to today's and had marked effects on development of many
species.
Phenomena such as ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillation) became possible at this time.
Refer to figure on El Nino and La Nina// Sea-surface temperatures in their conditions.

What are the Effects of ENSO on weather?

El Nino, La Nina and associated southern Oscillation (ENSO) can create havoc w/ weather in the Tropics and here.
Includes: weakening, delaying of wet monsoons. Adding preciptation to formerly dry areas causing floods. Stressing
ecosystems, such as tropical rain forests. Mid-latitude effects small, except in California B.C and western North America.

Relative Time (what happened in what order): sequences of what is indicated in rock layers laid down over time.
Superposition principle: assume beds above are younger than beds below except for folding.
Statigraphy: study of these layers of rock.
absolute time--(what happened how many thousand or million years before present (kBP or mBP) or ago (kya, Mya or
Ma). Uses various forms of radioactive decay dating processes.
Radioactive decay is predictable process which allow us to extrapolate back on what we find now and known radioactive
behaviour of certain elements.
Geological dating methods: Absolute ages (from radiometric analysis)--exact date
Relative ages: younger--older; from position in sequence of indicator fossils, so fossils can be associated w/ particular
layers, which can then be used to date them.

Tibetan Plateau helps control Jet Streams. Human history--~1 mya.

The geological time scale subdivided by events of mass extinction which are followed by phases of rapid evolution.

Catastrophism: religious catastrophism says that Earth is much younger (all observed landforms formed since 4004 BCE)
and that all of landforms we see (such as Coast mountains) formed then. No scientific evidence for it because no testable
hypotheses. Verifiable catastrophes have occured in the past as seen in Geological time scale.
Exinction events: potential causes (catastrophes)--glaciation, mountain building, volcanism, asteroid impacts
Glaciation: climate and sea level change = extinctions? Terrestrial organisms undertake North-South migrations.
Continental shelf organisms at greatest risk?
Catrastrophism and Uniformitarianism: By studying what occurs at the present time, we can understand what happened in
the past and vice versa. Evidence suggests geological processes have operated in a similar manner at similar rates over
vast periods of time = uniformitarianism.
Uniformitarianism + Catastrophes = Geologic Record.
How uniformitarianism relates to evolution? Gradualism or punctuated equilbrium.
Punctuated equilibrium: evolution tends to be characterized by long periods of virtual standstill punctuated by episodes of
rapid diversification (mass extinction events are megascale sxamples of this)
Mass extinctions: 5 in the past, w/ 1 now. Key events: 440, 370, 250, 210, 65 mya. 4 of the 5 came in pairs and one at 65
mya is a single one.

Eons, Eras, Periods: how much detail is important? Eras and eons--yes; periods---some important. It's the relative
position in time which is more important.
Critical places in time are where physical changes occur rapidly, or new species emerge or many species die out.

Some places, such as southern Africa, Western Australia, northern Quebec, where rocks exist at and near the surface
which were formed as the earth cooled, or soon after, and have no changed much since then.

When the solar system formed from materials floating in space, Sun was weaker star than it is now. Increased in intensity
over eons.
Heavier elements of the proto-Earth became part of centre of collapsing, condensing mass of material and wound up
mainly in centre of Earth, the solid and molten core.
Lighter elements formed outer layers of solid earth (first atmosphere). Much of Earth's first atmosphere made of hydrogen
which escaped to space, because its molecules were light and could escape Earth's gravitational pull easily. Much of 2nd
atmosphere (mainly from volcanic out-gassing) was methane and carbon dioxide. Methane lost to space by UV attack and
carbon dioxide combined w/ water and rainout to form oceans and some of early ocean sediments.
Modern atmosphere--tied to removal of CO2 and production of O2 in marine plants. Oxygen broke down and re-
associated to form ozone.
Since ~0.6 Ga or 600,000,000 million years ago.
Atmospheric composition: modern and degassed atmospheres.

Figure: Earth in cross section//Earth's interior

In descending order: continental crust, oceanic crust, asthenosphere, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, inner core.

Solid Earth geology: Plate tectonics, vulcanism, earthquakes, geological cycle and components, folding and faulting.

Plate tectonics: continents and oceans are on several large upper lithospheric plates which are floating on magma below
(asthenosphere or upper mantle). Many smaller plates which have resulted from past collisions and other processes.
Plates move at different speeds, in different directions. Creates zones where one plate is crashing into another. One of
the plates (one w/ higher density) subducted beneath the other. Its material eventually melted and returned to layers
below or to surface by volcanoes.
At these subduction plate boundaries, great deal of both earthquake and volcanic activity as subducting plate crushed and
liquefied. Large mountains form in many of zones because of moutain building due to vulcanism. Subduction leads to
orogeny. Note contribution from continental plate riding over oceanic plate and crumpling. Convergent (destructive) plate
boundary.

In middle of oceans are spreading centers (mid-ocean ridges), locations where magma from below rises and creates new
Oceanic crust. These zones of new oceanic crust are flanked by older and older crustal bands which have mirror image
magnetic polarity indicating that the sea floor is in fact spreading in time. Magnetic poles flip (geomagnetism). Spreading
centers in the ocean are examples of divergent (constructive) plate boundaries. ex. East Africa rift valley.

Lithospheric plates may also move past one another along a transform (shear) boundary (San Andreas Fault)
Super-continents break up. Creation of modern world from break up of Pangea-->into Gondwana and Laurasia, then into
present continents.
India smashes into Asia. Over 10's of millions of years, separate Indian plate moved rapidly northward and crashed into
Asian plate. Some oceanic crust attached to it, so collision long and complex. Himalayas and associated ranges nearby
resulted from collision.
Figure: Earth's major plates + earthquakes and volcanoes.
Figure: Canada's pacific coast.
Figure: Magnetic reversals

Where did the concept of plate tectonics come from?

Answer: In the Southern hemisphere fitting together maps of Africa and South America inspired thoughts of Continental
drift. Disbelief for decades by U.S. and European scientists. Exploration of similarities in Geology on either side of the
Atlantic. Understanding of convective motion in the mantle of the earth (below crust).

Modern World: after 4 Mya, we can begin look at details of geologic history as very relevant to today and the immediate
future. Before ~5 Mya, one has to be cautious doing this, because surface features of Earth were different enough to
produce false analogies when applied today.
Uniformitarianism says the Earth's processes are similar whatever the age. But have to consider as well the Boundary
conditions for processes--condition of Earth at the time the processes are occuring. The Earth's surface land and ocean is
the Boundary for the atmosphere and vice versa.

Past and Present: from the natural variability we see on and below the surface of continents and oceans, can deduce
some of processes responsible for variability and the results of these processes, acting in the past.

Earth Processes: the geological cycle is fueled both by the sun (exogenic processes) and by Earth's internal energy
(endogenic processes). Processes and cycles which affect the topography and character of the Earth's surface. Internal
(endogenic) processes which help building up the surface (primarily volcanic). External (exogenic) processes which
destroy parts of of the surface but build up the surface somewhere else (weathering and erosion by agents such as ice,
water, and wind). The physical history of the Earth is an endless struggle between these forces of construction and
destruction.

The Geological Cycle (refer to figure).

Isostatic adjustment (refer to figure)
What is the Geological cycle?
Answer: subduction and orogeny over millions of years driven by tectonic cycle.
Water cycle is usally more able move sediments the larger the mountains are.
Rock cycle works both rapidly and slowly. Igneous rocks can be produced rapidly. Sedimentary/Metamorphic rocks
produced more slowly.

Igneous Rock Types. Metamorphic rock types. Sedimentary rock types. Refer to figures.
Tectonics, Earthquakes and Volcanism: Earth's surface relief features, crustal formation processes, crustal deformation
processes, orogenesis, earthquakes, earthquakes and San Andreas Fault, Volcanism.

Figure: Earth's topographic regions.

Earth's surface relief features: crusal orders of relief--1st order: continents and ocean basins. 2nd order: mountain, plains,
lowland areas. 3rd order: individual features at local level. Earth's topographic regions often 2nd order.

Crustal deformation processes: folding and broad warping, faulting.

Figures on folding and stress and strain.
Figures on Normal fault, strike-slip fault and reverse fault.
Earthquake magnitude, intensity, frequency figure.
Anatomy of an Earthquake.
Figure on seismicity in Canada. Canadian volcanoes.
Figure on Volcanic settings
Composite volcanoes.
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Wind (and Coastal) Erosion and Deposition Processes

Erosion agents?
wind--direct effects on land
coastal waters--effects of: tidal currents (slow rivers), winds generating ocean waves, and low pressure causing storm
surge.

Limiting factors: nutrients from upwelling (driven by wind); sun for energy for photosynthesis
-wind, sun and nutrients control productivity of upper ocean ecosystems

How are wind and coastal processes intermittent?

Answer: they do much of erosion and deposition as part of storm episodes.

Storms (cyclones) over ocean generate strong surface winds because surface flat and friction low.
Strong winds generate wind waves locally and swells (swell waves) over long distances.
Water's density higher than air's, so much of coastal erosional and depositional damage from storm comes from its water.

How El Nino influences ocean productivity?

Answer: ocean productivity along coastal areas driven by surface ocean water moved offshore so nutrient rich water from
deep can rise to surface (upwelling). When wind is along shore w/ land to left (right) in Northern (Southern) Hemisphere,
get upwelling.

The work of wind: Eolian erosion, eolian transportation, eolian depositional landforms, loess deposits, differential erosion.

Eolian Processes: most prominent when wind high, rock soft, soil not well held together, wind reduces its speed rapidly
and deposits the particles which are being carried. Wind doesn't stay in channels.

Figures: Desertification/Sand Transport/Sensitivity to Wind Erosion and Climate Change/Sand movement and wind
velocity--exponential curve.

What is eolian erosion?

Answer: eolian-->wind erosion, work of movement of air, a low density fluid. Eolian transport is much less efficient than
water since KE varies w/ density x (wind speed)^2 (lower efficiency is because wind highly variable, so the KE more
variable. )
Rate of sand movement has much sharper dependence on wind speed than KE. Need high winds do real work or real
damage. Grain size important. Intermediate sand particles easiest to move short to moderate distances. Smaller particles
too cohesive (sticky) and larger particles too heavy to lift and suspend (bed load in rivers). Some small particles, once
lifted can go btw continents (later). Vegetation and buildings badly affected by wind and wind-blown particles.

When deflation and abrasion by wind take away smaller particles, areas left w/ mainly larger particles--gravel, cobbles and
larger (desert pavements). Water and wind can cooperate in these processes. Pavement areas important for local eco-
systems.
What is abrasion?
Answer:sand-blasting by wind--similar and different in rivers/glaciers.
Figure: desert pavement: deflation-->concentration of larger pebbles---> desert pavement .
with time.

Eolian transportation: atmospheric circulations transport all sorts of fine materials: smoke from power plants, soot from
factories and cars, volcanic ash, dusts of fine soil particles.
fine particles (clays and silts primarily) can be lifted through much of troposphere (heights of several kms). Effects can be
intercontinental or global (visibility reduced world wide, after Tambora eruption). Coarse particles can often only be lifted a
few metres, so effects are local. Gobi desert contributes to major West to East dust transport events (in zone of
Westerlies) which can lower visibility here in B.C and in Korea. Why that time of year? Because high enough wind speeds
and thawed surface in source region.
Source regions for long range transport of dust (soil) particles--Sahara and Gobi deserts to name two.
The Sahara contributes to major East to West (Northeast Trade Wind) dust events {in Caribbean and Central America)
which have been linked to some disease migration and locust events. Saharan dust alco sculpts other areas in Africa.

Figure: sandy regions of the world.

Figure: Arid and Aemi-Arid--note similarity to some sandy regions and to desertification figure.

Eolian depositional landforms: dunes--wind sculpted accumulations of sand. Found on beaches and in deserts. Small
fraction of deserts = dunes. Migrate in direction of prevailing wind.
Ripples--form perpendicular (transverse) to average wind direction. Small waves in sand, with crests and troughs.
Sizes and spacing are related to time the particles which make them are airborne, which is, in turn, related to grain size
and wind speed.
Dune X-section. (Know how to draw). See figure.

Figure: loess Regions of World.

Figure: loess deposits

Loess Deposits: loess--unstratified, homogeneous, wind blown deposits, often thick, generally fertile (useful for
agriculture). Result from glacial retreat after last glacial maximum. No specific landforms created. Loess covered existing
landforms w/ thick blanket of material assumed general topography of existing landscape. Depositional features which
didn't change shape of ground. Common on prairies and plains. Eastern Washington's Palouse, south of Spokane, known
for winter wheat=fertile because of good water retention in dry region, w/ deep soil and good drainage after heavy rains.

Coastal Ocean: Storm events--wind, storm surge, rain

E. and N. Canada and Alaska, sea ice = erosional problem.

Noel's damage in Nova Scotia--Noel was 2nd Tropical Storm to hit Atlantic Canada in 2007. Real damage from Noel
caused to coastal areas, where pounding surf washed out roads and hurled large rocks onto formerly sandy beaches.
"When all is said and done, that may worst impact of the storm, the coastal and beach erosion. In 2010, in past 2 months,
2 or 3 events w/ more minor coastal effects (rain, wind and waves) through storm season ongoing.

Littoral Zone: much of delta and beach material in form of unconsolidated sediments. Sediments prone to periodic water
or wind erosion (or even mass wasting type events). Large populations in these delta and coastal areas, there are human
'works' attempt slow down or stop various natural processes w/ mixed success.

Hurricanes and Sea Ice: Canadian Hurricane Centre. Hurricane Loops (review). Sea ice conditions found at marine and
sea ice. Processes contribute to coastal erosion.

Littoral Zone: Movement of sands in foreshore and effects of breakers from wind waves and swells affecting the surf zone
are important. Also, movement of sand onto beach, increasing its volume during summer and off the beach decreasing its
volume in winter (producing underwater bars) important.
Refer to figure and know some of features.

Coastal Processes: refer to text. many of the processes we've talked about for rivers end in Deposition of material in
Deltas. Much of material can both build new land (in Bangladesh at mouth of Ganges). or provide material to produce
beaches downstream in sense of littoral (longshore) drift. ex. Fraser River, Sand Heads off Airport, and beaches at
Spanish banks and Kitsilano in western Vancouver.

Tidal Motions: all ocean water affected by lunar and solar gravity which produces either 2 or 4 tidal extremes (high and
low water) per ~24 hour day. Vancouver and B.C. coast is a 4 per day or semi-diurnal tidal cycle area. Excursions
(highest-lowest tides of day) reach 5 m in certai months, exposing usually water covered areas to wind processes and
usually dry areas to water processes in extreme cases (exacerbated by wind waves and storm surges). B.C. tidal changes
can produce strong tidal currents in narrow ocean passages, reach speeds of 20 km/hr--Discovery passage and arran
rapids near Stuart Island--and move sediments around, mix nutrients and affect shipping. Wider areas (Georgia Srait),
currents can average 2-3 km/hr for much of year w/ direction changing every 6 hours.
In bay of dundy btw New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, shape of bay produce tidal excursions of up to 16 m. Effects of
storm waves and storm surge dep. on tidal height at time storm reaching shore. If storm surge/storm waves occur when
tide high, damage from wave erosion largest. Islands in open Pacific or Atlantic Ocean, where tidal excursions (highest--
lowest) often less than 1 m and hardly noticeable.

Figure: tides

Wind waves and swells

a. short wavelength storm waves close to start and active regions of storms--can be steep w/ lot of energy.
b. long-wavelength swells travel far from storm and can be unexpected in these areas.
c. when water gets shallow, waves of both types steepen and break in surf zone, spilling energy there, moving around
sediments and mixing nutrients and critters near ocean surface.
When wave trains (groups of waves), energy which moves in response to wind (in deep water). Water only moves short
distances as waves pass. At shoreline, breaking waves move water up and down the beach aiding in littoral drift.

Littoral drift>>When wave finishes running up beach and begins recede back to sea, goes back directly perpendicular to
coast (due to gravity). Produces net transport of local material slowly along beach in direction consistent w/ direction that
original water moving (along shore component of original water motion).

Figures: Wave formation//Longshore current and beach drift.

Littoral drift (528-530) winds and coastal topography create mean wave climatology of area. Along w/ tidal motions, create
along-shore current of sands, silts and pollutants. When waves break on beach at angle to direction of coast, they move
water up beach at angle in same direction (affected by shape of coast, profile of water depth and slope of beach). This
water has load of sediment from other places and picked up locally. In Fraser Delta, "river of sand" from south to north,
then around corner to Spanish banks and Kitsilano. If build Groynes, Jetties or Breakwaters (p. 537) such as Jetty on
Fraser North Arm, disrupt River of Sand and get deposition upstream and erosion downstream.

Figure: Littoral drift.

Relative sea lv. changes: if sea level rises, water can attack areas usually unaffected by processes if have waves + surge
during high tide after sea lv. rises.
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In B.C. and Alaska, coastal mtn glaciers are important feature of landscape today. Some valleys show evident of recent
glaciation.
Ice cores from glaciers give clues about past climate regimes and other processes.
Many parts of Canadian landscape dominated by glacial remnants, either as landforms or as lakes.
Roughly 11 percent of Earth's land area is dominated by glaciers today (w/ up to 30 percent covered during glaciation
maxima--the Ice Ages).

Water budget--large fraction of global fresh water locked up in glaciers. If glaciers in Greenland and Antarctica decreasing
in volume from decade to decade. Global implications for sea lv rise. Vast majority of Canada glaciated several times
during Plestocene, most recent glacial max 20,000 years ago.

Isostatic rebound:
Buoyancy: less dense objects float on more dense objects. If bottom object fluid, object displaces volume of fluid w/ mass
= mass (weight) of upper object. Applies to icebergs in salt water, for ice sheets top of continental crust and fresh water
top of salt water.
Buoyancy explains vertical motions of Earth's crust. End of Ice Ages, deglaciation, weight removed from local crustal plate
causing 'rebound' slowly upward. Plate goes up at one end and doesn't move or moves down at other end. If no ice on
other end.

Figure: Pleistocene glaciation.

Figure: Canada's glaciers
Isostatic rebound: crustal plate moves upward as load removed from it. Load can be sediments, mountains, or ice. Speed
of rebound reflects speed of geological process removing load. If process intermittent, rebound can be too, although
inertia in system.
Isostatic rebound from last ice age still occuring. Affects apparent sea lv. changes at coastal areas on plates affected.
Local isostatic sea lv. changes added to global changes due to global processes, and other local effects (removal of
ground water) to produce local total expected sea level changes.

What are glaciers?

Answer: slow moving rivers of ice. Open systems with inputs of snow/rain and outputs of ice, meltwater and water vapour.
Not frozen lakes and not goundwater ice, such as pingoes or lenses.
Glacier in mountain area is alpine or Mountain glacier.
Some of sub-types are Cirque glaciers and valley glaciers.
-A continental mass of ice is a Continental Glaciers/ice sheet (if very large and deep >1-3 km) = continental mass of ice.
ex. Antarctic/Greenland Ice sheets. Continents depressed isostatically.
-Ice Cap--dome shaped cover of perennial ice and snow, less than 50,000 km^2 in area. Not constrained by existing
relief. ex. Mountains.; several examples in northern Canada and Iceland.
-Ice field--small ice cap doesn't quite cover landscape. Ridges of rock can show through. Examples are Columbia Ice
Field in Rockies and Patagonian Ice Field.
-Jokulhaup = flood of glacial melt water. Type of endgenic process rapidly change landscape.
-Tidal glacier ends in sea, breaking off (calving) ice bergs of various sizes and names. ex. growlers, bergey bits etc.
Greenland produces icebergs appear off Newfoundland.
-Ice Shelf--very thick sheet of ice w/ gently undulating to level surface extends over sea and floats on water. Attached to
land along coastal grounding line and perhaps where ice flows around islands...ice shelves are important climate
indicators because respond more rapidly to temperature and sea lv. chanes than glaciers.

How are glaciers formed/added to?

Answer: Glaciers form in areas of permanent snow, at high altitude and high latitude. Areas = zones of snow
accumulation above fim line, lowest elevation where snow survived all year. Winter snow accumulation must be able to
survive summer for glacier to grow. Eqlb line or fim line/snow line changes over time. In period of general cooling a snow
line appear on upper slopes of moutains even in tropics. Alpine glacier begin appear. If general cooling affects large area,
the 0 C isotherm for July days (often taken as Snowline) can move south out of Arctic. Cause expansion of continental
glacier or growth of new one.
ice = both mineral and rock. Ice frozen fluid (like igneous rock), forms in layered deposits of snow (like sedimentary rock)
and transformed by high pressure (recrystallizing like metamorphic rock).
Glaciers form as snow--> firn-->glacial ice as air spaces among ice crystals pressed out as snow packs to greater density.
Firn--transitional form of water btw snow and glacial ice, with compact, granular structure. Snow which presisted through
summer season in zone of accumulation.

How glaciers wasted, ablated, destroyed?

Answer: toward glacier's lower (warmer) end, reduced through several processes:
melting on surface, internally and at base; ice removal by deflation (wind), calving of ice blocks; sublimation (direct
evaporation of ice to water vapour). 4 processes together = ablation.

Figure on Retreating Alpine glacier.

Ea. of 4 ablation processes dependent on 1+ aspects of weather (ex. wind). climate (avg temperature) and glacier's own
history (kind of ice in glacier). Processes measured indirectly or through physics of processes. High temp, low humidity
and presence of cloud (fog) particles (water/ice) in air next to glacier all contribute to sublimation and surface melting.
There is synergy among many of processes--increases in one, increase the efficiencies of others.
-glacial meltwater types: sub-glacial (beneath), surpa-glacial (on top) and en-glacial (w/in). High rates of sub-glacial melt
water and lubricating effects.

Glacial Mass balance (Text): (accumulation vs. ablation).

Balance complicated by fact that glacier moves downhill from accumulation zone (positive mass balance) to ablation zone
(negative mass balance)
Equilibrium line = zone where gain by accumulation matches loss by ablation. Close to FIRN line where winter snow and
ice accumulation suvived summer melting season. Firn line = equilibrium line
Glacier achieves positive mass balance when cold, w/ adequate snowfall (very cold rain during day which freezes before
can run off)
Glacier achieves negative mass balance when warms, there is no snow or either moves rapidly downhill or eqlb line
moves up hill. Strongly negative mass balance at toe of glacier more than compensate for slow movement downhill and
cause glacier appear to retreat uphill. ex. glaciers near Juneau in Alaska Panhandle. When accumulation > ablation,
glacier advances more quickly creating conditions for erosional and depositional features occur further from source. When
ablation > accumulation, glacier melts back, leaving many of depositional features, through actual section of glacier may
continue to move forward during melt back.
Charging sunlight, radiant energy temperature, and moisture conditions at FIRN LINE and changes of firn line location
from year to year on particular glacier are critical in charting future of glacier. '

Melting degree days (MDD's): estimating melting.

-for given day in melt season, contribution to MDD = avg of day and night celsius temperatures minus freezing point (0
deg C).
-over all of part of melt season, sum up all daily contributions to get amt of melting from calibrated 'look up table'. Subtract
critical from average.

Figure: Peyto Glacier loses ice.

Glacial Features and processes:

- Glacial surge: glaciers surge forward up to few 10s of meters per day, w/o warning, unevenly.
-crevasses in Brittle zone--vertical crack develops in glacier result of friction btw valley walls, or tension forces of
extension on convex up-slopes or compression forces on concave up-slopes.
-Plastic zone and refreezing below.
-i.) cirque--scooped out, amphitheatre-shaped basin at head of alpine glacier valley. Erosional landform.
-ii.) arete--sharp ridge divides two cirque basins. Form sawtooth and serrated ridges in glaciated mnts.
-iii.) col--saddle sharped pass (or depression) which results from erosion by cirques of an arete.
-moraines: (lateral, medial, and terminal)--unsorted, depositional galcial features indicating sides (lateral) and lower end
(terminal) location glacier. Medial moraines form when two glaciers w/ lateral moraines join together. End moraines
indicate temporary locations where glaciers reached equilibrium btw growth and ablation.
-esker--sinuously curving, narrow deposit of coarse gravel forms along melt-water stream channel, developing in tunnel
beneath or w/in glacier (continental). Looks like gravel 'river' on landscape.
-drumlin--asymmetrical hill formed by deposited till (unsorted, unstratified) streamlined in direction of continental ice
movement. Common in Canada (Ont, Nova Scotia) the blut end of hill lies upstream and tapered end downstream w/
rounded top.
-glacial drift = all glacial deposits, both unsorted (till) and sorted (stratified drift).
Sediments deposited by glacial meltwater sorted by size and = stratified drift. Material eroded and pushed around by
glacial ice tends be unsorted.
-U-shaped valley--glacially scoured valley shape, related to fact that glaciers solid, white V-shaped valleys formed by
rivers, which are liquid.
-Hanging valley--remains of glacial U-shaped side-valley after further erosion at lower elevation in main valley. Source of
waterfalls.
-glacial erratic(boulder)---individual large boulder deposited (not in a moraine or other till or depositional feature) by glacier
in different region geologically. Prominent in landscape (ex. marshes near Pegg's cove, NS).

Figure: Glacial movement and crevasses.

Figure: Alpine posglacial landscape.
Figure: Norwegian Fjord and Alpine Erosional features
*Figure: Continental Glacier and Depositional Features.

Periglacial features: Features important in cold places--Canada's north, Siberia, Alpine areas.
-Permafrost: area where in deep layer below shallow active layer, ground is permanently below 0 deg C and frozen solid,
except for pore water which freezes at lower Temp.
-Continuous Permaforst: zone of permafrost which is continuous in both time and space. Found well poleward of avg
annual temp = 0 C line.
-Discontinuous permafrost--zone of permafrost not cont. in space (vertically or horizontally) and/or time (from yr to yr).
Found near avg annual temp = 0 C line.
-Active layer--seasonally frozen surface layer in permafrost zone. Thaws during late spring and freezes in fall. Compare
Muskeg. Subject to consistent daily and seasonal freeze-thaw cycles.
-Pingo--symmetrical, ice cored hill created by pore-water pressure moving pore water from other areas and freezing it into
ice locally and expanding ground upward. Several metres high.
-Ice lenses--horizontal bodies of ground ice which can cause modest amounts of frost heaving.
-Thermakarst--Topography of hummocky, irregular relief marked by cave-ins, bogs, small depressions, and pts formed as
ground ice melts.
-->An erosion process caused by ground ice (incl. ice-wedge) melting. Not related to solution processes and not related to
chemical weathering associated with limestone (karst).
-Produces similar surface features to karst topography.

Figure: Permafrost distribution

Figure: Periglacial Environments
*Figure: Ice wedge
Figure: Pingo

Periglacial: cold climate processes, landforms, topographic features along margins of glaciers, past and present. Incl.
permafrost, frost action (heaving and thawing), and ground ice-->thermkarst, hummocky terrain.
-Patterned Ground--areas in periglacial envt where freezing and thawing of ground create polygons of arranged rocks at
surface.

Figure: Permafrost melting

Figure: patterned ground

Permafrost in warmer world

-future of permafrost zones in both N. Canada and Siberia part of great uncertainity about future climate scenario.
-if substantial melting of permafrost occurs in areas of organic soil, methane released, creating additional warming in
positive feedback loop.
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Geomorphology: science of landforms--origin, evolution, form and spatial distribution. Landscape evolution, weathering,
mass wasting, erosional processes and products (rivers, wind, ice, waves).

denudation = wearing down of landscape; products re-deposited elsewhere.

dynamic eqlb.
geomorphic threshold (some start changes, some show change simultaneously)
-landscape reflects interaction btw local geology and climate
-landscape has memory; may record prior climatic conditions and geomorphic processes.

Weathering. Definition: breakdown of rock and mineral material by physical and chemical means, w/o transportation.
Themes: physical weathering processes, chemical weathering processes, the role of climate, rates of weathering,
weathering products: regolith.
Physical (mechanical) weathering.
Disintegration w/o chemical alteration.
2 varieties: unloading (exfoliating, splitting, spalling)
rock splits along zones of weakness due to pressure release and
crystal growth (freeze-thaw/salt weathering),
-rock splits result of growth of crystals in zones of weakness.

Exfoliation: shale/slate: thin sedimentaries.

sandstone: massive sedimentaries
granite: coarse-grained igneous
Crystal growth: freeze-thaw weathering (polar and alpine envts); salt weathering (arid and semiarid envts)

Pictures for: exfoliation granite batholiths, pressure release, frost shattered blocks, frost weathering and talus cones, ruins
in salt weathering niche, insolation weathering, hydraulic weathering by tree roots. Hydraulic weathering by tree roots, salt
weathering, frost weathering, rapid chemical weathering, spheroidal weathering of granites (joint corners weather most
rapidly), tor formation

Chemical weathering: breakdown of minerals and rocks as result of chemical alteration (preceded by mechanical
breakdown)
Types: hydrolysis/carbonation (interaction w/ weak acids) and oxidation (interaction w/ free O2 and H2O)

1. Hydrolysis
H2O <--> H+ + OH- (ionization)
2. Carbonation
H2O + CO2 = H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
Interactions with minerals, ex. olivine MgSiO4 + H2CO3 = Mg(HCO3)2 + H4SiO4
-entirely dissolves
feldspar KAlSi3O8 + [H+/OH-] = HAlSi3O8 + KOH + Al2O3*3H2O+H2SiO3
-produces 'clay' minerals quartz SiO2 + [H+/OH-] = H4SiO4 + SiO2
-partially dissolves (leaving quartz sand)

Chemical weathering: granite--biotite--> clays (& solutes); feldspar-->clays (& solutes); quartz-->sand = gritty clay.
Limestone: CaCO3 + H2CO3 = CaCO3 + H2CO3 = Ca(HCO3)2 complete dissolution.

What is El Nino/ENSO (El Nino/Southern Oscillation)

Answers: alter the climate of places in the pacific basin and the tropical belt around the world, on time scales of 2-7 years.

Figure. Karst formation in carbonate bedrock: example of hydrolysis/carbonation weathering. Karst topography.

Limestone pavement, Sinkholes in limestone, limestone solution and re-deposition.

Graph of weathering regimes.

Regolith and the weathering front. Intense chemical weathering = deep regolith in tropical envts.

What is Mass Wasting

Answer: the movement of materials down-slope under the influence of gravity. The material in motion consists of bedrock,
regolith, or a combination of the two. Referred to as landslides. There are many differing types of movement and
triggering conditions.

What are some types of mass movement?

Answer: Falls-material falling through air; Avalanches--material falls through air and in contact w/ surface; slides or
slumps: material slides across surface; flows: material flows across surface.

Stability analysis: regoliths (shear strength (friction and cohesion) vs shear stress (gravity and weight [= depth & water
content])
Factor of safety (Fs) = shear strength/shear stress. (0 = very unstable; 1 = unstable; 2 = stable; infinity = highly stable)

Falling object downslope in bedrock. Regolith.

Stage I: equilibrium. shear strength>>shear stress (Fs>>1).
Stage II: shear strength = shear stress (Fs~1)
Stage III: shear strength > shear stress. (Fs>1)

What are some ways to reduce factor of safety?

Answer: rain, load, earth quake, cut/erode.

Falls, slumps and slides: debris slide, debris fall, slump, rockfall, rockslide.

When Rock and debris fall, once accumulate-->talus. angle the talus make with bottom base = angle of repose.
Rock and debris slides w/ bedding or jointplates.
debris slides in unconsolidated glacial and fluvioglacial deposits caused by rainfalls. Slide blocks: materials don't flow.

slurry flows, debris flows, mudflow, earthflow, debris avalanches., mudflow

Creep producing bending-over of sandstone.

Mass Wasting characteristics?

slope angle--steeper the gradient, more likely it is to fall.
substrate--unconsolidate sediments and fractured rocks more prone to failure than massive or well-cemented rocks.
water--more saturated that material, the more likely it is to fail.
Work--most of the work done by mass-wasting triggered by rare high-energy events (intense storms, earthquakes, etc.)
Drainage basin: refer to figure. Base levels: refer to figure.

River systems/Landforms:
1. Fluvial processes--summary
-different geology, precipitation, vegetation, landforms, human works, and history all contribute to different flow regimes of
rivers and streams.
-water dislodges, dissolves, or removes surface material in process called eorsion (p. 449). Streams are agents of fluvial
erosion by which weathered sediment is transported to a new location.

A stream (or River) contains: water, dissolved solids (in solution as chemicals), suspended small (falling very slowly) and
larger pieces of material (such as branches) being moved (transported) from place to place. Running water lays down
material via deposition or alluvium, the term for clay, silt, sand and gravel laid down by the river (or by tidal current). River
alluvium is sorted by size.

Drainage Basin behaviour:

Drainage basins are open systems w/ precipitation and material weathered from local bedrocks as inputs and the
distribution of water and deposition of alluvium as outputs.
A major drainage basin is made up of a number of smaller drainage basins, leading to a hierarchy of streams. Most major
rivers have large drainage basins with quite variable precipitation and geology, so both input and output are complex.
Human effects and the diversion and irrigation and dam schemes, and many drainage basins/rivers are unpredictable.

Drainage basin behaviour: In any drainage basin, runoff water from intense rain, snow melt or total saturation of soil starts
by flowing as sheet flow or overland flow in small drainage basins. Enhanced by some flow in grooves (rills and gullies) or
by flow along channels left by roots and other subterranean cracks. These first order streams (w/ no tributaries or
upstream forks) respond rapidly. First order streams close to the mouth of a large basin allow it to respond rapidly.

Stormflow: overland or rapid throughflow? Refer to figure.

Overland flow: 1. rain. 2. infiltration. 3. detention storage. 4. overland (sheet) flow
Saturated throughflow: 1. rain. 2. infiltration. 3. WT reaches surface? 4. overland (sheet) flow?
Indicators:
Suppression of Trade Winds--> El Nino (warm phase)
Enhancement of Trade Winds-->La Nina (cold phase)
ENSO strength and timing may be affected by human activity.

Higher the order of the stream, the longer it takes to respond to large input of water or snow.
Internal drainage: when evaporation or subsurface gravity flow robs a river of its water so that it doesn't reach the ocean,
such a river may terminate in areas of internal drainage. (Great Salt Lake, Aral Sea, Dead Sea, Lake Chad)

Drainage density--if you divide: total length of all streams (in km) by area of basin (square km), you get drainage density
(in inverse km)
Drainage density increaes w/ humidity, expressed as P-E. Arid (hot desert) areas have low P, high E and low drainage
density.

Drainage Patterns: arrangement of channels as determined by the local geology. Dendritic (most common), radial (near
mountain tops), rectangular (faulted and jointed landscape), parallel (steep slopes), deranged (after glaciation).

Discharge: Q (discharge) = width * (d) * v

units: m^3/s, m, m, m/s
for a specific cross section of the river.
Hydrograph or discharge curve: Q vs. time (annual, or melt event, or rain event)
Precipitation events and river flow (hydrograph). Identify base flow, storm flow.

Relationship between basin shape and stream response. A skinner basin shape --> broader response time.
Geology and stream response: shale, sandstone, limestone-->ea. has broader response time than previous one.
Climate and stream response: arid-->skinny response; humid-->broad response

Urban Flooding: refer to figure.

What is stream erosion?

Answer: a stream's erosional turbulence and abrasion carve and shape the landscape through which it flows. Stream
erosion depends upon how we (don't) use the ground. Often agricultural use increases Stream Erosion because it
reduces strength of regolith.

Figure: soil erosion rates. Hjulstrom graph of fluvial processes (erosion, transportation, deposition)
Figure: changing suspended sediment load during a flood event.
Figure: scour and fill cycle during a flood event. Increasing stage-->scour; Decreasing stage-->fill.
Scoured material transported downstream: leads to gradual erosion of the channel bed, and down-cutting of the valley.

Stream transport: four processes transport eroded materials. Solution (dissolved load)--mainly result of chemical
weathering of minerals and soluble salts.
Figure: fluvial transport
Suspension (suspended load)--fine grained clastic particles (bits and pieces of rock and soil) --always falling slwoly but
kept in suspension by upward motion of turbulent eddies. When Q decreases, because stream speed decreases, these
particles are deposited (recall Hjulstrom)
Saltation (bed load by rolling and bouncing)--coarser materials have larger fall speeds than smaller particles in
suspension load. Thus, can't remain in suspension long w/o falling out. W/ higher speeds and kinetic energy, some of load
can move to suspension load. Saltation also part of Eolian processes.
Traction--(bed load by dragging). Often difficult to distinguish from Saltation, though these particles should be on larger
end of size spectrum.
-If load exceeds a stream's capacity, sediments accumulate as Aggradation and stream channel builds up by deposition.
-With excess sediment, a stream turns into a braided stream w/ many interconnected channels.

Figure: Pool-riffle sequences. Vertical cross-section and Plan view. Staight channels evolve into meandering channels.
Figure: features of meandering channels and floodplains.

What are the differences between meandering and braided streams?

Answer: meandering: coherent channel, low sediment load, fine sediments (silt-clay) dominant, cohesive banks,
vegetated channel margins.
Braided: incoherent channels, high sediment load, coarse sediments (sand-gravel) dominant, erodible banks; mobile
channels, bare channel margins.

Multiyear Oscillations in Global Circulation: Several system fluctuations occur in multiyear or shorter periods important in
global circulation picture. Multiyear oscillations affect temperature and global winds and climates.
El Nino in the Pacific tied to rains in American West and La Nina in 2007 strengthened drought's six year hold on West.

pg. 289-291.

How are volcanoes related to climate change?

Answer: they can cool the planet for a few year if their eruptions send enough dust (sulphate and sub micrometer
aerosols) into the stratosphere which reflects more of sun's energy (Increasing albedo > 0.31). When the dust settles out
into the Troposphere or onto the ground, Aerosol effects vanish.

Observed Global Surface Air Temperature and Temperature anomalies: Global temperature trends from 1880 to 2006.
The 0 baseline represents 1951-1980 global average. Comparing annual temperatures and 5-year mean temperatures
gives sense of overall trends. 2007 tried 1998 as second warmest year in record. (b) Temperature map shows
temperature anomalies during 2006, 5th-warmest year on record. Colouration represents temperature departures from
base period 1951-1980.

Characteristics of Climate variability: Climate variability or change can't be observed from one year to the next. It takes
many years (decades) of data and qualitative observations (such as TEK) in many places to substantitate and delinates
changes so believed by others. Climate variability is most often noticed at mid- and high-latitudes, much less so in tropics.
Parts of tropical Africa may have had similar climate for past 200-300 million years or more.

What is the role of the Ocean in Climate variability?

Answer. 1. Thermo-Haline (Temperature--Salinity): circulation, oceanic deep convection and the connection with North
Atlantic Climates (long period of overturning, rapid changes in strength (pg 174-175). 2. Thermal memory--when the layer
heated by summer sun mixed down into thermocline by storms of fall and winter, memory of summer's heating preserved.
3. 'Fresh' water storage in upper layers over weeks to months and in thermocline over or longer. Lowered salinity affects
density.

What are deep current? Refer to text.

The human induced Greenhouse warming scenario? What is it?

Answer: The greenhouse warming effect is caused by warming of the troposphere by increasing its absorptivity in the
thermal IR (10 micrometers wavelength) where non-cloudy atmosphere is quite transparent. (Lup is abosrbed better,
increasing Ldown). The increase in absorptivity comes from increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases (CO2,
mehtane, nitrous oxide and CFCs). Many activities contribute, but effects on global atmosphere are global, not local.
Effects on people may be both local and global.

An increase in LW absorptivity warms the lower troposphere and the surface (via increasing Ldown or LWincoming) while
cooling the lower stratosphere because less of the IR from the surface of the Earth (Lup) reaches up there.

Surface and lower tropospheric warming increases net radiation. (Ldown increases more than Lup) increasing Qe
(evaporation) and increasing strength of the water cycle. Increases global average.

Water cycle: Precipitation, runoff and percolation or infiltration, as well as increasing the amount of plant growth. (Also
helped by increases in CO2). Increases in evaporation can counteract this benefit.

Where do Greenhouse gases come from?

Answer: carbon dioxide--burning of any carbon based fuel (gasoline, natural gas, coal, wood, ethanol in any engine,
factory);
methane--main constituent of natural gas, from swamps, cattle, garbage dumps.
nitrous oxide--agriculture (rice paddies), plus garbage.
CFCs--old refrigerators, fire extinguishers and air conditioners.

Refer to carbon dioxide pie chart. (developed countries contributing less CO2 and developing countries contributing more)
Carbon dioxide concentration is increasing annually.
Volstok Ice core record

What is the General (or Global) Circulation Model?

Answer: Atmosphere and ocean together in the best. Can predict near past, ancient past and next several decades. Still
much work to do to make them realistic. There are better forecasting tools for the next several decades.

General circulation model scheme: temperature, precipitation, air pressure, relative humidity, wind and sunlight intensity
sampled in myriad grid boxes. In the ocean, sampling = limited, but temperature, salinity and ocean current data
considered. Interactions w/in a grid layer and between layers on all six sides, are modelled in general circulation model
program.

Modelled Temperature Change (1975-95) to (2080-2100). Model projections of surface temperature for three scenarios. 3
pairs of model simulations for 2020-2029 and 2090-2099 for the B1, A1B, and A2 scenarios. The colours are defined in
the temperature scale along the bottom. Note the severity of warming in the worst case.

Which climate variables are affected? How?

Answer: Glacier--increased melting-->smaller volumes, though some may locally expand due to increased snow.
Sea level--rises both because of net melting of glaciers and thermal expansion as SST rises.
Sea Ice amounts--reduced because of warmer air and seas
Sea Ice types--smaller fraction of thicker, multi-year ice.

Refer to Antarctic Ice Disintegration.

Speculative Predictions: cloud fractions may rise or fall. Source of error, research and conflict among scientists and policy
types. Thermo-haline circulations may be slightly or sharply reduced by increased freshwater runoff which can sharply
reduce oceanic deep convection in the areas near Greenland, Iceland and Antarctica. Because fresher water lighter and
doesn't convect downward as well. Currently, 40-60% (in given years) of the human released carbon is being absorbed by
ocean and entombed for long periods (either in thermo-haline conveyor belt, or in other mixing into the deep ocean). We
do NOT know how this fraction will change in a warming world. Negative/positive feedback mechanism?

Double CO2 Scenario (IPCC): we expect a doubling of carbon dioxide from 1780 pre-industrial levels, or equivalent
effects from other gases, sometime in the last 30 years of this century. We will continue to pollute beyond that (barring
huge change of behaviour/catastrophe).

What do we know about the doubled CO2 Scenario (60-80 years in the future) and How well do we know it?
Decreasing order of our confidence (may change w/ new ideas)

What is Sea level Rise?

Answer: early 2007, average 0.3-0.5 meter rise in global sea-level from the 1950-1980 levels.
September 2007--1 m + because of water in, on and under the glacier increasing lubricating and ablation hypothesis
gained more adherents.
Global effects of expansion of sea water and melting of glacial ice; Local effects from water withdrawal in deltas and
rebounding of tectonic plates from past glaciation, also factors locally and regionally.

What is Global Average Temperature?

Answer: rises of 1.1-6.4 C Global Average. This will be larger in continental than coastal areas, in winter than summer, at
night then during the day, at high latitude than at tropical (low) latitude.
January nights in yellowknife may average 10-15 C wamer in 2090 than they do today, while tropical islands in Pacific
may detect almost no chance (except sea level rise).
Biggest effects are places where: long-wave radiation is relatively more important than solar radiation or other forms of
heating such as advection from a nearby warm ocean.

Local Snow regimes and temperature

i.) Open Arctic Ocean leading to more precipitation...rain or snow?
Interaction with the warmer land area, esp. if Pacific Ocean doesn't warm as fast?
ii.) Increased snow-free and ice-free season in agricultural areas. Along with increased carbon dioxide in the air which
acts as a fertilizer, the increasing warm period lead to more and better crops in marginal areas (if soil permits).
Early melt and thaw to 5 C leads to more evapo-transpiration early in the year and may penalize agriculture.

Thermo-Haline Circulation/Atlantic
If in the future excess precipitation leads to excess runoff and to more fresh water neat the ocean's surface, we may get
repeat of Younger dryas cooling (p. 581) in Europe as the Gulf Stream weakens and the oceanic deep convection also
weakends or shut off for long periods.
-->Positive feedback (globally) and negative feedback (regionally
strange effect--global warming leads to local cooling of Europe.

What is stratospheric ozone depletion?

Answer: colder temperatures in the stratosphere will enhance Polar Stratospheric Clouds which provide catalytic sites for
the reactions that allow chlorine from CFC's to attack ozone molecules.
Human induced global warming enhances destruction of ozone layer. Increasing greenhouse gases put Earth at risk.

El Nino/La Nina: the effects of GHG's and the changing atmospheric composition may be small, since these phenomena
mainly in the tropics. There may be advective effects brought in from mid-latitudes such as changes in SST because of
changes in ocean circulations.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

Biogeography and Soils

Fig. 19.2
Biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems:
(a) solar energy is the input that drives the biotic and abiotic components. Heat energy and biomass are the outputs from
the biosphere.
(b) Biotic and abiotic ingredients operate together to form temperate forest-floor ecosystem in BC, w/ mosses beginning
process of community development.

Essentials for Plant Growth-->SSWW

Sunlight--essential for photosynthesis of green plants. Chlorophull needs certain visible wavelengths.
Soil--subtrate for most plants (some can live in trees). Soil characteristics determine how temperature and water change
w/ time and depth.
Warmth--temperature, particularly in the root zone of soil and at leaves and flowers. Critical temperature at 5 C, where
enzymes begin to function efficiently.
Related to net radiation Q.
Water--present and available in the soil. If bound too tightly to soil it may be present, yet unavailable.

Fig. Eurasian SSWW Suitability

What is Growing Degree Days?

Answer: Use critical temperature T_critical* as threshold.
(T_max + T_min)/2 = T_avg
T_avg - T_critical = daily contribution to the growing degree days.
Sum all growing degree days since last killing frost.
Varies w/ different plants (usually 5-10 C)

What are the characteristics of soil formation?

Answer: soil = organic matter (OM) + weathered bedrock.
Soil biota and detrital pathway; soil horizones; structure and texture; cation exchange; soil air and water.

Alternate definition of soil: that part of the regolith that is heavily influenced by biological processes.
(Interconnectedness between rock cycle and biologically processes)

Detrital food pathway--natural, or artificial (in composters, either home or municipal)

Soil Biota (nematodes, earthworms, springtails, termites)// fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes
plant detritus-->humus

Patterns of organic matter accumulation

The O horizon. Ah horizone. Nutrient cycle.
Boreal: O horizon>Ah horizon
Prairie: Ah horizon>>>O horizon
Tropical: nutrient cycle, no O horizon, thin Ah horizon
Desert: thin Ah horizon
Temperate: Ah>O horizon

Forest/grassland contrasts in Annual Organic Matter Accumulation

Forests: worms; roots 20%; leaves, etc 80%
Prairie: rodents, ants, roots 80%, shoots 20%

Fig. Soil sampling and Mapping Units

Give a description of ea. soil horizon?

Answer: examining a pedon, a sampling unit (usually a hexagonal column 1-10 sq. meters of top area) down to base of
the root zone we get a profile:
-O (organic) horizon--20-30% or more of organic matter. Decomposition works here. This process feeds the mineral soil
layer below, the A horizon.
-Ah (accumulation of organic matter) dark layer at surface of mineral soil
-Ae (p.597) depleted of finer particles and mineral matter by leaching or eluviation.
-B (Bh)--the layer with illuviation (deposition) or accumulation or enrichment of organic matter, clays, oxides.
-C--weathered bedrock or weathered parent material (PM)
-R (rock) horizon--can't be broken by hand or dug w/ spade when moist.
-Regolith can either be C horizon alone or A, Ae, B, C horizons together.

Horizon terminology in Canadian Soil classification:

O | L-F-H (organic horizons)
A | Ah, Ae (Mineral horizon of organic matter accumulation)
AB, A&B, BA (Transitional horizons)
B | B, BC, B&C, CB, Ck (horizon of illuviation, accumulation, transitional horizons, horizon enriched w/ carbonate)
C (little affected by soil-forming processes)
PM

Soil structure = shape of ped = soil's scaffolding.

Prismatic, blocky, crumb, platy.
Refer to figure.

Soil particle size: "soil separates'

clay < 2 micrometers
sand < 2 mm
gravel > 2mm
sand (coarse, med., fine, v. fine) = (1<=0.5<=0.1<=0.02)
silt = (0.02<=0.002)

Soil texture Triangle and systems: refer to figures.

clay loam: 33% clay, 33% silt, 33% sand
Figure on particle size and mineral types.

Refer to figure on Soil colloids and CEC and secondary clays/humus particles.
Refer to pH scale and soil acidification figure.

Temporal changes in soil pH with surface age, Glacier Bay, Alaska.

Soil texture and CEC (temperate forest soils)
clay minerals and CEC

Relationship between soil, air and water: organic matter (5%), mineral soil (45%), air (25%) and water (25%).

Soil moisture availability: refer to figure.

Forms of soil moisture: 1.) chemically combined water
2.) hygroscopic water
3.) capillary water
4.) gravitational water

(1) and (2) are unavailable to plants. (4) flows away rapidly when possible. (3) critical for growth.
(3) H2O available. (4) Superfluous.
Wilting point (2)-->(3)
field capacity (3)-->(4)

Refer to pg. 599 for definitions of wet soil, moist soil and dry soil.

Soil water status varies with different textured soils.

Refer to figure: water-holding capacity of different textures.

What is Biogeography?
Answer: examines the factors that control the distribution (range) and abundance of organisms.

environment (climate, soil,...)--> Biota

Biological organization: taxonomic; ecological--(biome, community, association, species)

What is the Goldilocks Principle?

Answer: every organism has a range of: temperature, moisture in the soil, air and its body, chemical concentration of
nutrients and concentrations of toxins which is optimum for it.
Outside of this range, the plant/animal/microbe/enzyme is unhappy, with the degree of unhappiness is proportional to how
far outside the OPTIMUM range the conditions are.
The first degree of unhappiness is stress, where population density drops.
The second degree of unhappiness is intolerance, or death where population drops to 0.

Biogeographic range (refer to figure). How does the environment act to control the distribution of a species?
Answer: the concept of ecological optimum and ecological limits.

Limiting Factors: low temperatures limit plant growth at high elevations. Lack of water limits growth in desert. Excess
water limits growth in a bog. Changes in salinity levels affect aquatic ecosystems. Lack of iron in ocean surface
environments limits photosynthetic production. Low phosphorous content of eastern U.S. soils limits plant growth. Lack of
active chlorophull above 6100 m (20,000 ft) limits primary productivity.

Interactions between 2 factors in finding the ecological optimum and range.

(ex. temperature gradient and moisture gradient)

Range analysis: for temperate forest trees, do similar western limits imply similar drought intolerance? Do common
northern limits imply similar limiting temperatures?
Refer to figures.

Refer to figure: temperate forest/prairie grassland boundary (W<-->E beyond Rockies)

Is Northern Limit controlled by the length and warmth of the growing season?
daily temperatures >10 deg C for more than 4 months. July temperature 18 C.

Is Northern Limit controlled by dormant season (winter) temperatures?

means January temperature -12 deg C.

Ice formation in beech (and red oak, red maple, etc.) tree trunks:
extra-cellular: ok. Intracellular: cells ruptured.

Figure: probability of temperatures falling below -40 deg C.

Future range of American beech (x2 CO2). Post glacial migration of American beech. Expanding downward w/ age.

Obstacles to rapid migration:

Large seeds = slow dispersal.
Symbiotic fungi ensure P supply for tree growth.

Geographical range of beech species: center of origin indicated by highest diversity. Brown areas are temperate
deciduous forest biomes. Refer to figure.

Center of origin in Southern China (?) likely in mid-Cretaceous (100 Ma BP)

Bering Strait land-bridge has existed for last 70 Ma. Fossil occurrences.

What is plant photosynthesis and productivity?

Answer: all plants obey eqn for productivity:
GPP - R = NPP
(Gross Primary Product - respiration = net primary product).
Thus, plants must burn fuel via respiration, consuming oxygen to carry out photosynthesis in order to create food for
others via chlorophyll, carbon dioxide, water and sunlight.
Because carbon dioxide enters plants via same holes that water exits the plants (stomata), relationship exists between:
NPP (CO2 in) and net transpiration (H2O out). Relationship indicates how efficient a plant is at producing biomass, result
of NPP per unit of available solar energy.
Relationship changes with latitude, w/ higher latitude plants more efficient, all others being equal.
Net photosynthesis (primary productivity) varies depending on controlling environmental factors such as light, water,
temperature, soil fertility and plant's site, elevation and competition from other plants and animals. Net primary production
is net primary productivity summed over an area.
Refer to graph on NPP.

Energy budget of the biosphere: Gross primary production (energy received but not used)--|utilization by plants| net
primary production (respiration)--|disposition of NPP| herbivore consumption and plant biomass remaining.

Effects of high latitude ocean on primary productivity:

Terrestrial: thermal (length of growing season and temperature)
Boreal forest (~800 gC/m^2/year)<-->Tropical forest (~2200)
Moisture (length and intensity of drought)
Desert (<100)

Oceanic:
Nutrient supply (more than one limiting element)
open ocean (<50)<-->estuary (~2000)
How are ecological communities structured and how they function?
Approaches to community analysis: 1. niches (roles) and biodiversity. 2. energetics. 3. mineral (nutrient) cycling.

Niche descriptions: Producers-forest trees and herbs; Pollinators--insects (especially bees and moths); Predators
(herbivores, primary consumers which eat producers, carnviores, secondary consumers which eat herbivores)
Parasites: of plants and animals. Help themselves while hurting, not killing, their hosts.
Symbionts: some fungi, bacteria which mutually help others while helping themselves.
Decomposers and Detritivores: earthworms, bacteria. Create nutrients by breaking down other dead organisms, either
w/in or outside their bodies.
Omnivores: eat plants or animals, another trophic level.

Patterns of biodiversity: 1. Latitudinal gradient. 2. Altitudinal gradient

What is Convergent evolution?

Answer: communities are characterized by similar niches

What is ecological succession? Refer to picture.

Communities respond to disturbances rapidly, then slowly. (sun, soil, warmth, water) + surrounding communities control
the sequence of community change.
There is rarely, if at all a stable 'climax' community that re-establishes itself.

If a climax ecosystem is disturbed, will the same ecosystem regenerate?

Answer: only if conditions are similar to when it first grew.

Ecological pyramid [freshwater wetland--amount of material g/m^2]

Ecological efficiency in g/m^2: herbivores-4.6 percent. Carnivores-29%. Top carnivores-13%.

Refer to figure on energy storage.

Nutrient cycling in terrestrial ecosystems: a model showing storage in compartments and mangitudes of inputs, outputs
and flows.

Litter, biomass and soil form a triangle.

Inputs of soil: weathering; outputs of soil: nutrient flows and leaching
Inputs of biomass: nutrient flows
Inputs of litter: precipitation; outputs of litter: runoff.

Nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems:

boreal forest, temperate forest, and tropical forest.

Soils which affect Biomes:

Good soils are a necessary but not sufficient condition for growth of plants and ecosystems on which they depend.

Soils of desert areas (Aridisols). Pediment (an eroded slope at the base of a mountain). Gravel lag on surface. No O and
very weak A horizon. Weak Fe translocation and strong Ca accumulation.

Tropical forest soils: texture commonly clay or clay loam as result of intense chemical weathering; also results in
accumulation of Fe and Al oxides (red colouration). Plinthite formation forms C.

Annual Nutrient Inputs: hubbard brook forest ecosystem.

Annual nutrient outputs and storage: refer to diagrams.

Refer to diagrams on Terrestrial biomes and soil geography for western Eurasia and N. America.

What are the soils to concentrate on?

Podzols (Canada)-->spodosols (US)
Chernozems (Canada)-->mollisols (US)
Regosols (Canada)-->Entisols (US)
(part of tundra soils on previous figure)
Aridisols are in deserts.

Soils of Highland + High latitude areas: recent glaciations, high rates of erosion and low rates of chemical weathering
result in weakly developed soils. Dominate in N. Canada.
Soil types: canada--regosols; USA--entisols; inceptisols.

Podzolization: P=>PE highly acidic litter; breakdown of clay removal of Fe and Al; strong leaching of bases.

Soils of boreal forest (other highly acid, well-drained sites).

soil type: Canada--podzol; important in B.C., boreal northern forest, and in populated Eastern Canada. USA- spodosol.
Podzol (spodosol) profile: pine forest on sand ridge, North Carolina. Upper surface of B horizon varies w/ depth w/
thickness of organic layer.

Refer to figure on calcification: slight leaching, some capillary rise, slight loss of bases.

Soils of the prairies/steppes humid (tall-grass) prairie.

Soil type: Can. --chernozem impt in S. Prairies.
USA-mollisol, impt in W. Plains.
loess PM (loess is wind-deposited silt), strong Ca accumulation and animal burrows, w/ thick Ah and dense sod.

Soils of the prairies/ steppes semiarid (short-grass prairie)

thin sod, thin Ah, moderate Ca accumulation.

Refer to Bioclimates chart.