Ships Contruction and Calculation

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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924005003367
SHIP
CONSTRUCTION
AND
CALCULATIONS.
WITH
NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS AND EXAMPLES.
FOR THE USE OF OFFICERS OF THE MERCANTILE MARINE, SHIP SUPERINTENDENTS, DRAUGHTSMEN, ETC.
BY
GEORGE
Member of
Institution
NICOL,
Surveyor
to
of
Naval
Architects,
Lloyd's Register
of Shipping.
GLASGOW:
JAMES BROWN & SON,
52-56
Darnley Street, Pollokshields,
E.
London; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON,

[All Rights Reserved.']
KENT &
CO.,
LTD.
1909.
Preface.
advances THE rapid the and
in
that
have been made in recent years both

construction
present
of
steel
in
design
best
details
of
ships
is
the
public.
writer's
apology for
is
placing
the
volume before the
The book
intended
blems met with

particularly
it
manner some of the proand subsequent management afloat of ships, cargo steamships, and while no claim to special originality is made,
to
explain in a
in
simple and practical
the
building
is
be
hoped that the matter presented will be found up mentioned that publication has been specially delayed
to
to
date.
It
may
so
as
to
include
respects
reference
Lloyd's
latest
rules,
which
differ
in
certain
important
from those preceding them, and are "more readily applicable to the changing
conditions
It
is
of construction."
hoped the book
will
be found useful by
officers
of the Mercantile
apprentices,
is
Marine, ship
of
superintendents,
draughtsmen,
and
shipyard
to
all
whom
the
in
a more or less intimate knowledge of naval architecture

officer
essential.
To
one,
mariner
the
subject
to
it.
may now be
for
said
to
be
compulsory
master
that
those
who wish
in
qualify
the
certificate
of extra
must pass
reasons
an
of
examination
officer
why an
as
and
to
theory
ships.
But besides this, there are other good should know something regarding the construction For instance, it would enable him, if called upon,
at
on behalf of his employers of an old one. Or, if sudden damage, calling for immediate temporary
act
inspector the
the
building
of
to
new
vessel
or
repair
his
vessel
it
were
receive
repairs,
would give him

these.
confidence
in
directing
his
crew
in
the
carrying
out
of
In
the
assist
management of his him at any time

trim
vessel
to
afloat,
a knowledge
at
of simple
theory
would
of
arrive
quickly
satisfactory
conditions
draught,
mere guess-work or a system of trial and error. In other ways also such knowledge would prove useful. The examples chosen for illustration throughout the book have been selected for their practical interest, and every effort has been exerted to
and
stability,
unattainable
by
make
Ltd.,
the
explanations
simple.
J.
In conclusion, the author begs to thank Messrs.

calculations
his
L.
Thompson
&
Sons,
Sunderland, for their kind permission to publish diagrams and results of

of
vessels
built
by them
indebtedness to
Mr. W.
and he also desires to acknowledge Thompson, B.Sc, for help in reading the proof
;
sheets,
and
in
verifying the
examples, as well as for other valuable assistance

press.
rendered while the
work was passing through the

1909.
Glasgow, November,
CONTENTS.
Simple Ship Calculations
........
CHAPTER
I.
PAGE
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
Outlines of Construction
. .
II.
Moments, Centre of Gravity, Centre of Buoyancy

III.
.... ....
...
25
42
CHAPTER CHAPTER
IV.
Bending Moments, Shearing Forces, Stresses and Strains

V.
45
Types of Cargo Steamers
.......
CHAPTER
VI.
75
Practical Details
....
CHAPTER CHAPTER
. .
93
VII.
.
.
Equilibrium of Floating Bodies, Metacentric Stability

VIII.
.177
197
Trim
...
.
CHAPTER CHAPTER
IX.
Stability of Shits at Large Angles of Inclination

X.
217
Rolling
Loading and Ballasting
Appendix
........ ..... .....

CHAPTER XL
.
254
272
APPENDICES.
297
Appendix B
Table of Natural Tangents,

of Materials
;
Sines
and Cosines;
Weights
. .
Rates of Stowage
.
.
305 309
Appendix C
Index
Additional Questions
.......
324
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND
CALCULATIONS.
CHAPTER
I.
Simple Ship Calculations.
A
first
KNOWLEDGE
areas
of
the
principle
of
of
surfaces
having
curved
boundaries
in
moments and of how to calculate may perhaps be said to

dealing
be
the
only
indispensable
requisites
with
ordinary
ship
calculations.
In view of
the
principle
this
we propose
to
spend
little
time
on these
problems.
subjects,
taking up areas of surfaces, and afterwards, as

of
may be found
ship
or
convenient,
The
area
of
moments, especially as applied a plane surface bounded by

is
to
straight
curved lines
its
may
some-
be defined as the number of units of surface contained within
boundaries.
it
The
unit,
in
English measure,
a
usually a
square
foot,
although
is
and sometimes, although more rarely, as a times taken as In France, and on the Continent generally, the metrical square yard. system is employed, the units of surface being the square metre and square These metrical units have many points of advantage, centimetre, respectively. but as the square foot is more familiar to us, we shall make it the standard
square
inch,
in
our calculations.
The
fig. i,
simplest
figure
of
which
all
we
may
of
obtain
all
the
area
right
is
square,
whose chief properties are
sides
equal,
and
angles
angles.
feet.
In
If
A BCD
be
in
is
a square,
such as
two adjacent
lines
sides,
one side being, say, 6 A B and A D, be divided into 6 equal

the
length
parts,
and
as
drawn
the
through
the
points
of
division
parallel
to
these
sides,
shown
has
its
figure,
the square will contain
36 small squares, each of which
There are, 4 sides equal to a foot, and encloses one unit of area. It is obvious that 36 units in a square having a side of 6 feet. to find the number of units in any square it is only necessary to multiply
therefore,
the length in lineal units
of one side by
itself.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
for
In passing to a rectangle the

square,
being,
sides
i.e.,
rule
the
area
is
the
same
let
as
for
the
length
in
this
of
two
feet
adjacent
unequal.
sides
are
multiplied
together,
these
however,
in
case,
As an
feet
example,
the
adjacent
the rule,
a rectangle
be 16
and 8
long respectively.
feet.
By
we have
Fig.
Area =
16x8 =
128
square
SIMPLE SHIP CALCULATIONS.

Obviously A
bisects
the
parallelogram
A GB
D,
and,
as
we have
just
seen
Area
Therefore, the area of the
area
to
ACBD = ACxBE, AP v triangle ABO equals

;
RF
By
this
rule
the
of any
the
triangle
may be obtained
know
length of one side

in
and it is seen that we only require and the vertical distance between that side
intersect.
and the point

a base of 25 x 22
25
2
which the other two sides
Thus, a triangle having

will
feet,
and a
feet.
vertical
height
of
22
feet,
have an
area
.
of
75 square
The
area of any plane figure

rules,
bounded by
straight
lines
may be found by one

and
it
of the foregoing
or
by a combination of
applied
this to
them,
of the
should be noted that the

of ship
earliest
rules
the
finding
areas
waterplanes and sections
were of
nature.
in
(fig. 4) Bisect A E be a portion of a ship's waterplane. and through F draw a line perpendicular to A E to intersect the curve in 0, FO will be parallel to A B and DE. Join B and D by straight lines, then and FGDE will be trapezoids. A B, F 0, ED are called ordinates to the curve let these lines be represented by the letters y y.2 and f/ 3 respectively and let h be the common distance between consecutive ordinates. Obtain now the areas of the trapezoids and FGDE by ap-
Let
ABODE
F,
ABCF
ABCF
plying the rules already established.

G,
Draw B G
parallel to
F,
meeting C
in
then
Area
B0G=
these
BG
G
,
and area A B G F = A
Fx A
B.
Using the symbols,
may be
2
written
Area B 06 = ^^
x h, and area
A B G F = h x yv
Combining we
get
Area A B
In the same way area
,-.
F=
h
(</ x
+ y.2 ).
FGDE ^ (ijz + y)
D Eh (#1+ 2y
2
whole area A B
+ y 3 ).
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
with
fig.
The
rule
may be
applied
to
five
curves
as
in
any
number
of
ordinates.
For example, take one having
5.
By
the
rule,
area
ABDE = (y + 2y 2 + y
x
%)
and,
area
EDHJ =
(y->+ 2y 4
x
-\-y 5 )
.\ the whole area,
ABDHJ = {y +
2y.2
a(/ 3
2</ 4
/ 5 )
This
area
line,
is
called the trapezoidal rule for obtaining areas of surfaces

lines.
It
bounded
by curved and straight

of
may be
stated
as
follows
To
other,
obtain the
and a curved which is taken as the base of the figure divide the base between the end ordinates into any number of equal parts, and through the points of division draw perpendiculars to the curved line, as in figure 5 measure the length of these ordinates, taking one foot or one inch as the unit of measurement then to the sum of all the ordinates, except the end ordinates, add half the the result, multiplied by the normal distance sum of the end ordinates between any two ordinates, measured in same unit, will be the area of the
any
of
plane
surface,
bounded by
being
three
straight
to
lines
two
the
straight
lines
perpendicular
the
surface,
approximately.
Example.
as
Let
in
length of base
=
=
48
10
feet.
Let there be
feet,
;
ordinates, spaced
directed,
giving
common
1
interval
y.2
;
of
12
and
12
;
let
5
the
4,
value
of
the
ordinates
be
feet
y3 =
16
y=
respectively.
Tabulating the information,

Ordinates.
the
calculation
becomes
The
the
area
areas
obtained
enclosed
as
above
is
less
than
the
lines
actual
area
required
by
small
between the straight
joining the extremities of
each two consecutive

spaces
these
the
in
fig. 5.
ordinates
is
and the
that
curve,
as
indicated
by the
of
hatched
ordinates,
It
clear
by taking
in
a great
small,
number
is is
hatched
area.
is
areas
may be made extremely

the
is
but
however
always
greatest
numerous
less
ordinates
may
be,
It
area obtained
that
this
manner
give
than
the actual curvature
obvious, too,
this
rule,
the difference
will
w hen the
results
excessive;
to
therefore,
most
accurate
little
when applied
surfaces
having boundaries with comparatively

ordinary
ship
curvature.
In applying the rule to
curves
the
ordinates
should be close
spaced at the points of greatest curvature,

to
and wider spaced elsewhere.
If the curves met with in ship design were of regular form, equations them could be deduced by means of which the correct areas of surfaces Unfortunately, enclosed by them up to any point could be written down.
this
is
it
not
is
so.
No
this
rigid
equation
error
can
is
be applied to
usually
ordinary
in
ship
curves,
as
but
found that no
great
involved
treating
them
parabolas,*
*
and
is
now
the
common
practice.
parabola
may
be described as the curve forming the line of intersection of a right

its
cone with a plane parallel to one of

point which moves, so
sides
it
is
also
sometimes defined as the locus of a
that
its its
distance
from a fixed
point
line
distance
from a fixed straight
A.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
as
By an important
inventor,
rule
formula,
known
Simpson's
Rale,
named
after
the
the
area
enclosed by any parabolic curve
may be
obtained.
The
may be
stated as follows
base-line,
verticals
: Simpson's First Rule.

verticals
Through the extremities

Divide the distance
spaces,
of
any chosen
these
draw
into
to
cut
the curve.
between
an
even
the
number
;
of
and
through
the
points of division draw ordinates to the curve
be
odd
in
number.
omitting
last
Measure
length
of
which ordinates will therefore each ordinate, and then add

this
together four times the
sum
the
of the even ordinates

first
odd
the
ordinates,
first
and
last.
To
the
and twice the sum of the total add the sum of

result
;
and
the
ordinates.
Finally,
multiply
the
by one-third
this
will
the the
length
of
common
surface
to
interval
if
it
between
curve curve
in
ordinates
a
give
exact area
of the
the
if
be that of
ship
common
parabola,
and
pro-
a close approximation
the
be an ordinary shipshape one.

calculations,
This rule
a
ship's
is
of
immense value
of
and we
shall
(fig.
ceed to take a few examples showing

half-waterplane
as
its
application.
is
Let
ABC
,
7),
be
is
which
the
area
required.
x
The base A G
etc.,
divided
indicated
in
the rule,
7.
and the ordinates y
y2 y 3
are
drawn
Fig.
through the points of division
is
the
common
interval
between the ordinates.
We may
It
write
Area A B
frequently
= j(y 1 + 4# 2 + 2^4-4^4+ 2^ + 4^+

happens that
closer
at
2t/ 7
+4
at
*/ 8
+ &)
ends of
the
the
curvature
to
is
greater
the
waterplane,
and a
approximation
these
places,
the
area
in
is fig.
attained
8.
by inserting
total
intermediate
is
ordinates
as
shown
:
The
area
now made up
of three
Fig.
portions,
8.
as
follows
JL
Area A Area
ED
=
-(0i 6
+ 40U + 0s) = ~(ki + + 4^ +

2</ 4
2</H
+ i# 2
</ 8 ).
)-
DEF6
j
h
(</ 2
+ 4 </ 5 +
h
2</ 6
+4
</ 7
Axe&FGC =
Combining these
Area A
j-iyt
+ Ay&t+y*) =
we
get
j(ii/ 8
ays*
+ #>)
+
portions,
2t/ij
BG = ~{ly x +
ihy 2
+ 4y, +
2</ 4
4 </ 5
+ 2 y6 +
4^7
ijy a
+ 2y 9 + Jy 9 ).
1)
Suppose
with
(/i,
now
that
as
follows:
the
5,
ordinates
have
certain
definite
16*9,
values
beginning
9-4,
'i,
*i,
n"6,
15*4,
i6"8,
jyo,
feet:
is.
16*4,
14/5,
and that the total length of the plane is 200 by filling in the values in equation (1), but it
the
figures,
we could find the area more convenient to tabulate
as
follows
No.h. of
Ordinates.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
We have seen that to apply Simpson's First Rule to finding the area of any surface having a curved boundary, there must be an odd number of ordinates, and not less than three. It is, however, sometimes necessary to find the area between two consecutive ordinates, as, for instance, between
f/i
and y 2
in
fig.
9.
To do
Fig.
this
we employ another
rule
known
as
the
Eight Rule, which may be stated thus : Five Eight Rule. Three ordinates being given, to obtain the area between any two multiply the middle ordinate by 8, the ordinate forming the other boundary to the space whose area we are finding by 5, and the remaining ordinate by - 1 the algebraic sum of these products, when multiplied by TV
Five
the
common
interval
between
the
ordinates,
will
give
the
area
required.
For example
Area A
BCD
(fig.
9)
(Stfi +%*-&)
).
and area D C
If
F = (5^ + 8z/ 2 -(/ x
these
be added we
get,
after
re-arrangement
Total area
A BEF =
Rule
curve
is
(</ 1
+ 4</a + ffs),
on
the
which
as
shows
first
that
rule,
the
Five
Eight
the
based
that
same assumption
parabola.
the
namely,
that
is
of a
common
Take a
of
interval
practical example.
The
feet,
length of the half ordinates of a portion

6,
a ship's waterplane are in
7 '6
and
8,
respectively,
the
common
being 9
first
feet.
between the
Find the area of the portion of the Tabulating, we get and second ordinates.
Ordinates.
full
waterplane

If
the area
between the second and

be
Ordinates.
i
third
ordinates
were
required,
the
calculation would
S.M.
10
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
find
as
with
Reviewing our rules for having 3, 5, 7, 9, n,

4,
7,
areas,
13,
etc.,
we now
as
is
that
surfaces
can
be dealt
for
ordinates,
required by the First Rule,
and
as
10,
13,
16,
etc.,
ordinates
required
by
the
Second Rule;
will
surfaces
having ordinates whose number

with
6,
not included in the foregoing, such
those
8,
12,
14,
etc.,
ordinates,
no
single
to.
rule
apply,
and a
a
combination of the rules given

surface with
eight
must be resorted
Take,
for
instance,
ordinates
as
shown
in
figure
10
Examining the figure, we note that the portion A BCD may be treated second rule, and the remainder Proceeding by the first. thus, we get
by
the
DGEF
Area A B C D =
g%
4
+ 3</ 2 441/ 5
3^3
+ ^)
and area
DC E F =
~(y +
2y 6
+ 4*/ 7 + y B ).
Combining these quantities and re-arranging the bracket, we have
so as to get a
common
factor outside
Whole
Calculate
area
A B
EF = -(i^ +3#
of
fig.
+ 303+ 2S& + 4& +

ordinates
30*3,
:
^
be
+ 4#7 +
12
</ 8 )-
the
area
10,
assuming the
167,
24*4,
will
to
feet
apart,
and of the following lengths:

14-9
feet,
28-9,
29-9,
27-3,
22*3,
and
respectively.
The work
No. of
Ordinates.
be as follows
II to
would be very similar to the above, and we leave the reader

for
work
it
out
himself.
Tcheuychkff's Rule.
having curved
Simpson's
the
This
differs
method of finding the areas of plane

in
for
surfaces
boundaries
certain
important
are
respects
from that
spaced,
as
of
in
;
Rule.
The
ordinates,
instance,
not
equally
latter case, but arbitrarily, according to the number of them employed nor are they treated by multipliers. All that it is necessary to do to obtain
the
is
area
to
in
a given
the
case
when
of
the the
ordinates
latter,
have been
these
placed in position,
together,
result
measure
the
lengths
add
divide
the
sum by
of the
number
of the
ordinates,
and multiply the
by the length
base line of the
figure.
Fig.
11.
As an example,
have
in
six
let
us
find
the
area
to
of
rule,
ordinates
;
spaced
according
A B D (fig. 1 1). and numbered i,

20
feet.
Here we
2,
3,
etc.,
the
sketch
the total
length
of the
base
is
Applying the
rule,
we have
No. of
Ordinates.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
It
AND CALCULATIONS.
where
is,
determined.
ordinates,
line.
should
at
be
noted
that
there
is
an
odd
number
of
the
of
one
occurs
the
origin,
that
the
middle
point
base
Table
i.
Number of Ordinates and Multipliers for Same.
*3
No. of Ordinates.
u
feet
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
thick.
AND CALCULATIONS.
Let
fig.
14 represent this block.
The
area of the upper surface
BCD =
15x25 = 375
square
feet.
If the
block were one foot thick, 375
would
also
measure
3! times
the
the
this
capacity
in
cubic
therefore
feet
:
the
actual
volume
will
obviously
be
quantity,
volume
= 375*
'5
1312*5
cubic feet
From
this
it
appears that to obtain the volume of any rectangular solid,

fig.
such as that in
14,
it
is
merely necessary to find the continued product
of the three principal dimensions.
volumes of regular
solids,
;
There are various rules for obtaining the and we proceed to state a few of them without,
these
however, giving the proofs
may be obtained by
referring
to
any work
on mensuration.
1.
Volume
of a pyramid
with any form of base
area of base x J height
(perpendicular).
2.
Volume Volume
of sphere
diameter 3 x
~f~~~*
3.
of
an
Ellipsoid
length x breadth x depth x -
Passing from these,
volumes of
Fig.
solids
of
we come next to consider methods of finding the more or less irregular form, such, for example, as the
portion
of
immersed body of a
15
ship.
shows,
roughly, a
a ship's
body
by A
to
waterplane
which
dealt
say
below the load

Obviously,
here.
:
may be supposed
no
it
represented
ED FA.
we have
finding
First,
with
rules
which
admit
of
direct
application
In
the volume
is
sometimes found convenient

to
proceed as follows
of
assume
the
body
be
divided
by an
odd
number
equidistant
VOLUME.
transverse
15
planes
(nine
is
shown
in
the
figure),
and
calculate
the
areas
of
each of these planes from the keel up to the horizontal waterplane
AFDEA.
scale,
fig. 16, having a length equal, on some and erect equal-spaced ordinates to correspond with the transverse sections of the body previously mentioned. On each of these ordinates, which are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., in fig. 16, measuring from the base line H J, mark off to scale the number of square feet in the
Next,
take
horizontal
line,
HJ
to the length of the vessel,
corresponding section of
so
obtained,
capacity
the
vessel.
Draw a
will
fair
curve
through the points
and the surface

body.
HL
have an area representing the cubic
of the
2 2i2 2 2*3
Let That the foregoing statement is true may be very simply shown. space between any two sections, such as 2 and 3, be subdivided by ordinates drawn through the points 2 1; 2*, 2 3) and where they intersect the Now, since the be drawn parallel to H </, as shown. curve, let lines
the
ordinate at
the
little
represents
2
the
will
area
of
section
of
the vessel
at
that
point,
rectangle
at
2l
2
represent the volume of a vertical layer between

2
sections
vessel at
the
points
2.
and
having a constant section equal to area of

2
X
section
In the
same way the rectangles
22
22
23
and
23
3,
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
represent
AND CALCULATIONS.
the
areas
little
will
volumes of
the
vertical
3,
vertical
layers,
of
whose sections
will
be
those of the vessel at the beginning of each
interval.
2 Xi 22
The sum
22
,
of the
volumes
sections
this
of
at
2
layers
represented
by
etc.,
between
vessel
at
and
will
be
less
than
the
actual
volume
of
the
and the deficiency is obviously represented by the areas of the little triangles But by between the tops of the rectangles and the curve. making the division close enough, the areas of these little triangles can be made as small as we please, so that in the limit the volume of the body, between sections at 2 and 3, will be truly represented by the area of that portion of fig. 14 enclosed by the curve, the bounding ordinates, and the
part,
base
line.
is
Thus
it
is
clear
that,
as
stated
above,
the
total
volume of the
sections
40, 163,
body
represented
by the area
load
line,
L J H.
areas of the vertical transverse
feet,
Take a numerical example.

of a vessel 230,
The
50,
up
to
the
in square
are,
respectively,
o,
400,
is
750,
470,
350,
270,
and
total
o,
them
will
12
feet.
Calculate
this
is
the
and the common interval between immersed volume of the body. It

of obtaining the
be seen that
merely a
question
area of a figure
as
such as
H LJ //,
and the work may therefore be tabulated

No.
of
follows
/rea
of
VOLUME.
shown, the vessel being symmetrical about
of each of the horizontal planes
to
is
17
the
middle
line
plane.
The
some
area
scale,
first
calculated and set off to

line
the right of the middle line 5/3,

to
on a horizontal
1
opposite the water-
plane
for
which
it
refers.
In
1
fig.
these
areas
are
represented
by B
the
first
waterplane,
FG
for the
second, and so on.
fair
curve
GG^D,
drawn through these points will obviously, from our previous consideration, enclose an area representing the volume of the vessel from the keel to the first waterplane; and therefore, to obtain the immersed volume of the vessel, it
is
only necessary to calculate the area of
BCD.
Fig.
17.
W.P.
ew.E
W.P.
4W.P.
Take one numerical example:

in fig.
17,
If the areas of the waterplancs of the vessel
beginning
feet,
and 150 square

will
the upper one, be 8000, 7600, 7000, 6000, 4500, 2800, respectively, and the distance between them be 3 feet, what
at
be the
:
total
volume?
The work
of
finding
this
area
we
tabulate
as
follows
No. of W.P.
'
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
this
DISPLACEMENT AND BUOYANCY. At

shall
point,
for a reason
which
appear presently, we must endeavour to explain an important hydrostatic This law asserts that if any principle known as the Law of Archimedes.
body be
to
immersed
at
in
a fluid
it
will
the
weight of
float
the
volume
of
of
the
body
total
the
surface
the fluid
be pressed upwards by a force equal fluid which it displaces ; and if the with only a portion of its bulk im
will
mersed, that the volume of fluid displaced

weight of the body.
water, with
have the same weight as the

vessel,
Thus, a box-shaped depth of 10

5 feet
ioo'x2o'xio', floating
will
in
salt
half
its
immersed,
displace
ioo x 20 x
10000
or 64
cubic feet of the

verify
fluid.
And
since
we know, or may
ozs.,
easily
of salt water weighs
1025 2240 occupies a space of -7
lbs.,
by experiment, that a cubic foot and therefore that a ton of salt water
= 35
cubic
feet,
we
are able
to
write
Weight of water displaced by
vessel
28 5*7
tons
By
the
Law of Archimedes this weight is equal to that of the vessel and its contents. The following is a simple proof of this important principle. If the body
Fig.
18
represented
by A
it
in
fig.
18
be placed in a
a part of
its
fluid
of greater specific
gravity
than
itself,
will
float
with
bulk above the surface as

fluid,
shown.
those
The immersed
pressures
portion will
be pressed in every direction by the

parallel
which act
by arrows.
solidified,
on a section
If,
to
the the
plane
fluid
indicated
to
now,
we imagine
body
of
filled itself
paper being surrounding the body
of
the
become
this
and the
shape
to
be
top
non-existent,
cavity
will
remain having the

finally,
exact
the
to
immersed
the
form
with
of
the
the
body.
fluid
If
cavity
be
supposed
fluid
same
and
the
there
surrounding
will
solidified
free
is
be
be a
level
surface,
be disturbed
statical
supposed to .return to its former state and consequently the equilibrium will not
occupying the cavity
the
will
that
to say, the
fluid
effect
as
the
body
in
itself,
since
same
this
it
resultant
at
have the same upward pressure
keeps
weight
each of them
of the
equilibrium.
From
once follows that the
floating
body
is
the
occupying a space equal to that

principle
is
same as that of a volume of the fluid of the immersed portion of the body. This
it,
of enormous value to the naval architect, for by
when a
vessel
DISPLACEMENT AND BUOYANCY.

is
!9
is
floated,
he knows that
its
weight,
including
contents,
equal
to
that of
the displaced water.

tions
He
has thus an infallible means of checking his calculabasis
and of forming a
will
on which
of
to estimate
the
amount of cargo the

correctly
vessel
carry.
We now
see
the
importance
being
able
to
calculate
the
in
volume of the immersed body of a ship. which this work can be done, and pointed
the use
We
out
the
have described two ways

that
the
method involving
its
it
of horizontal areas
is
preferable
to
other,
because of
greater
affords
convenience.
This
is
seen,
for instance, in
the ready
means which
of obtaining the
each
of
volume, and therefore the weight of the displaced water at the various waterplanes indicated on fig. 17. These intermediate
although not of special value of themselves, when plotted to corresponding draughts, give a curve from which the displacement at any draught up to the load-line may be read off. This curve constitutes what is known as the displacement diagram.
scale
at
displacements,
As a
practical
sider the vessel
example let us construct such a diagram in a specific case. whose waterplane areas were used in the example on page 17.
was there determined to be 88,825 cubic
>25
Con-
The
feet.*
volume up
to the load waterplane
Dividing this by 35 we obtain
=
a
2538 tons
as the ordinate of the displace-
35
ment curve at a draught of 15 up to the 2nd waterplane, or

the
feet.
Referring
now
12
to
feet,
fig.
is
17,
the
volume
to
area
DFG
total
y .
The
the
simplest
1st
the layer between
and
by way of obtaining this volume is to deduct 2nd plane represented by the area BFG l C
to
draught
of
represented
from
the
volume.
The displacement
1st
rule,
the
3rd
waterplane
to
may be
the
found by direct application of the

waterplane,
while
for
the value
4th
volume between the 1st and 4th planes should be got by Simpson's 2nd rule, and the result deducted from the total volume. The 1st
the
rule
will
be suitable
being
for
finding
case.
the
displacement to
the 5th
plane, the
half
interval
used in
this
culations carried out as suggested

for easy reference
:
In the following table we show these calthe final results are arranged by themselves
Displacement Calculation.
No. of
Sect.
20
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS
SSS25 x 3
35 x 3
Displacement to load waterplane

Displacement of layer between
ist
3 2
Q = 2^S
tons.
and 2nd W.P.
93800 x
35 x I2
670
tons.
Displacement to 2nd waterplane

Displacement to 3rd waterplane
1S68 tons.
^ 43425
ist
x 3
1240 tons.
l8 b 8tonStons.
35 x 3
Displacement of layer between Displacement to 4th waterplane Displacement to 5th waterplane
and 4th
\V. P.
= 578oox3X3 =
35x3
25
=
79
680
x 3
226 tons.
Take is now and let the distance from A to B equal 15 feet; divide it into five equal parts and draw horizontal lines from the points of division. Number these horizontal lines from B downwards. Now measure along these lines, to some convenient scale, distances representing the displace-
The
construction of the displacement curve
35 x 3 an easy matter.
a vertical scale of draught A
(fig.
19),
ments corresponding
will give
to these draughts.
fair
curve drawn through the points
the diagram required.

Fig.
19.
SCALE
OF
DISPLACEMENT IN TONS
DISPLACEMENT AND BUOYANCY.

the draught to be taken on the scale should be
line
= io
in
feet.*
horizontal
drawn out
at
at this
draught would intersect the curve
a point showing on
the scale of tons a displacement of
1530
it
tons.
In the same way the displacefeet,
ment
any mean draught, provided
did not exceed 15
could be found.
be constructed,
From
officers
the displacement diagram another very useful one

It is specially
may
called a "scale of deadweight."
constructed for the use of ships'

It
and others who may have
to
do with loading operations.
exhibits
in graphic
form the weight of cargo put aboard as the vessel sinks
in the water,
and may be looked upon as a kind of loading meter by which the officer is able to tell, at any moment during loading operations, the amount of cargo he has got
aboard,
and the
fig.
amount
give
still
to
be
dealt
with
to
bring
the
vessel
to
her
assigned load-line.
In
It will
20
we
an
illustration
of such a diagram
deduced from
is
fig.
19.
be observed to consist of two columns, one of which
a scale of draughts
in feet, while the other indicates the
amount
of immersion caused in the vessel
by the addition of each 2007 tons in her load. The effect on the draught of quantities less than 200 tons is, of course, found by interpolation.
Fig.
20.
22
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
7 feet
AND CALCULATIONS.
aft,
at
forward and 10 feet 4 inches
and that
it
is
required to ascertain
still
how much
to sink
cargo has been put on board, and
how much
has
to
be shipped
her to a
mean draught
of 15 feet?
Mean
At At
draught at time of observation
'
ft.
8 ins.
this
draught there
feet
will
be 380 tons aboard.

the vessel will
carry
15
mean draught
still
1738 tons, therefore the 1356 tons.

it
amount of cargo
sirable to
to
be shipped
1736 - 380
CURVE OF TONS PER INCH OF IMMERSION. Sometimes

know how much
the draught of a vessel
If
is
de-
or discharging a moderate quantity of cargo.

this
would be affected by shipping the mean draught were known,

special
information could be obtained from the displacement diagram or the dead;
weight scale
it
can, however, be
more conveniently got by means of a
diagram, called a "Curve of tons per inch of Immersion," which shows graphically
number of tons required to sink or lighten the vessel one inch at any The weight of cargo shipped, divided by a number read from the diagram, will give the number of inches by which the draught has been altered.
the
draught.
Fig.
27.
TONS PER INCH IMMERSION
CURVE OF TONS PER INCH OF IMMERSION.

of which the areas are known, draw horizontal lines. of these lines the corresponding quantities
the points so obtained.
23
Mark
off to scale
fair
on each
A
,
and draw a
curve through
420
This
will
be the curve of tons per inch of immersion.

fig.
To
complete the diagram, as shown in
21, a
scale of draughts
and of tons
must be drawn and the construction
lines
erased.
is
Example.
a
If
the of 9
vessel,
feet,
whose diagram
given alDove, were floating at
mean draught
is
what would be the increased immersion due to
shipping 50 tons of cargo?
From
:
the
curve at 9 feet
draught
the
tons per
inch
found to be i6
6,
therefore
additional immersion
JL =
16*6
^-
inches.
QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER
1.
I.
State the
Trapezoidal
Rule
for
finding
areas
of plane
surfaces
having curved boun-
and point out wherein it is inaccurate. The half ordinates in feet of the load waterplane of a vessel are, commencing from aft, 2, 6*5, 9/3, 107, n, n, 10, 7*4, 3*6, and *2, and the common interval between them is 15 feet. Find the area of the plane by using the
daries,
Trapezoidal Rule.
Ans,
21 18
square
feet.
2.
What
is
are the advantages of Simpson's First Rule for finding plane areas, and for
what
11
'6,
curve
the Rule accurate?
What
14*5,
are the conditions as to
the
number and spacing

'I,
of ordi5,
nates?
15*4,
The
i6'8,
semi-ordinates of the waterplane of a vessel in feet are, respectively,

i6'9,
17,
l6'4,
9"4,
and
*l.
The spacing
of the
ordinates
is
feet,
find
the area of plane in square yards.
Ans.
303*6.
Given the values of three consecutive and equally spaced ordinates and the common between them, what Rule would you employ to find the area between the first and second ordinates? If the ordinates in feet are 5, 11 "6 and 15*4, and their spacing n feet, find the area between the first two. Ans. 93*86 square feet.
3.
distance
4.
State
*i,
Simpson's
5,
Second
Rule.
in
To what
feet
class
of curve
does
it
apply accurately?
Given
sides.
2*6,
and 8*3
as the value
of the
half ordinates
of a portion of a ship's
waterplane, and 9 feet as the
common
distance between them, calculate the area including both
Ans,
210*6
square
feet.
5.
Why
are half ordinates sometimes introduced at the ends of plane figures?
Deduce
the
modification in the multipliers of

ordinate.
Simpson's
First
Rule due
to
the
introduction
of a half
6.
What
are
the main points
of difference between Tchebycheff's
Rule and Simpson's
First
Rule
for finding
plane areas?
Compare by an
actual practical example the results obtained
by applying Tchebycheff's two ordinate Rule and Simpson's First Rule.
24
7.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Given the areas
of the
in
to
AND CALCULATIONS.
transverse
vertical
the
L.W.
P.
of the
sections of a vessel,
area.
show
that
the volume
sections
displacement
may be
4,
expressed
IOO, 1S0,
as
a plane
260, 242,
If
the
tranverse
vertical
feet,
a particular vessel are

interval
is
240,
190,
120 and 8 square
and the
common
15 feet, calculate the
volume of displacement.
Ans.
20,400
cubic feet.
S.
Explain
why
of
it
is
preferable
rather than of transverse vertical sections in calculating the
of the waterplanes
the
a vessel
employ the areas of horizontal sections or waterplanes volume of displacement. The areas are 000, 6000, 4S00, 3600, 2400, 1200, and IOO square feet;
to
is
common
interval
between the waterplanes
feet.
Calculate the displacement in tons
(salt
water), neglecting the portion
below the lowest plane.

Ans.
1213-3.
this
9.
What
is
the
"Law
of
Archimedes"?
Explain in what way
Law
is
important to
the naval architect.
10.
Referring to the latter part of question No.
8,
calculate the displacement to the various
waterplanes, and plut the diagram of displacement.
11.
How
is
curve of
"Tons
per inch of
of such a curve?
parallel water
The
areas
are,
of a ship's
sections
respectively,
is
Immersion" constructed? What use is made L.W.P. is 4000 square feet, and the areas of other 3650, 32:0, 2550, and 24 square feet. The vertical
ins.
between the sections mersion?"

distance
ft.
Construct the curve of
"Tons
per inch of Im-
CHAPTER
II.
Moments, Centre of
MOMENTS. If
less
Gravity, Centre of Buoyancy.

at
two equal weights be placed one

22),
it
each end of a weight-
lever
A B
(fig.
is
obvious
that
the
point at
which they may be
Fig.
22.
J^
P
supported in equilibrium
equal
the
lies
midway between them.

will
If
the
weights
at
be
un-
balancing
the
point
larger
not be
at
the
middle
but
some
other
position
nearer
weight.
it
In
exact
books on elementary mechanics

of
is
shown
the
that in all such cases the
position
C may be
P
obtained from
relation
(fig.
23),
n = irn
PR
(i),
Fig.
23.
if
Y
P
where
points
this
P and Q
are the unequal weights,
and A
from
the
B,
and
OB
the distances of the
of application
of
the
weights
fulcrum.
Cross
multiplying,
equation becomes
It
x A
Q,
(1).
appears then, that

forces
from a consideration
of a balanced system
of two
parallel
interest
on a rigid bar assumed to be weightless, two items of may be deduced first, that the position of the point of support must
acting
:
25
26
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
be fixed by equation (i); and second, that the

effort,
moment
of the force, or turning
about the point of support on one side must be equal and opposite to
other,
that
on the
Thus,
if
as
indicated by equation
lbs.
(2).
weights of 8 and 12
be suspended at A and
24.
(fig.
24),
the
Fig.
A
>,
II
extreme points of a weightless lever 36 inches long, and

of the
if
X be the distance
(1),
balancing
point
from A, we have, using equation

2
is
proved by
i.e.,
from which we get X

the fact that the
if inches.
is
That the point thus determined by X
the
one required
moments
is
of the weights about this point are equal,
2i| x 8
= 14^
;
12.
The
acting
the
following
an important theorem
the re$idta?it
The moment of
on
of a system of parallel forces in one plane a rigid body about any point in the plane is equal to the sum oj
moments of the component forces about the same point. case of two forces acting in the same direction, as in fig.
Fig.
25.
Take the simple Let A and B
25.
ft
v P
be the points of application of the forces ; join A B and assume the line to be the point about which the moments are to be taken, be horizontal. Let and R the resultant of the two forces, which may be called P and Q. Drop
a
perpendicular
from
to
upon the
be
line
of
action
of
in
the
forces,
which
for
simplicity are
as shown.
It
is
assumed
that
vertical, cutting
them
hold
the points D, E,
and F
clear
the
above theorem
will
if
RxOE
=
or,
PxOD
OF, that is, if Q out and cancelling

x
(P+Q)0E
like
terms,
= P(0E -DE) + Q (0 E + EF) if P x D E = Q x F.
multiplying
MOMENTS.
Since
27
written
A B
is
parallel
to to
D
be
F,
this
may be
so
PxAC
QxCB.
must be the above theorem. The theorem will, of course, hold if there be any number of forces acting, for if the line of action of the resultant be found, the forces acting on either side of this line may be represented by a single force, and this will reduce the
But
this
relation
we know
true, therefore
case to the one just proved.
We
etc.,
are
now
in
fig.
able to deal with questions in which
it
is
necessary to find
the position of the resultant of parallel forces.
Consider the forces
P P P&
ly
2i
shown
26,
which, in
the
first
instance,
we
shall
suppose acting
in
Fig.
26.
2o
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
its
planes to be perpendicular to the plane of the paper, anJ
vertical trace
to
be represented by the line of the force Plt by a simple moment calculation about this plane we will determine, not the position of the resultant, but only of the vertical plane containing it parallel to the plane chosen as the axis.
To
fully
determine
the
position
we must now
find
another
plane
it
also
is
containing the resultant parallel to the plane of the paper.
Clearly, since
in
both planes,
in
fig.
it
must coincide with the

7-2
will
line of their intersection.
Let the forces
26 act at the distances
shown from
the
plane
containing
P normal
l
to
the plane of the paper;
be the distance from the axis of one of the
planes
containing
the
resultant.
To
find
the
other
one we
must know the
position of each of the forces from a plane parallel to
the plane of the paper.
the
Let these be given by the normal distances y u y<&-y& y* - {js, eacn one having same suffix as the force to which it refers. Calling Y the distance of the
plane of the resultant from the axis plane,
we have
fill
+ fttfg ~ gsj/g + P*y*- P y p + p, + P + Pi + P

5 x 3 9
Putting in the numerical values
2, 4,
7, 9,
5,
for
17
</ 2 ,
etc., this
becomes
4x2
The two
values,
8x4-6x7
40
7*2
12
X9-5X
1*4
feet,
10
"
4
line of
X ~
feet
and Y =
determine the
the
resultant of the system
of the assumed parallel forces.
The preceding
least
principle
to
admits of
finding
many important
applications, not
to
the
of
which
is
that
the
of centres of gravity,
uhich we must
now
into
turn. We begin with a general definition. CENTRE OF GRAVITY. If the mass of
any body be supposed divided
an
infinite
number
weight
of parts, the forces or weight

parts,
will
due
to the attraction of parallel
the earth, acting
on the various
of the
form a system of
resultant
forces of
which the
total
body
is
the
and the point through
which the
of the
line of action of this resultant
always passes, whatever be the position

is
body with reference
to
the earth,
called
the centre of gravity of the
body.
body is also sometimes defined briefly as the body may be taken to act, no matter what position it may occupy. Thus, in the case of a ship and cargo, the total weight is taken as acting at a fixed point when making stability and other
centre of gravity of a
the weight
The
point at which
of the
calculations.
It
is
frequently necessary in
dealing with
ship
calculations
it
to
obtain
the
centre of gravity of an area.

the idea of weight
In approaching such questions
is
usual to keep
and
to
consider the area as consisting of a
homogeneous
lamina of uniform but
infinitely small thickness.

is
Thus, the centre of gravity of
a lamina of circular form

all
at its
geometric centre, as evidently the resultant of
the forces due to the weight of the various portions of the lamina must pass
through that point.
Also the centre of gravity of a lamina of square form

of the two diagonals.
is
in
the point of intersection
To
find
the
centre
of gravity
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
of a triangular lamina such as A
First,
20
follows:
bisect
A C
in
of
all
strips of the
B C (fig. 27), we may proceed as B D. This line contains the centre lamina parallel to A G, consequently the centre of D and
join
of
gravity
gravity of
the triangle must be
somewhere
in
it.
Next, bisect one of the other sides, say
in
",
also
be
in
and A E
join
;
E.
The
it
centre of gravity of the lamina must obviously

at the point
therefore,
is
must be
G where
the lines
A E and
BD
intersect.
at a point one-third of
BD
from D.
In passing to the case of a lamina having a curved boundary, such, for

instance, as the
half waterplane of a ship,
we cannot determine the centre of

to
gravity
by such
geometrical
is
methods,
owing
the
irregularity
of
the
form.
of
The
usual practice
in effect to divide the
lamina into an
infinite
number
elements, to take the
moments of
these elements about any two axes chosen at
and to divide the sum of each series of the total weight of the lamina, each quotient being the distance of a line containing the centre of gravity parallel to its corresponding axis, and the
right angles in the plane of the lamina,
moments by
centre of gravity
itself,
the intersection of the two lines.
By employing Simpson's
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
it
AND CALCULATIONS.
simplionly necessary to deal with specimen elements, which greatly (fig. 28). fies the work. As an illustration consider the half waterplane A B G Divide A B into a number of parts as shown, and draw ordinates to the curve.
Rules
is
take a strip of the lamina of very small breadth a at ordinate 5, say ; area will be y 5 a, and this may also stand for the weight since the lamina
Now
its
is
homogeneous and
of uniform thickness.
The moment
of this
little
area about
A B
a
as axis will
be
y*a-
y*
yi.
With a
little
as base, set
down^2
as
an ordinate below A
B,
and draw
in
the
rectangle
shown
of area at
y5
in the diagram, which will represent the moment of the strip In the same way obtain and plot the moments of elementary areas
at #i> #2, etc.
curve through the extremities of these
little
rectangles will en-
close
an area A
D B,
which
will represent
the
moment
of the area
AGB
about
of
and consequently, by the principle of moments, the distance the centre of gravity of this area from the chosen axis will be given by
the line
B,
Total
Moment Area about A B

Total Area r
'
Area Area
AD B
AGB'
As a numerical example, let the above half waterplane be 140 feet long, and let 11 ordinates be taken so as to suit the application of Simpson's First Rule to the finding of the areas A D B and A B. The figures of this calculation are best arranged in tabular form as shown
below.
In the
feet,
first
values in
respectively.
two columns are the numbers of the ordinates and their The third column gives Simpson's multipliers, and
the fourth the corresponding functions obtained
when
far
the ordinates are treated

is
by these
the
multipliers.
It
will
be seen that so
the work
simply in the
direction of finding the area
AGB.
The
next two columns are for obtaining
area
enclosed
the
ordinates,
by the moment curve, the fifth giving the squares of and the sixth the functions of the same when affected by the
multipliers.
No', of
Ordinates.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
Using these
figures
31
we obtain
at
once
Distance of centre of gravity of half \ plane from axis A B
}-
Area enclosed b y moment curve Area of half plane

*97i'93
2
x 4
3
c
4*53 feet
217-3 x
It
y
position
of
14
should be noticed that in the calculation the whole squares are employed in the table, the division by 2 being done at the end, as shown.
We
one
line
have,
as
a result of the preceding calculation, fixed the

of
gravity.
containing the centre
We
must now, as already menit
tioned, determine the position of another line also containing

to this one.
at right angles
The
as
principle of
it
moments
usual
to
is
again employed, and in fixing
upon
an
of
axis
for
the purpose,
it
the
plane,
will
the axis were taken, say,

Fig.
choose an ordinate about the middle obviously mean a less laborious calculation than if Care must also be taken .to select nr at either end.
is
29.
ordinate which will allow

at
of
Simpson's
First
Rule
being
applied
in
arriving
the areas enclosed by the
moment
curves.
In the present instance either

is
ordinate 5 or 7 might be employed;

(See
fig.
the middle ordinate No. 6
unsuitable
29)
5
Taking No.
as
axis,
the
moment
of
small
strip
at
ordinate
No.
4 will be y 4 Cth, h being the common interval between the ordinates and a At ordinate No. 3, the moment of a strip will be the breadth of the strip.
y3 CtX2h, and
case
so
on
for
strips
at
the other
ordinates, the
little
area in each
interval
it
being
multiplied
by the number of times of the

axis.
common
for
is
removed from the chosen

other side of the axis, the
that for strip at
The process moment of a strip

2/7,
is
repeated
at
No. 6
on the ordinate being yâ h

the area
No.
7,
*/ 7
and so
on.
To
a,
construct the
as in
moment
diagram,
the
moments down as little
thus
found of the small areas
are,
the
previous case, set
on the other side of A B at the points to which they refer, and fair curves drawn as A H F and FKB in the Evidently, the centre of gravity will be on that side of the axis which figure.
rectangles, each
on a base
32
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
the
greater
AND CALCULATIONS.
from the
axis
will
has
moment
and
its
distance
be obtained by
;
dividing the difference of the
moments by
the area of the half plane
thus
Distance of centre of gravity from axis!
through ordinate No.
Area
FKB
5,
- Area Area A B
AHF
The work of finding the above areas is arranged below. The first four columns are the same as before; in the fifth are the multipliers representing the number of intervals each ordinate is distant from the axis through No. 5; the sixth column gives the functions of the ordinates after treatment by these
multipliers as well as those of Simpson's Rule.
No. of
Ordinates-
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
the portion of the area,
33
CFLE.
The
resulting distances obtained
by dividing
the
sum
of each of these systems of
moments by
the reduced area will deter-
mine the position of the centre of

axes.
gravity of the partial plane from the chosen
CENTRE OF BUOYANCY. It was shown, when treating of displacement and buoyancy, that the weight of any floating body is supported by the upward pressure due to the buoyancy of the water. Fig. 31 represents in section a ship floating freely and at rest in still water, and indicates the water pressures acting on her. It is the resultant of the vertical components of
these pressures, which act
supports,
everywhere normal to the surface in contact, which

equal
to,
and
is
therefore
the
total
weight of
the
vessel.
It
now
becomes necessary to state further that the line of action of this resultant, whatever be the position of the vessel, always passes through a certain point, viz., the centre of the immersed bulk, or the centre of gravity of the water that would occupy the same space. This point is called the centre of buoy-
Hg.
I
31
ancy.
We now
proceed to show how
this
centre
may be determined
in
any
given case.
In a vessel of simple box-shape, floating at a level waterplane, the point

obviously be at mid length in the centre line plane, and at a distance In one of constant triangular below the surface equal to half the draught.
will
section floating with a side parallel to the surface
it
will also
be at mid length,
In a cylindrical vessel floating at even but at J the depth below the surface. keel, it will as before be at mid length and at the same distance below the
surface as the centre of gravity of the transverse section.
In
all
these cases,
the
conditions being given, the point required can
be easily determined.
In
ship-shape bodies, however,
owing
to
the irregularity of form, no
such simple
just as
We must, therefore, resort to moment calculations, methods can be applied. we had to do when finding areas of surfaces enclosed by ship curves,
c
34
3HIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
Take, as example, a vessel of ordinary form floating at a draught parallel to the In setting out to find the centre of buoyancy, we obkeel-line (see fig. 32).
serve, in
line
will
the
first
place, that, since the vessel
is
symmetrical about the middle

in
plane, the
point required
if
must be somewhere
its
that
to
plane,
be
fully
determined
we know
position
relative
a vertical
and that it and a

is
horizontal line in the plane.
To
made
obtain the vertical position of the point, the immersed body
assumed
divided into an infinite

with respect to
number of horizontal layers, and a some horizontal plane, such as that

Fig.
calculation of
moments
of the load-water line.
32.
vertical
For the horizontal position, the displacement is supposed divided into transverse in this case, with layers and another calculation of moments made
;
respect to a transverse vertical plane, such as that of the after perpendicular, or
of a
transverse
section
in
the
vicinity of amidships.
It
is
only necessary to
correctly plot the results of these calculations in the middle-line plane to obtain
the position of the centre of buoyancy.

tions
In practice, as in the case of calcularules,
of
areas
specimen layers
and volumes, by using Simpson's or TchebychefFs of displacement need be dealt with.
only
CENTRE OF BUOYANCY.
Let Au
terval
Aj,
35
the
3i
etc.,
be the areas of the waterplanes, h

a.
common
will
in-
between them, and
a very small
of
thickness
of
layer
taken at each
waterplane.
0,
The moments
2h,
the
elementary layers being treated

scale
etc.,
about W.L.
as
be
A 2 ah, A 3 a
and so
take
the
on,
volumes
vertical
2, 3,
weights,
(fig.
the density
being constant.
off horizontally
Now
at
any
of
the
draughts
33)
and mark
just
etc.,
planes,
4,
corresponding
moments
i
found, which should be
plotted as rectangles of breadths,

of the
A 2 h,A 3 2h
little
and
thus
depths a.
fair
curve through the extremities
rectangles
obtained, starting from the point , will enclose an area representing the total
moment
the
axis
of the volume below the upper waterplane.
If,
on the other
side
of
E /?,
the
another diagram be plotted, the ordinates at the various waterareas,
planes being the corresponding waterplane

represent
total
the area' of this

1
diagram
will
volume of the
vessel
it
below No.
is
waterplane.
:
From
our previous considerations
clear that
__ _
Distance of centre of buoyancy)
below No.
waterplane,
Area Area
we may write ECB
ED B
in
As a numerical example, suppose

feet
are,
the areas of the waterplanes
square
1800, 3
ft.,
beginning from the upper one, 8000, 7600, 7000, 6000, 4500,
respectively,
and
100,
and that the common distance between them

vertical
this,
is
with a half interval at the lower end.
In obtaining the
upper waterplane, in
In the second,
pliers,
distance
all
of the
centre
it
of
is
buoyancy below the

convenient to arrange
and
similar examples,
the work in tabular form, as

third,
shown below. and fouith columns

respectively.
are
the
areas,
fifth
Simpson's multi-
and
functions
for
of
areas,
In
the
column
are
the
multipliers
leverage,
and
in
the sixth,
is
the products of the lever multiples
and the area

areas such as
functions.
The
process
seen
to
be simply that of obtaining
E G B and E D B by
No. of
Ordinates.
Simpson's Rule.
36
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
ot
The
position of the centre of
buoyancy below any

fig.
the other vvaterplanes

!* ..
may now be
obtained.
Reverting to
area 33
area
u t HN
_ _
gives
the
distance
1st
of the centre of the layer between the waterplane,
1st
and 2nd waterplanes from the
and by a simple moment calculation, the fall in the centre of buoyancy consequent on the vessel rising to the 2nd waterplane is derived. In the same way, by first finding the centre of the layer between the 1st and 3rd waterplanes, or between the 1st and the 4th waterplanes, the fall in the centre of buoyancy, due to the rising of the vessel to any of these planes, may be determined. We have here a means of constructing a diagram which will show the variation in the height of the centre of buoyancy with change in the displacement, and from which, therefore, the position of the centre of buoyancy for any draught may be read off. Take a vertical scale of draughts A B (fig. 34), and spot off on it
Fig.
34.
the positions
of the various
centres of
buoyancy
as
calculated
for
the
vessel
when immersed to the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc., waterplanes. Through these points, indicated by 6 2) b etc.,
horizontally distances, b 2 h 2
,
b3
/? 3 ,
etc.,
plane and
the points
If
it
the
waterplane to which
/z 2 ,
:} ,
in the figure, set out 3) equal to those between the load watereach centre refers. A fair curve through
is
h etc., will be the locus of centres of buoyancy required. height of the centre of buoyancy at any draught be required only necessary to draw a line on the diagram parallel to the middle line
6
now
the
B,
and
at
distance
from
it
equal
to
that
between the load-line and the

line with
given draught; the point of intersection of this

required height
of centre of buoyancy.
the
locus
gives
the
the
vessel
As showing the work in an actual case, let us construct the diagram for whose centre of buoyancy at the load draught has already been
CENTRE OF BUOYANCY.
determined.
37
Reverting to
fig.
33,
it
will
be necessary to find the areas
PEQ
we
the
and
area
DEPN.
The
latter area
may be obtained by
the Five-Eight Rule already described
PEQ,
however, cannot be
correctly found
by
this Rule.
In
or
this
19
case
3,
should proceed as follows:
Multiply
io,
the
far
near end
ordinate,
,
by
1,
middle ordinate, or A& by
the
end ordinate, or A 3 by
and the
inter-
sum
val
of these products by one twenty-fourth the square of the between the ordinates.
common
:
Arranged
in tabular form,
the figures of the calculation are
VOLUME.
3
plane,
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
and
we must
find
the
areas
;
FEG
DEFH,
which
may be done
thus.
using Simpson's First Rule
No. of W.P.
CENTRE OF BUOYANCY.
the ordinntes, thus enclosing an area which represents the
39
volume of the
as
vessel
below No.
are set
off.
waterplane.
Station 6
is
On
the lower side of A B,
the
moments
rule.
of the layers
chosen as the axis of moments,

first
the areas of the
moments
curves
may then be obtained by Simpson's
Calling
h, the
the
vertical areas
19
A^
A2 A
,
3,
etc.,
and the distance between them
moment
at
of an elementary layer of very small thickness a at section

section
5,
6 will be zero;
A 5 hct;
of the
section
at section 4,
A 4 2ha; and so on
at
to the left of the axis.

at
To
8,
the
right
axis
9,
>4
we have
3/7 a,
section
moment A n ha\
case,
section
A s 2ha;
axis,
etc.
As
a
in
the
in
previous
the
moments
are
plotted as
rectangles,
the
base
of the
being,
each
case,
and the other
side
rectangle, represented
measured along the by the area and lever

ordinate.
multiple appropriate to the section under consideration, erected as an

Fair curves
drawn through the extremities of these little The area enclosed by rectangles on each side of the axis as shown in fig. 35.
are
ADE
and
EFB
each
the
of
these curves
and the
axis
A B represents the longitudinal moment of

it
volume on the
side of
the axis to which
refers.
40
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
ing that, in calculating the moments, multiplication by the

left
common
:
interval
is
to the end,
we are able
to tabulate the figures as follows
No. of
Section.
CENTRE OF BUOYANCY.
be made
found
for
the
in
longitudinal the
position.
case, as
The
and
in
work,
however,
will
be
more
laborious than
previous
to
a new set of vertical

a
areas
must be
corresponding
each
draught,
out,
complete
case.
moment
calculation,
similar to the
one
just
worked
made
each
Assuming the horizon-
tal positions of the centre of buoyancy found up to a series of draughts between the top of keel and the load-line, the diagram may be easily con-
structed.
vertical
scale
of
draughts
is
taken, the
horizontal
axis,
distances
of
off
the centre of buoyancy, as calculated

at
from some chosen

fair
are
marked
the
corresponding draughts, and a

illustrates this
curve drawn
through
these points.
Fig.
36
diagram.
Tf
IB.
two unequal weights be suspended one at either end of a weightless lever, find the T. point at which the lever must be supported in order to be exactly balanced. If the lever be 48 inches long and the weights 11 lbs. and 5 lbs. respectively, find the balancing point from the end loaded with 5 lbs.
Arts.
33
on
inches.
2.
If
weights of
5, 8,
11, 13
and
17 lbs.
lie
table of
rectangular
3,
outline,
7
their posi"5
tions
taken in the order given and measuring Iioni

1,
one end being
4,
5-5, 6,
feet,
and
from one side
175,
2*5, 3,
275
feet,
find
the
position of the point through which the re-
sultant force acts.
Ans.
3.
579
'4
feet
from end, 2*45
feet
from
side.
Define Centre of Gravity.

aft,
The
equidistant \ ordinates
teet,
of a vessel's watcrplanc,
at
beginning
the
are
in
'2,
64,
10/2,
1 r
'O,
104, 7'o and

feet
and half ordinates introduced

find
extremities
the
usual
way have values 4

line.
and 4*3 feet;

feet.
the
distance of
the
centre of gravity from the middle
Ans.- 4*5S
4.
If the longitudinal distance
between the ordinates
in the
preceding question be 14
feet,
calculate the position of the centre of gravity with reference to the
No.
4 ordinate.
Ans.
5.
*43 feet
forward of No. 4 ordinate.
Define Centre of Buoyancy. The area of a ship's load waterplane is 7000 squaie and the areas of other parallel waterplanes spaced 3 feet apart are respectively, 65CO. 5500, 4000, and 2000 square feet (neglecting the volume below the lowest section); obtain the distance of the centre of buoyancy below the load waterplane.
feet,
Ans
6.
5*03
feet
below load waterplane.

in
Referring to the previous question, calculate the

rises
fall
the
position of the centre
0.1
buoyancy as the vessel
to
each
of the
given waterplanes, except
the
last,
and
plot
the
locus of centres of buoyancy.
7.
Explain
buoyancy?
of buoyancy
100, 180,
As
how you would proceed to calculate the longitudinal position of the centre of a practical example, obtain the position of the longitudinal position of the centre of a vessel, the areas of whose transverse vertical sections arc, starting from aft, 4,
120,
240, 260 242, 190,
and 8 square
Ans.
feet,
the sections being spaced

feet
15
feet apait.
I'ji
forward of Xo.
section.
CHAPTER
III.
Outlines of Construction.
AT
details.
this stage
least,
it
is
desirable to obtain an
acquaintance, in a general
of the
with the system

the
of construction
parts
;
the
names of
principal
in
a later
way at modern ship, and with chapter we shall take up
In the old days, when wood was the

invariably built
natural,
medium
of construction, vessels were
on what
is
known
ships,
as the transverse system;
and, as was perhaps
the
earliest
iron
were built on the same plan.

the
details
to displace wood, There were, of course, important differences in
when
to
that
material
began
of
construction
due
to
the
great
difference in
the
nature
of the
materials, but the general principle
was in each case the same.

structure,
As a foundathe keel
tion
and
sort
of
backbone
the
there was,
for
keel,
instance,
running fore-and-aft, and, at

frames, or ribs,
offer
equal
distances
along the
transverse vertical
erected to give the form of the vessel at
each point, and to

or
shell
convenient
means of
fitting
the watertight
skin
At
their
upper end the
transverse
frames were joined by horizontal girders or beams,

their
adapted to keep the frames to

platform or deck.
proper shape, and to support a horizontal
If the vessel
were a large one, usually one or more decks
might be might
In
fitted
be
for
the
below the upper one, this being necessary for strength, and it convenience of stowing certain cargoes, or of housing
is
passengers.
fig.
37,
which
the midship section of a

all
small
steel
vessel
to.
built
on
the transverse
keel, is
system, are seen
the characteristics just referred
A\ the
a steel or iron bar of considerable depth and thickness. The transmarked F, are angles running from the keel to the gunwale, and associated with bars of similar shape, called reverse frames from the circumverse frames,
stance
of
their
looking
at
in
horizontal
section
A.
an opposite direction At the bottom of the
to
the
frames as
shown
in
vessel,
deep
vertical
plates
called floor plates, are riveted to the frames
and the reverse frames, the reverse

of the
tie
frames being carried along at the upper edge
floor
plates,
as
shown.
BB
are
the beams, which as above mentioned,
the sides of the ship
and
42
OUTLINES OF CONSTRUCTION.
resist
43
Vertical
pillars,
any
tendency
to
is
change
resisted
ot
transverse
form.
the
change
tie
in
the
transverse
form
parts
by
means
shape
the
into
of
which
the
the
top
to
and bottom
carry
of
the
structure
together,
is
and
assist
floor
plates
the
cargo.
The
longitudinal
maintained by means
parts
of
the
keelsons
the
and
side
stringers,
which
tie
transverse
together,
distribute
stresses,
and
make
the
framing
one
united
structure.
The
most
Fig.
37.
S.S. 160-0 * 22-0x12-1

Lloyds Numerals
Transverse
Longitudinal
N*
34-92
5587
= 11-87
FT
V= 12-38
*SHER$TRAKE
v3r
SSX-46T0-M
J6*-J6T0-3t
36T0 12
*-o
TO
-'HI
56 to 32
-36 to "32
K.7XI*
important part of
floating
all
is
the
outer
plating
to
or skin, which
gives
the vessel
riveted
its
power.
It
will
be seen
consist
of
strakes
of
plating
to
is
each other and to the fore-and-aft flanges of the frames.

also covered in with
The
top
deck
plating or
wood
to give strength,
and keep the water
out.
The
strakes of plating running fore-and-aft
on the outer ends of the beams, and
44
connected to the
able
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
shell
AND CALCULATIONS.
by means of angles, are called stringers; they nre valu-
elements
of
strength, as
is
it
we
shall
see
when we come
to
consider
the
stresses to
which a ship
the diagram
liable.
From
is
will
be seen that the material forming the structure
For instance, the shell-plating is thickest Between the sheer strake, which runs in way of the gunwale or the top deck at side, and the bilge strakes, the plating is reduced in thickness, being a minimum about midway between these points.
not evenly distributed throughout.
the top and at the bottom.
at
Also the centre keelson
is
much
heavier than the keelsons and stringers higher
too, are not the same right forward and aft and sizes are only maintained for half the vessel's length, or thereabouts, and then a gradually tapering process is begun, minimum It should be mentioned that local sizes being reached at the bow and stern.
up on the
sides.
The
scantlings,
The 'midship
thickness
requirements usually
demand
heavier materials just at the extreme ends, but in

is
general the principle of reducing the scantlings as above

see presently the reason for
all
followed.
We
shall
this.
Fig. 37 illustrates only the simplest lorm of construction of steel vessels. Departures have been made at different times, called forth by the desire of
the owners to increase the value
of their property as producers of wealth,

in
and
these departures
have eventually resulted
considerable
modifications
in the
structure of vessels.
Thus we have
structure,
water-ballast tanks.
When
first
introduced
these tanks were mere additions to the ship's load, but they have
now become
incorporated
its
in
the
and, as
we
shall
see,
have added immensely to
strength and safety.
In vessels of wood, to build in such tanks was imit
possible,
but in those of steel
is
the natural thing to do, as the mild steel

its
used in modern shipbuilding, owing to

a
nature, can be manipulated in such
manner
as
to
ensure continuity of strength
and absolute watertighlness with
the ballast tank as part of the hull.
Other departures brought about by commercial considerations have resulted

in
modifications
to deal
of the
framing;
these
we
shall
consider
come
So
parts
more
particularly with
to
actual types of the
in detail when we modern cargo steamer.
far
we have only attempted

a vessel's
hull
to
in
obtain
some
familiarity
with
the
various
of
the
in
of
order
to
follow intelligently a
liable,
discussion
stresses
and
strains
which ships aie
which we propose to take up
the next chapter.
CHAPTER
IV.
Bending Moments, Shearing: Forces, Stresses,
and
this
Strains.
we propose to speak of the stresses and' strains to which ships and as the same principles are involved in calculations of the strength of ships and of simple beams, it will help us to begin with the simplest cases and gradually lead up to those which are more difficult. Take a beam A B (fig. 38), fixed at one end and loaded with a weight W tons at the other, and consider the system of forces in operation at any
IN
chapter
are liable,
Fig.
38.
C\
n----.
1 %
section.
---.I,
---j
B
of the
(1)
Take one at x feet from the extreme end beam itself, we have here acting
:
B.
Neglecting the weight

to
A
A
bending moment
shearing
force
WX
tons,
foot
tons, tending
bend
portion
the
beam
as
shown dotted.*
(2)
W
it
tending to cause the

the portion
of the
beam
at
CB
to
move downwards
this
relatively to
0.
is
In
simple case, the

at A, since
bending moment obviously

varies directly with x.
minimum
B
is
and a maximum
*
Also the shearing force

for clearness,
The
deflection
is
shown much exaggerated
45
46
the
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCUTATIONS.
beam from B to A. To express this in a diagram, E F (fig. 39) to represent the length of the beam. At E set up an ordinate E G, representing on some scale the maximum bending moment, W x AB foot tons. Join G F EGF is the diagram of bending moments. From it, by simple measurement, we can obtain the value of the bending moment acting at any point of the length of the beam. For instance, the
sama
for all sections of the
take a line
Fig.
39.
bending moment
the diagram,
at
a section
of the
G F
l
being marked off equal to
For the diagram of shearing

angle
beam is given by G B. forces we have merely
the ordinate
C G2
x
of
to
construct a
force
rect-
EL
M F,
on
EF
as
base,
the side
EL
representing to scale the

the outer
If,
instead
of being
concentrated at
end, the
load
W. be spread
Fig.
40.
evenly over
the
:
surface
of the
beam
x
(fig.
40), at
1
any section X
feet
from
/?,
we
shall
(1)
have
Bending moment
= wX
w X'
foot
tons,
will
being the load per

take the form
foot of length.
(fig.
The
curve of bending
moments
its
now
KRF
39),
and
is
obviously a parabola having

=*
axis vertical.
(2)
Shearing force
wX
tons.
BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEARING FORCES.
47
The shearing force will thus vary directly with X, will be zero at B and a maximum at A, where it will equal the total load. The shearing force diagram
will
be a triangle such as ELF,

Consider
EL
giving to scale the shearing force at A. the
now
Fig. 41 illustrates the
beam supported at each end and loaded in case. A B is the length of the beam, W the
At any section x
neglected,
feet
middle.
load in tons,
and
the re-action at each support.
from the middle of

:
the beam, the weight of the
beam itself being Bending moment = P (A Shearing force = P tons

Fig.
we have
x) foot tons.
41.
A
f*-i
y
The bending moment increases directly as X diminishes. It is therefore maximum at 0, the middle of the beam, and zero at either end A B fig. 42 being the diagram. The tendency here is for the beam to become
is
curved convex side downwards, the ends rising relatively to the middle, and it convenient to describe the bending moment as negative, the diagram being drawn below the line to indicate this. Where a bending moment gives
AGS
rise
to
an opposite tendency, that

in
is
for the
upper side of the beam to become
the case of beams supported at and loaded at each end or uniformly, it is described as positive, and With regard to the shearing forces, it the diagram is drawn above the line.
convex, as
the
previous examples, and in
the middle
should be noted that at sections to the

to
left
of the
middle, the
tendency
is
cause the
left-hand
portion of the
beam
to
move upwards
and negative
relatively to the
this, 'the
right,
and
at sections
to the right of the
middle the reverse of
forces
acting being conveniently described as positive
respectively.
This
48
is
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
expressed
left
AND CALCULATIONS.
the
in
the
diagram
by plotting
line,
shearing
for
forces
for
sections
right
in
to
0,
the
of o
above the base
and those
sections to
B, as
the
of
below that
line.
The diagram
takes the form

let
A GHKL
shown
fig.
42.
As a numerical example,
beam, the re-actions
feet to the left of 0,
the
it,
length of the
12
tons.
beam be 20
At a
:
feet,
and the
concentrated load at the middle of

at
Neglecting the weight of the

point, say 2
the
supports
will
each be 6 tons.
the middle point of the beam,
we have
Bending moment = 6 (10 - 2) = 48 and shearing force = + 6 tons.
foot tons,
If the diagram (fig. 42) had been constructed for this beam, the values above of bending moment and shearing force corresponding to a section 2 feet from the middle of the beam, could have been obtained by reading off the
ordinates at the corresponding point in the diagram.

If,
instead of concentrated at the middle, the load be distributed equally

(fig.
throughout the length of the beam
43), the
diagram of shearing forces and
bending moments
length of the
will
2
beam
be modified somewhat from that given above. Calling the the load per foot w tons, we have for the re-aclion /, and
Fig.
43.
I*
^L
at either
end of the beam,
w
/
tons.
At any section
of the
beam, say x
feet
to the left of the middle point,

(1) (2)
there will be acting
A A
bending moment shearing force
{J
- x)
2
(/-*) {l-x) =
(P - X
2
2
)
foot- tons.
= Iw -
(/
- x)
W = wX
tons.
In plotting the diagrams, we note from the equation above that the curve of bending moments will be a parabola, that it will have zero values at each end of the beam, since X will there be equal to either +/ or - /, and a
maximum
value at
the
line,
middle where X
since
0.
The
shearing
force
diagram
it
is
obviously a straight
the ordinates vary directly as
will
have
a zero value at
the
and maximum values at the supports. Calling, as before, left positive and those to the right negative, these maximum values are, respectively, +lw tons and -Iw tons. Fig. 44 illustrates the diagram for a distributed load, and it should be compared with fig. 42 As an exercise it would be interesting to construct for a concentrated load.
0,
shearing forces to the
diagram,
assuming a distributed load,
in
an actual
case,
sav
that
of
the

20-feet
49
to
beam
previously mentioned;
but we leave
the student
do
this
for
himself.
Diagrams of bending moments and shearing forces may be derived by a

graphic process, and where the loads are irregularly distributed,
in ship problems,
this
as,
for instance,
graphic process
to describe
it
is
the
one
most convenient
to
follow.
We
propose,
therefore,
briefly.
Fig.
44.
For
this
purpose,
loaded uniformly.
diagram of loads.
to
/?,
being so
let us consider again the beam fixed at one end and By the proposed method we must start with a curve or The weight on the beam, including its own weight from much per foot of length, may be represented by the rect-
angle A
BCD
(fig.
45).
This load
is
supported by the re-action of the wall
Fig.
45.
on the portion of the beam embedded in it, but we shall only consider the external forces acting on the beam from the wall face outwards. Now, we know that at any point x feet from the end of the beam (fig. that is, the ordinate of the shearing force the shearing force = w X tons 45)
;
diagram equals the area of the diagram of loads from the end of the beam up
So
to the
is
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
point under consideration, and, therefore, as already shown, the diagram
a triangle.
Take now the bending moment. For any section of the beam, say at G X X bending moment w X x foot tons, or = shearing force x foot tons,
that
is,
equals the area of the shearing force diagram from

construct the bending
to
G.
To
diagram
moment diagram
it
is
therefore
only necessary
on the beam, to calculate the area of the shearing force end of beam to these points, and to plot the bending moments thus derived on a convenient scale. BLAB (fig. 45), is the form that such a diagram would take in the present case.
to take certain points
from
the
Fig.
46,
The
a
construction
is
quite as simple for a
ported at the ends.
Fig.
46
illustrates this
convenient scale
and
DABC
its
the
beam loaded uniformly and sup>A B being the beam drawn to diagram of loads upon it between the
case,
points of support, including ing forces
own
weight.
In plotting the diagram of shear-
we begin at, say, the left-hand point of support, at which the shearing force is positive and equal to half the load, that is, to half the area of Its value may be plotted as A L. From L the diagram of shearing force falls
DABC
in a straight line, the value of an ordinate at any section,
x feet say, from 0, the middle point of the beam, being the shearing force at A minus the load represented by the portion of the area of the rectangle DA BO from A to the section. the half load and the re-action at A are equal, and there is therefore At no
shearing force. At sections A and the shearing force
previously shown.
to the right of
is
the load exceeds a
the re-action at
negative,
reaching
maximum
value
at
B
x
as
For the bending moment of a beam loaded as described from middle, we have deduced the equation
at a section
feet
Bending moment
/
(P -
x") foot tons,
and
having the values previously given.

This may be written
Bending moment =
(/
- X)
which obviously expresses the area of the shearing force diagram from A to the
point considered.
Thus, having obtained the shearing force diagram, to get the

it is
curve of bending moment,

these
only necessary to calculate the area of the

its
former from either end of the beam to various points in

areas
is
length, to
plot
as
ordinates
and
to
draw a
fair
curve through
their
extremities.
AM B A
As
the
the bending
the
same
principles apply,
moment diagram for this beam. we are now in a position

In the
is
first
to consider the
case of a floating vessel.
place,
take
a vessel, say a steamer, in
"light" condition, that
to
say,
completely
built,
and with
cargo,
all
aboard and water in

stores;
boilers,
but without
bunker
coal,
or
machinery consumable
and assume her to be floating freely and at rest in still water. moment's consideration will make it clear that a tendency to longitudinal straining, with which we are here dealing, must be principally caused by the
Fig.
47*
wv
action of the vertical forces
pressures
acting upwards,
made up of the vertical components of the water and of the weight of all the particles in the mass of In fig. 47, ILL is a diagram of loads for a the vessel acting downwards. We shall show in detail, presently, when we consider the im"light" vessel.
portant
the
case
of a ship
among
waves,
how such diagrams
are
constructed; in
meantime it is sufficient to note that fig. 47 shows weight in excess of buoyancy at each end and amidships, and elsewhere, except at one point forward, The excess of weight is obviously due to the buoyancy in excess of weight. small volume and the great weight of the structure at the extremities, and to the concentration of the machinery amidships, and the excess of buoyancy to the empty holds. In fig. 47, diagrams of shearing forces and bending moments are also
shown.
The curve
of shearing forces at
any point
in
the length we
know
to
be the area of the curve of loads from either end up to that point, reckoning the portions of area above the axis positive and those below negative. In the
present case, the curve takes the form
SSSS.
In the same way, ordinates of
the curve of bending

*
moments
are given
by the area of the diagram of shearing
The diagrams
North East Coast
Institution of Engineers
represented by figures 47 and 48 are taken from a paper read before the and Shipbuilders, by Mr. Bergstr6m in 1 889,
52
forces from either
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
the length at which they occur.
end up
to the points in
We
about
thus obtain the cuive
MM
tlie
M, the ordinates ot which are seen to be a

forward ana
afLer
maximum
at
about the
middle
or
holds,
and a minimum
as
at
middle length.
With a homogeneous cargo
filling the holds, the case

is
becomes
(fig.
considerably modified.
It is
The
is
curve 01 loads
now
line
shown
at L
L L
48).
seen to cross and recross the oase

slightly
the
machinery the weight
in
excess,
out
many points. In way of much more so in the is

is
mainhold.
In the forward and
after
holds,
buoyancy
again
predominant,
Fig.
48.
while weight
is
in
excess at the extreme ends.
The
shearing force curve
crosses the axis at three points in
the length, while the curve of

aft,
now B M has two

vessel
in
maximum
values,
one
forward
and one
tending to
strain
the
opposite directions.
The bending moment and consequent

water
are,
as
rule,
inconsiderable
sea.
It is
straining effects on compared with those sbe
a vessel in
rrjus'i
still
withstand
is
when among waves at called out, in some
then that the ultimate strength of the structure
cases with disastrous results.
Fig.
49.
Let us try to conceive for a moment the position of a vessel when in a If the waves be of regular form and speed, the vessel may, at a seaway.
given
She may be traversing the be in one of several positions. a line at right angles to the crests, or be rolling in the trough between or she may occupy some intermediate position with her length at an the waves The bending moment will be different in oblique angle to the crest lines.
instant,
in
waves
every position, and

case,
the
hull
should be designed strong enough
for
the worst
BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEARING TOkCES.
55
Of
is
the above conditions, the
right angles to line of
the condition in
first one, in which the vessel is assumed at It wave crests, has been most frequently investigated. which longitudinal straining is greatest, and may, therefore,
in this respect
be considered to include the other two cases.
Fig.
50.
Taking the
of these
is
first
condition,
fig.
we note
that
it
has
two
critical
phases.
One
indicated in
49,
cargo aboard, but with stores

voyage,
is
assumed and bunker coal consumed

where the
vessel,
in full sea trim with

as at
the end of a
shown poised instantaneously

latter
in
an upright position on the crest of

other phase
is
a wave, the
being at mid-length.
The
when
the vessel,
Fig.
51
complete with bunker coal and stores as well as cargo her worst condition in has a trough amidships and a crest at each end (see fig. 50). this case
As we shall see moments are reversed
presently,
in the
when we
cases.
to
is
construct
the
diagrams, the
bending
the
two
The
general straining tendency, with

rise
the crest amidships, ordinarily
cause the middle to
relatively to
Fig.
52.
ends, as
to
shown
in
fig.
51,
sink
relatively
to
the
ends, as
and with the hollow amidships, to cause the middle in fig. 52. These strains are known as
hogging and sagging, respectively.
Diagrams of shearing forces and bending moments for a vessel situated as figs. 49 and 50, are constructed on the assumption that the waves are stationary, and that the problem may be treated as a purely statical one.'
indicated in
54
SklP CONSTRUCTION
AND
CALCtJLAflON.
No note is ordinarily taken of the fact that the quick passage of waves past a vessel, particularly one of relatively fine ends, has a tendency to develop
her, altering her virtual weight and buoyancy from moment, and consequently directly affecting the magnitude of the It may be bending moment, and, therefore, the strains brought upon her. mentioned that, where they have been specially allowed for, these vertical
an up and down motion in
moment
to
oscillations
have been found to reduce hogging and increase sagging

too,
it
strains.
In these diagrams,
is
not usual to allow for the difference in the
water pressures in the waves as

it
is
known
than at
compared with those in still water, although and greater in the hollows the corresponding depths in still water, due to the effect of the orbital
that
they are less in the wave crests
motion of the water

are ignored, or
are
particles
in
the waves, the general effect tending to a re-
duction of both hogging and sagging bending moments.
Other points which

are the effect of
found impracticable so
is,
far
to deal with,
longitudinal oscillations, that
although clearly
and of rolling motions, on the bending moments. they may have considerable influence
pitching
and
'scending,
It
is
obvious, then,
that
diagrams as
ordinarily
constructed
are
only
ap-
proximately true, and should be used merely as a means of comparison between

vessels. for
When so employed, they are most valuable as a guide in new designs determining the lines to be followed in making departures in construction.
Taking a
vessel, then, in
the
condition
as in the
exhibited
in
fig.
49,
viz.,
with
wavef
water,
crest
amidships,
we
begin,
simpler case
of
the vessel in
still
by constructing a curve of loads. Such a curve, we know, shows the of the forces of weight and buoyancy at all points in the length, and to obtain it we must first find the values of these forces. A curve of It is only necessary to calculate the buoyforces of buoyancy is easily drawn.
difference
ancy per foot of length,

apart,
at various cross sections, usually taken at equal distances
and then
The diagrams
in
a diagram, whose
by figures
base
54,
line
represents
are
the
length
of the
represented
51.
53,
and 5$
from
Mr. Bergstr6m's paper

to
referred
to
on page
length of the ship,
t In these calculations it is usual to assume the wave and a height of j- of its length.
to.
have a length equal
the
CURVES OK WEIGHT AND feUOYANCY.

the results on some convenient scale as Thus we obtain the curve ABO (fig. 53). To draw the curve of weights is more difficult. There of doing this leading to the same result. One of them is
vessel,
55
ordinates
at
cor-
to
mark
off
responding points.
are various ways

to
deal
first
with
the
by calculating the weight per frame space of that which is continuous at chosen points throughout the length, and plotting the results on the same scale as employed for the buoyant forces at corresponding points on
hull
material,
the diagram containing the curve of buoyancy
and then on the curve obtained

the irregular weights,
boilers,
by penning a batten through these and

shafting, coal in bunkers,
points, super-imposing
such as bulkheads, stern-post, propeller and rudder, engines and

cargo in holds,
etc.
tunnel
The
irregular
weights
are
conveniently
in
plotted
as
rectangles
on bases
to
extending over a portion of the length
the
diagram corresponding
of
that
occupied by them
on the
vessel.
In
the
case
bulkheads,
however, the
weight
is
sometimes spread over a frame space, and

is
in the case of coal
and of
cargo, the weight per foot of hold space
plotted.
In the example chosen,
homogeneous cargo of a density to completely fill the holds and bring the been assumed. This is usual in strength calculations, as it would be obviously impracticable to exactly allow for a general cargo, owing to the difficulty of obtaining the positions and weights of the various
a
vessel to her load-line has
portions of
it.
The complete weight

seen from the
curve or
It
diagram
is
of a very irregular
form, as will be
figure.
should be noted that the weight

its
curve must be equal in area to the curve of buoyant forces and have of gravity in the same vertical
If the area
line,
centre
as these are the conditions of equilibrium.
of the weight curve be greater or less than that of the curve of

will
buoyancy, the vessel

shallower draught, as
different
verticals
not
float at the
;
assumed
if
water-line but at a deeper or
the case
may be and trimming moment will
their
centres of gravity be in
operation,
be
in
showing
the
assumed line to, be wrong also as to trim. Having got the curves of weight and buoyancy quired, we note that the actual load on the vessel
to
at
correspond
as
is
re-
any
point
the
$6
SklP CONSTRUCTION
at
AND CALCULATIONS'.
that
is
unbalanced force acting

curves.
the
point;
at
the difference between the two
numerous ordinates and plotted to the These differences, same scale as the diagrams of weight and buoyancy, give a curve, or diagram of loads, marked L L L in fig. 54. The conditions of equilibrium required in
measured
this line
case are
shall
that
the
area
of
the
portion
line
;
of the
diagram
above the
base
equal
the
area
below that
shall
also that the
centres of
gravity of
the
upper and lower areas
be in the same
forces
is
vertical.
To
construct
the
curve
of shearing
the
a simple
matter,
since the
of the end to any point, is way, the curve of bending moment shearing force at that point. In the same These two curves is obtained by integrating the diagram of shearing forces. take the in the case assumed that of an ordinary well-deck cargo steamer
area of the
curve of loads from
the value
forms
SSS
and
MMM
in
fig.
54. forces,
is
In constructing diagrams of loads, shearing

for
and bending moments,

astride
the
other extreme condition in which the vessel

(fig.
two consecutive
is
waves, with a hollow amidships
50),
the
main point of difference
in the
Fig.
55.
curve of buoyancy, which will

of weights
will
now
take the form the
BBB
*(fig.
53).
The
curve
remain as before,* but
curve
of loads
will,
of course,
be
of a different form, the
weights being in excess amidships and the supporting forces in excess at each end (fig. 55), the tendency being, as already pointed
out,
to
develop sagging strains amidships.

foregoing shearing forces
materials,
It
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE OF FORM. The

and
bending
moments
to
give
rise
to
stresses
in
in
the
and
is,
to
con-
sequent
tendencies
change
of
form
the
structure.
of
course
rupture,
important to prevent the stresses on the materials becoming sufficient to cause and the tendencies to change of form from becoming actual permanent
We shall show presently that this may be done in three ways by increasing the weight of materials; second, and preferably, by judicious disposition of materials third, by design of structure.
deformation.
first,
;
To
'
simplify our
explanations,
is
we
a
shall
angular
*
beam
that
A
the
for.
ship
reall y
huge
stores,
beam
take the case of an ordinary rector girder, and, consequently,

in
Except
bunker coal and
assumed consumed
previous
case
musi
now
be allowed
kfcStStANCE TO
CHANGE Of fOkM.
shearing
stresses
57
what
is
true
is
for
the
simple
beam when under
and bending
be of some
stresses.
moments,
also true for the ship.

fig.
A BCD,
56,
is
a rectangular beam, which we

will yield equally
will
assume
to
elastic material,
such as
under tensional or compressive

56.
Fig.
A
Draw a
lines,
horizontal line at
little
it
mid
at
height,
ad, bd, at a
distance
the
at
each end, and load
mid length also draw two vertical Now, place this beam on supports middle and observe what happens (fig. 57).
and
at
apart.
The beam
at
will
be seen to sag in the middle
also the top surface
DC
will
be found reduced in length, the bottom surface increased, while
E F,
the line
mid
height,
though taking the curve of
the
beam,
will
have
its
length
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS
bending moment has
l
.
Now
stress
the
to
stress
1
due
to
the
external
obviously in-
creased a 6
There is thus a compressive a b\ and reduced dc to d l G on the upper part of the beam, and a tensional stress on the lower part.
the strains are
Since
reduced from the outside of the beam

in
to
zero
at
the
middle,
being
unchanged
it
length,
that
the
stresses
must
be
correspondthe
stress
at
ingly reduced.
Also,
is
clear
the
strain,
and,
therefore,
any point
in the height of the
beam, varies in direct proportion

for example,
to the distance
of that point from the line
ef;
the strain at b
is
double that at
is
a point midway between b and /.

the section,
is
The
surface
of which
ef
a portion
of
brium of the
the portion of
known as the neutral surface. Let us now consider the equilibeam as loaded in fig. 56 at any section such as ac. Taking beam to the right, there is, as we have seen, an external bend.
ing
moment due to W.2 No other external forces are acting, if we neglect the beam itself, so that this moment must be counteracted by the sum of the moments of the molecular forces of the portion of beam to the left acting at the section. Besides these moments there is due to the load
weight of the
Fig.
59.
a vertical shearing force in operation tending to

of the
move
the
right-hand
is
portion
counter-
beam upwards
relatively
to
the
left.
This
shearing force
acted
by the resistance of the
fibres of
material to shearing.
We
shall return
to this point again.
is
In fig. 59 we show enlarged end and side views of the section a C. a section of the neutral surface and is called the neutral axis at ac.
there
is
HA
At
NA
no
stress
due
to bending.
and pull the beam, as As the beam does not move in the direction of its length, these horizontal stresses must neutralise each other, that is
cular stresses push
Above and below this shown by the arrows.
line
the mole-
Pulling stress
+ pushing
at
:
stresses
(1).
We
with
its
have seen that the

distance
stress
any point of a section

if,
varies
directly
stress
from the neutral axis
therefore,
we know the
at
any one point either above or below HA, we are able to write down equation (1), because in materials such as steel or wrought iron the resistance to compression and tension, within the elastic limits,
is the same. bending moment and the area and form of the section of the beam, we are able to find the internal stress at any point
When we know
the
external
resistance to Change;
of the
neutral
at
of-
form.
say
59
section.
axis.
Let
Calling
us
the
it
find
it
at in
2
unit
distance,
one
inch
at
this
from
the
s,
stress
will
tons
s tons,
per
square
inch
point
two inches from NA above or below NA, it
be
and, generally, at y inches either
will
be
ys
tons.
this
On
the
a small portion ol
area
a, at
distance
from
the
neutral
axis,
stress will
be
ysa
and the
tons
total stress acting at the section will
be the sum of
all
such elements
we may
therefore write
Total pushing and pulling stresses at section a C = S^yct tons, where the symbol 2 signifies that the sum of the elementary forces is taken.
Now
there
must be no resultant
is
stress
acting
at
the
section,
so
that
s^yct
0.
But ~yct
axis,
the
moment
area
to
of
the
area,
and
for
this
to
be
zero,
the
neutral
about which the moments have been taken, must pass through the centre
the
of
gravity of
of
the
section.
This
fixes
the
neutral
axis,
and
-is
an important point
from
this
remember.
To
get
now
the
the stress at a
point one inch

of the
axis
as required,
we must equate
axis
to
sum
of
the
moments
internal
at
stresses section.
about the neutral
M, the external
bending moment
the
At any distance y inches from NA, either above or below, the moment of 2 the stress acting on a small portion of area a is syaxy sy a inch tons.
And
for
the
whole
section
we
a
is
may
write
Sum
of
moments
:
of
internal
stresses
= 2(/ 2a
inch tons.
2*/
2
Now, the expression

the
a well-known quantity in physics

If
it
it
is
called
I,
moment
of inertia of the section of the beam.
be represented bv
and the
8,
internal
and external moments be. equated, we get:
sI=M.
So
that
the stress in tons at one inch from
NA,=
M
-j--
stress at any point in the section, it is only by the distance of the point from the neutral axis. necessary to s Thus, if y inches be the distance of the upper or lower surface of the beam from NA, and p be the stress there, we shall have :
To
find
the value
of the
multiply
Maximum
This
the
compressive or tensional
is
stress in tons at section
% =p=y -j-.
(2)
the
formula which
strength
It
of
beams and
girders,
must always be employed when dealing with such as ships, and is worthy of careful
stress
study.
shows that the maximum

inversely
as
varies
directly as
M, the external
a
bending
moment, and
stress
is
Consequently,
this
with
given
bending
moment, the
reducing
It
is
it.
reduced
by increasing
a
quantity
and increased by
loaded
that
easy
now
to
is
understand why in
ship
or
other
beam
is,
reduction of stress
effected
by increasing the
sectional
area,
the
60
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
by changing the design.
increased.
weight of materials, by judiciously disposing them, or

It
merely
means
area
that in
each case the

the
modulus
is
Increase of
sectional
directly increases
moment
of inertia /;
the
same
will
effect
is
attained without increase of sectional area by concentrating the latter at points
remote from
the
neutral
;
axis.
Deepening the beam or girder

be increased, but so also
will will
;
affect the
modulus
in
two ways
effect
will
y% however, the
the stress.
It
is
on the whole
reasons
at
be to increase
case
of
a
y as / varies as modulus and reduce the

ship
it
for
these
that
in
the
is
desirable
to
have
at
the
thickest
plates
the
plates,
upper
deck
the
neutral
stringers
and
a
is
sheerstrakes,
and
the
keel
and
bottom
the
and
the
thinnest
axis axis
plates
in
deck and
formula,
bottom,
vicinity
of
at
ship.
indeed,
tells
us
that
the
neutral
it
there
midway between The above no stress on the
materials due to bending

at the neutral axis this
moment, and
a
horizontal
would thus appear that the scantlings

It
might be reduced
indefinitely.
happens, however, that at
place
in
the depth
sliding
or
shearing action,
which
is
de-
veloped by the variation of the

length,
in
benJing moment from point
to point
of the
and which tends

directions,
to
push the upper and lower portions of the structure

its
opposite
has
maximum
more
value.
To
-is
counteract
this
straining
tendency, a considerable sectional area of material

the neutral axis.
needed
in
the vicinity of
We
shall
deal
fully
with this point presently.
is
Another reason against thinning down too much the side plating of ships found in the consideration that when rolling excessively at sea, the sides
frequently
may
become,
called
approximately at
to
least,
the
top
and
bottom
of
the
girder,
and be
upon
withstand considerable bending stresses.
To
know
apply formula (2) to find the stress at any point of a beam,
we must
three things.
We
must know the external bending moment

inertia
at the section
containing the point, the position of the centre of gravity of the area of the
section,
and the value of the moment of

its
is
of
the
sectional
area
in
about
detail
a horizontal axis through
centre of gravity.
ship,
We
propose to
show
how
the work
done
shall
in
the case of a
but before dealing with so com-
plex a girder,
we
In a previous page we have explained

always be found
as
;
two practical examples of simple beams. how the external bending moment may we may therefore assume this item as known. Take then
take
or
steel
one
first
case,
beam
of rectangular
section
20 feet long,
inches
deep,
and
3
its
middle of
under a bending moment of 600 inch-tons at the length, and let us determine the maximum stress on the material.
inches
thick,
stress
Begin by writing down the
formula,
viz.
In
the
ins.
above
beam
the
centre
of
gravity
is
at
mid-depth
therefore
in
is
Also the formula for the
moment
of inertia of the section

its
this
case a rectangle, about a horizontal axis through
centre of gravity,
---,
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE OF FORM.

where A
is
61
Substituting
the
the
area
of the
section
and h the
full
depth.
given values, we have

7 I =
^6X12X12
1
^432
in.
and
therefore
600 p =
x 6
8'3
tons per sq. inch.
Fig.
60.
>
Taking the strength of steel at 30 tons per square inch, this stress allows a factor of safety of rather more than 3-^-, which, in most cases, would be too The form* of section above given low, 5 to 6 being common for ship work.
is
being rolled into

of material as a
by no means the most economical for steel beams. This material admits of many forms, and to show the great importance of distribution
means of increasing the strength of beams against bending, let assume the length, depth, and sectional area, and therefore the weight, to us The only additional work remain as before, but the form to be as in fig. 60.
Within
elastic limits
is
mild
steel
and wrought iron are equally strong under compression or
tension, but this

six
its
by no means true of all materials. Cast iron, for instance, will withstand a wood, on the other hand, has times greater stress under compression than under tension In such cases, for maximum strength on minimum weight, greatest strength under tension.
:
Fig.
61.
the section must be ol centre of gravity,
special
design.
The
axis
of
moments must
weaker
side
still
pass
through the
by concentrating the For example, beams loaded at the middle and material on that side near the neutral axis. supported at the ends, if of cast iron, to be of economical design should^ have cross sections,
stress
but
the
may be
reduced on the
pf such forms as indicated in
fig.
61,
62
to
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
of inertia of the
is
be done here
is
to find the
moment
is
new
section about the
neutral axis, which, as in the previous case,
at mid-height.
The formula
for
the
moment
of inertia in this case
/= BH -2bh
s
12
where
the
is
the
full
breadth,
depth of beam, h the distance between the flanges, B and b the breadth from the outer edge of the flange to the
full
side of the web.
Substituting the values given in
fig.
60
/= nx
t-
_?
1728-2 x6x 1000 = n 872

i
in.
12
We
therefore have
Stress at top
and bottom of beam
-
872
4*1 tons per square inch,
maximum stress which is only half of The above is only an illustration
the previous one.

;
for
various
reasons,
girders
of
this
section are not usually rolled with flanges of greater width than 6 to 7 inches.
Taking them at 7 inches, and increasing their thickness to if inches say, 3 with the same weight of material, a girder of 18 inches depth and i T F inches web could be obtained. The moment of inertia of such a girder would be 1685; and, under the same bending moment of 600 inch-tons, the stress on the upper and lower flanges would be
600 x 9
~i68T~~
p =
3' 2
tons P er square inch.
Let us turn now to the case of a floating ship. We have seen obtain the external bending moment, and to apply the stress formula,
how
it
to
only
remains to determine for the material at the transverse section under the maximum bending moment, a method of fixing the position of the neutral axis, and
of calculating the
the neutral
position
axis
may
moment of inertia about that axis. Now, as we know that passes through the centre of gravity of the sectional area, its therefore be easily found. As we shall see presently, the calculais
tion involved
conducted simultaneously with that

to
for the
moment
in
of inertia.
In setting out
find
the
moment
and
of inertia
we must bear
mind
that
we
are dealing with a built girder,

is
longitudinal direction
strains.
to
be
that only continuous material lying in a considered as available for resisting longitudinal
In ordinary cases the
maximum bending moment

the weakest of course,
if
occurs at about mid-
length
we must
therefore choose
as,
moment
of inertia calculation,
section in this vicinity for the straining were to take place, it
Careful note should be made of the fact that would be at this section. material under tension must be calculated minus the area of the holes for the
rivets
joining
the frames to the shell
plating,
the
beams
to
the
deck-plating,
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE OF FORM.

etc.
63
This precaution need not be taken with the material in compression, as

if well fitted, will be as effective to resist this stress as the unpunched Where continuous wood decks are fitted, they are sometimes allowed wood being considered equivalent to about T\ of its sectional area in steel.
the rivet,
plate.
for,
are
must be reduced on account of the butts, which strakes, also on account of the bolt holes. For compression the full area is taken. In modern cargo steamers continuous wood decks are seldom fitted, and there are none in the vessel
In the case of tension,
usually
this
separated by three passing
whose moment of
inertia calculation
is
given below.
As already mentioned, the conditions dealt with in these strength calculations are those depicted in figs. 49 and 50. In the first case, hogging
strains
usually
predominate
in
in
ordinary
vessels,
the
upper material being in

upper works and tento
tension
and the lower

stresses
compression.
In the second case, sagging strains

stresses in the
would be expected, causing compressive

sional
below.
in
Since
the
the
rivet
holes
require
be
for
deducted
hogging
from
the upper
material
moment
of inertia calculations
strains,
and from the lower material in that for sagging strains, obviously a separate calculation is needed for each case. Dr. Bruhn* has pointed out that the necessity of two calculations may be obviated by obtaining the moment of
inertia without correcting for the rivet holes, the stress
so obtained being after-
wards increased inversely with the reduced sectional area.
The
results obtained
by
this
method do not
is
differ
much from
those
by the
ordinary
one,
while
the work
less.
In the following example we show in

of inertia for a cargo steamer of
detail
how
to
find
the
moment
the
modern type subjected

full
to a
hogging bending
tabulated,
moment.
It
will
be observed that the

at
sectional
areas
are
sum
a
of
of those of the parts in tension being reduced by of rivet

in
as an allowance for
line
holes
the
a frame.
instance,
is
It
will
also
inertia,
first
obtained
;
about
that
be noted that the moment an assumed axis, the

the
distance
position
neutral
of
axis
the
neutral
axis
being unknown
is
between the
the value
and the assumed one

of inertia
next
determined,
axis,
and
is
that
of the
is
moment
about the neutral

the
obtained from that about
assumed
axis,
what we require, by employing the well-known

:
which
property of the
moment
of inertia expressed by the formula
I=
I - A
x
h2
Where / = moment of inertia about neutral axis. I = moment of inertia about assumed axis. A = area of material in section.
x
distance between axes.
of inertia for
This principle is also employed in the first instance to obtain the moment each item about the assumed axis. For items of small scant-
lings in the direction of the
depth of
girder,
the
moment
of inertia
is
expressed
their dis-
with
-
sufficient
accuracy by multiplying the areas
by the squares of
Institution of
See his paper on Stresses at the Discontinuities of a Shifs Structure^ read before the Naval Architects in 1899,
64
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
tances from the axis as in column 7. In the case of the side plating, however, and the vertical parts of the double bottom, such as the centre girder, margin plate, and intereostals, the figures of column 6 have to be increased by the
moment
that
is,
of
inertia
of
each item about an

is
axis
through
its
centre
of gravity,
TV
A d\ where d
the depth of the item,
and A the
sectional area
these quantities are given in column S.
The moment
on
material
at
of inertia
being obtained, the stress in tons per square inch

//,
any
distance
either
above
or
below the
neutral
axis,
is
quickly found, since

It
p =
y.
should
units
be
remarked that when applied to a large girder

employed,
.
like
a ship,
in
feet,
special
are
being in foot-tons, A in
sq.
inches,
/ in
feet-
and inches 2
Moment
of Inertia Calculation.
(Ship under a hogging strain).

S.S.
350' o" x 50' 74" x 28'

line to bridge
o".
Assumed
neutral axis above base,
16' o"
Depth from base
deck, 36' 10
feet.
Below Assumed Axis.
Items.
MOMENT OF INERTIA CALCULATION.

Above Assumed Axis.
65
Items.
66
of the
instance
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
displacement
:
AND CALCULATIONS.
length,
multiplied
by the
we
5l_
shall
have in the present
Maximum
and
if
bending moment
96000
ft.
tons:
35
we use
this
figure with
that just obtained for the value of
we
shall
get for the greatest stress acting
on the
vessel
when under a hogging

.
strain
pe
To
out, a
M r
~y
/ =
QOOOO
I2314
= 779
tons per square inch.
obtain the greatest stress under a sagging strain, as previously pointed
new moment
to
of
inertia
calculation
is
necessary, otherwise
detailed.
it
the work
is
similar to that just explained
and need not be here
With regard
built to
resist
the magnitudes of calculated stresses,
may be
said that,
generally speaking, these increase with size of vessel.
Small vessels have to be
local strains, and are probably too strong, considered as floating At anyrate, their actual calculated stresses, of which records are available, show these to be very small indeed. In 1874, Mr. John investigated the longitudinal strength of iron vessels of from 100 to 3000 gross tonnage, on the basis of Lloyd's scantlings, the following being some of his results
girders.
:
Gross tonnage of Ship.
Tensional siress in tons per square inch

at
Upper Deck.
1*67
IOO
5 00
3"95
5'2
IOOO 2000
5*9
3000
Later calculations for steel vessels of large
to strength,
size,
8*09
which have proved
satisfactory as
show maximum stresses of between 8 and 9 tons and even higher The Servia, a passenger and cargo vessel of 515 ft., had a calculated stress at the upper deck of 10*2 tons per square inch when on the wave crest, and of 8 o4 tons when in the wave hollow, while the Maurelam'a*, of 760 ft. length, is stated to have a calculated maximum stress of 10*3 tons on the top member. It should be added that a special high tensile steel was largely used in the construction
-
of the upper works of the latter vessel.
With regard
plating
efficient
is
to compressive stresses,
it
is
important to note that thin deck

is
liable to
buckle when in severe compression, and

strain
;
therefore not so
under a sagging as under a hogging
this
should be borne in mind,
particularly
It
when considering maximum

already
stresses
on bridge and awning-decks.

such
as
has
been pointed
fully represent
out
that
stresses,
the
above,
are
figs.
not the actual stresses experienced by the vessel, since the conditions of
49 and 50 do not
example,
if
those of a vessel
among
waves.
The
results,
however, are valuable for comparison.
In the case of a proposed vessel, for the calculated stress be not greater than in existing vessels whose
*
See the Shipbuilder
for
November, 1907.
SHEARING STRESSES.
recoids have been satisfactory, the scantling arrangements in the
67
new
of
ship
may
be considered adequate.
calculated
stress
If
it
be much
have
the
greater, so as to
approximate to the
signs
in
vessels
which
clear
shown
most
manifest
weakness
for
when on new
service,
it
then additional strength must be added.

will
From
our previous
the
considerations,
be
that
will
economical
at
position
material
/.*.,
to
far
resist
bending,
possible
be either
the
stress.
the
top
it
or bottom
will
of the
vessel,
as
as
from
neutral axis, as
there
be
of
maximum
efficiency
in reducing the
ing forces on a structure.

^forces
SHEARING STRESSES. We come now to consider the We have already explained how the
may be obtained
effect
of shear-
values of such
at all points in the lengths of beams, including floating under various systems of loading, and we have now to determine the stresses caused thereby.
vessels,
Fig.
62.
If
the vertical
:
shearing
force
at
any
section
be
taken
as
F,
we may
obviously write
Mean
where
stress per
square inch /
F_
due to shearing force
'
is
if
the
example,
shearing
a rectangular
number of square inches of material in the section. For beam of section 8 inches by 4 inches be under a
force
of 64 tons, then
Mean
The
from
stress per square inch
64
8x4
tons.
actual stress at any point

this
of the
shall
section
mean
62
stress,
as
we
now proceed
at
may, however, be very different to show.
In
fig.
we have
the diagram
of bending
ported at the
middle and loaded
each end.
moments for a beam The bending moment

has
supis
maximum
at the point
of application of the support, and
zero values at
68 each end.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
A x A 2 and A 3 A^ the bending moments
nearer
For any two

the
vertical sections
may be
the divide
the
read from
diagram.
Section Aj A 2 being
the neutral surface,
mid-length
has
to
greater
bending moment.
/!//!/,
may be considered
is
the
beam
into two portions, of
which the upper one
in tension
and
lower in compression.
Consider
now
the
equilibrium
63.
of a small portion of the
beam A
RLA
Z,
shown enlarged in fig. and on the end A 3 L.
There are pulling forces acting on the end A r R As the former section is under a greater bending
the
stresses
will
moment than
tending
to
the
latter,
also
be
greater.
There"
will'
thus
be a force equal to
the
difference
of
the
the
total
1
forces
acting
on the ends
mid-length.
-
move
is
the
portion
of
beam A R
force
L Az
the
towards
This action
Clearly, the
balanced
by a
this
shearing
over
bottom surface L
the areas
force
it
R.
magnitude of
shearing
top
as
force will vary with
of the
will
ends A X
zero,
R and A 3 L
will
At
the
of the
beam
the
shearing
/I/,
be
and
gradually increase
RL
approaches
where
will
be a
Fig.
63.
SHEARING STRESSES.
69
4
/ = Moment of inertia of the whole section (in inches q = Stress per square inch at the given point. b = Breadth of beam in inches at the given point.
shear stress was found above to be
stress intensity at the neutral axis
:
).
Let us apply the formula to the case of the rectangular beam whose mean
2
tons.
Substituting values,
we get
for the
16 X
x 12 x 64 3
=
in
4 x 32 x 64
3 tons per square inch.
-1
Thus the maximum shear

the mean.
stress
is,
this
instance,
50 per cent, greater than
The above is for a simple beam of rectangular section, but the same In the may also be applied to the more complex case of a ship. latter instance, of course, the beam is of hollow section, and b will be twice
formula
the thickness of the shell plating.
It
is
important to note that only continuObviously,

the value
ous longitudinal materials must be used in rinding A.

of the shearing stress
will
vary with P, the vertical shearing force,
which
the
to
is
maximum
end
;
in ordinary vessels at about one-fourth the vessel's length from each
so that at the neutral axis at these points of the length
shearing
stress
may be
considerable.
We
see
now why
it
is
inadvisable
unduly
reduce the scantlings in the vicinity of the neutral

It is also
axis.
important to give special attention to the rivets in the landings,

seams, in
for
this
or
to
longitudinal
neighbourhood, as
the
shear
stress
gives
rise
tendency
the
edge
of
one strake to
slide
over
that
of
the
next.
double riveting the seams

say
Recent experience with large cargo vessels has shown that the usual plan of is only sufficient for vessels up to a certain size, 450 or 480
Lloyd's
feet
in,
length.
Longer vessels
will
develop weakness at the

the neigh-
longitudinal seams unless precautions be taken to increase the strength of the

riveting.
Rules now require treble riveted edge seams

in
in
bourhood of the neutral axis above length and beyond.

which tend to
ably of
first
the
fore
and
after
bodies in vessels of the
TRANSVERSE STRAINS. So
strain
far,
we have
dealt exclusively with stresses
a vessel longitudinally, and while such stresses are prob-
importance, we must not omit to refer to those which
come upon
a vessel in other directions.

It
has been customary to consider stresses which tend to change the trans-
verse
form as next in importance to those affecting a vessel
longitudinally.
Structural stresses in other directions are, indeed, partly, longitudinal

transverse,
and
partly
and where the predominant

combination in a
effect of their
nately, the subject of transverse
known for any vessel, the diagonal direction may be predicted. Unfortustresses of ships is a complicated one, and we
stresses
are
cannot do more here than indicate generally the external forces which operate
on a
vessel
so
as
to
alter
her transverse form, and point out the structural

this
arrangements which best
resist
deforming tendency.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
still
Consider in
this
is
connection the case of a vessel afloat in
water
(fig.
64).
The
hull surface
pressed everywhere at right angles by the water pressures,

is
indicated in the figure by arrows, and the resulting tendency
towards a general
Taking the transverse components of the water pressures, these obviously tend to force up the bottom and press in the sides, as shown exaggerated in fig. 64. Such tendencies, however, are prevented from becoming actual strains by the internal framing. The comparatively thin shell plating, which might yield under heavy water pressure, particularly in the way of an empty compartment, is kept in shape by the frames, rigidly
deformation
of the
vessel's
form.
connected to the beams and to the

spectively,
floors at their top and bottom ends reand supported between these points by hold stringers and keelsons. In way of the bottom, the deep floors, spaced at comparatively short intervals, and fitted, in the first instance, as supports to the cargo, are splendid preservers
of the form.
The
floors,
too, are tied to the
beams of the decks by means of
Fig.
64.
TTTrrr^
strong pillars, and in this
ture
is
way a
it
stress
communicated
to
as a whole.
which comes upon one part of the strucProbably the most efficient preservers
steel
of transverse the vessel
form are the athwartship
bulkheads.
rigid,
Where
these
occur
and care should be taken to spread this excess of strength over the space unsupported by bulkheads by means of keelsons and hold stringers. Docking Stresses. A vessel when docked or when aground on the keel
considered as absolutely
may be
particularly
if
loaded, has
to
withstand
severe
transverse
tresses.
The
re-
action
of the
weight at the middle line will tend to force
up her bottom
This
is
while the weight of cargo out in the wings will set
up a considerable transverse
will
bending
shown,
moment and cause much exaggerated of
the bilges to have a drooping tendency.

course, in
fig.
65.
There
be
tensile
;
stresses
if
of considerable magnitude acting along the top edges of the floors

vessel
and
the
be one having ordinary
floors,
weakness may be developed at the lower
turn of the bilge, as
the framing has there to withstand a shearing stress
due
to the weight of the cargo above.
The
floors
should therefore be kept as deep
transverse strains.
as possible at the bilge,
7i
and should be
this
carried well
is
up the
sides.
In vessels
to
having double bottoms
part of the structure
very strong owing
the
deep wing brackets, which bring the resisting powers of the side framing into
operation.
The
straining at the middle line will
be arrested by the
pillars, if efficiently
Fig.
65.
fitted; these will act as struts
and communicate the

still
stresses to the
deck beams,
which
will
will resist
a tendency to spring in the middle and to bring the sides
together.
Thus, as in the case of
water tresses, the straining tendency
be resisted by the structure as a whole.
causing equal distribution of stress throughout,

design,
This interdependence of parts, is what should be aimed at in
and
special pains should
be taken
Fig.
to ensure efficient connections.
66.
of transverse straining
Transverse Stresses due to Incorrect Loading, A preventable cause is that due to the manner in which heavy deadweight
Frequently, the heaviest items are
instead
cargoes are sometimes loaded.

the middle
line
secured at
the
of the
vessel
of being spread
over the bottom,
wings having therefore comparatively
little
weight to carry.
The
straining ten-
72
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
is
AND CALCULATIONS.
on
as
dency in such a case
to elongate the transverse form, the water pressures
the sides tending to the same end.
This condition
is
illustrated in
full
fig.
66, the
dotted lines representing the normal vessel,

strained.
and the
tie
lines
the
vessel
and bottom of the structure, but not unfrequently the rivets connecting the pillars at top and bottom have been sheared in places with consequent dropping of the bottom
pillars
will
The
be here called upon to
the top
part of the hull.
Transverse Stresses due to Rolling. We have pointed out that it is when among waves at sea a vessel meets with the most trying longitudinal stresses, and it may now be added that tendencies to transverse straining are also greatest then. These latter stresses probably reach maximum values when a vessel is rolling in a beam sea, and they are obviously due to the resistance
which the mass of the structure offers to change of the direction of motion o each time the vessel completes an oscillation in one direction and is about to
return.
The
stress
is
a racking one, and tends to alter the angle between the
Fig.
67.
deck and the sides, also to close the bilge on one side and to open Such a racking strain is exhibited graphically in fig. 67. other.
it
on the
The
parts
of
the
structure
most
effective
in
preventing
this
change of
bulkbar,
if
form are the beam knees,

heads, and
any.
transverse
bulkheads,
is
web frames
included
efficiently
or
partial
the
ordinary side
frames, in which
the
reverse
connected to the frames and beams, and fitted well into the corner formed by the side plating and the deck. Change of form at the bulkheads is practically impossible, if
size,
The beam knees should be
of good
they be
fore
stiffened
sufficiently
this
against
collapsing;
side
careful attention should there-
be given to
point.
The
frames, owing
to
their
position
and
close
mum
floors
spacing, offer powerful resistance to racking, but in order to attain maxiefficiency they should be securely riveted to the beam knees, and the
or tank
brackets should
be carried well up the

it
sides.
These brackets
that
virtually
reduce the length of the frame, and

in
is
well
known
reducing
the length
such a case greatly increases the
rigidity
TRANSVERSE STRAINS.
73
structural
local
stresses,
Local Stresses.
vessels
Besides
other
longitudinal
have
to
resist
straining
tendencies
their
and transverse due to

seatings
causes.
For
example, the
engines
and
boilers
with
together
form a heavy
permanent load on a comparatively small fraction of the length, and thus give rise to considerable local stresses. These are provided against in various ways, some details of which are given in a later chapter. It may be said that the general principle is to increase the strength of the structure in way of the
loaded zone,
and,
by means of longitudinal girders and otherwise, distribute
the load to the less strained portions of the hull beyond.
stern of the vessel
Other stresses due to the propelling machinery are those brought on the by the action of the propeller itself. These are most severe
the vessel
is
and pitching among the waves, and consist chiefly propeller and checking of the same, as it rises out of and sinks into the water. The parts that suffer most are the connections of the stern frame to the vessel, and it is highly important, therefore, that these should be made amply strong. We shall see presently, when we come to consider details of construction, what the usual
when
rolling
of vibrations caused by the frequent racing of the
arrangements are in such cases.

plating
Panting Strains. These strains, which are usually developed in the shell forward and aft, where it is comparatively flat, consist of pulsating movements of the plating, as the name indicates. They are partly due to blows from the sea, and partly to the resistance offered by the water to the vessel's
progress as she
is
is
driven forward by the propeller.
An
ordinary cargo vessel
not so
she
is
much
troubled
by these
full
strains
as
a fine-lined
passenger steamer,
a tendency to
for
slower,
and her
flatter
ends are better able to

faster boat.
resist
flexibility
than the
usual
form of the
to
The
means taken
if
strengthen the shell against panting,

it
is
to
fit
hold stringer in the vicinity affected, and connect
well to
the
shell plating
and framing
with a short
plating.
aft.
the
vessel
be
fairly
large,
the
stringer
should be associated
tier
of beams, which act as struts and prevent
movement
in
in the
In very fine vessels the floor-plates should be deepened forward and

panting arrangement for a cargo steamer
class of strains
is
A A
shown
the chapter
on
practical details.
somewhat akin
full
to those of panting are frequently found
developed under the bows of
cargo vessels, in the
shape of loose
rivets
They are now recognised to be and generally shattered riveted connections. due to the pounding which a vessel receives from the waves as she rises and
falls
after
lift
among them. As might be expected, a voyage made in ballast trim, for the
It
is
they are
found much aggravated

into
pitching motions will one instant

it it
the fore end high out of the water,

scarcely
and the next bring

this
with
terrific
force.
wonderful
that
pounding,
repeated
throughout
long voyage, should produce the results mentioned.

ing
is
Obviously, efficient ballast-
of vital importance, and that this
is
the opinion of those having shipping
interests,
was evidenced by the appointment of the Royal Commission, under

to consider
Lord Muskerry,
the desirability of fixing a
minimum
load-line
to
74
sea-going vessels,
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
although,
for
AND CALCULATIONS.
reasons,
various
there
was no practical
result
therefrom.
Strains due to Deck Loads, etc. These loads consist of steam winches, The resulting stresses can windlass, donkey boilers, steering gear, etc. usually be counteracted by an efficient system of pillaring, with perhaps a few
the
extra
beams
if
the weights be very great.
The Racking
sufficient
Strains brought on the deck of a
sailing vessel
sailing
by
stresses
from the rigging and masts should be mentioned.

size
In
vessels
not of
to
require a steel deck, special tie-plates should be arranged in
a diagonal direction so as to communicate the stresses from the plating round

the
mast
to the
deck beams and side
stringers,
to all of
which the
tie-plates
should be securely riveted.
i.
IV.
Given a beam fixed at one end and loaded with a weight tons at the other, describe the system of forces acting at any section, neglecting the weight of the beam. If the beam be 10 feet long and the load 2 tons, plot the diagrams of shearing forces and bending moments, and give numerical values for a section 4 feet from the free end of the beam.
* m _fS.F.,2tons. \B.M., inch

,
-
96
tons.
Referring to the previous question, if the given load be spread evenly over the beam, indicate the forms which the curves of bending moment and shearing force will then take.
2.
beam 20 feet long supported at each end has a. load of 3 tons concentrated at a 3. point 2 feet from the middle of the length. Draw the diagrams of shearing forces and bending moments, and indicate the value of the maximum bending moment. Ans. Max. B.M. = 172-8 inch tons.
Assuming the load in the previous question to be evenly distributed over the length of the beam, calculate the maximum shearing force and bending moment, and indicate the points in the length at which these are in operation. f Max. S.F. = 1*5 tons acting at ^ ns \Max. B.M. =90 inch tons actingpoints of support at middle. Show that diagrams of S.F. and B.M. may be derived by a graphic process, and 5. employ in your explanation the case of a beam fixed at one end and uniformly loaded.
4.
Explain how to construct a curve of loads for a ship floating in still water, and state you would apply to prove the accuracy of your work. What is the connection between curves of loads, shearing forces, and bending moments, 7. and show in one diagram the approximate forms these diagrams would take in the case of a cargo vessel floating *' light" in still water.
6.
what
tests
box-shaped vessel 200 feet long, 30 feet broad, 20 feet deep, floats in still water at 8. If the weight of the vessel be 1000 tons uniformly distributed, and if a draught of 10 feet. there be a cargo of 715 tons uniformly distributed over half the vessel's length amidships, draw the curves of S.F. and B.M. and state the maximum shearing force and bending moment Max S F = *78'5 tons. Ans * ns
_J
'
\Max. B.M. = 8925
feet tons.
vessel in previous question are plating \ inch thich, find the greatest stress to which the material is subject 1 hogging moment of 8000 feet tons. Ans. '82 tons per square inch.
9.
If the sides
and top and bottom of
composed of
under a
steel
maximum
10. Assuming a cargo steamer in loaded condition to be poised on the crest of a wave sketch roughly the curves of loads, shearing force and bending moment.
11.
maximum
12.
Referring to the previous question, at what points approximately in the length will the shearing forces act and where will the maximum shearing stress intensity be developed?
shearing
Taking the box vessel of question force of 400 tons, find the mean
shearing stress.
,
maximum
13.
and assuming her to be under a maximum shearing stress over the section, and also the /Mean shear stress = '66 tons per square inch. \Max. shear stress = 1*82 ,,
8,
,,
Enumerate the various
local strains to
which ships are
liable,
and the methods adopted
to strengthen the vessel against them.
CHAPTER
V.
Types of Cargo Steamers.
NOT
the least
among
the
many important
ship,
is
points to be settled
type.
by an owner
in deciding
upon a new
suitable
as to cost,
weight capability, and yet

failure, in certain
ship may be may be strong enough, have good speed and deadmay prove herself very unsatisfactory, if not an utter
the question of
trades.
Every owner of experience

to his purpose.
is
aware of
this,
and
is
careful to see that
he gets a ship suited
Nowadays, an owner who knows his requirements can usually get them But this was by no means always the case. At one time it seemed to be thought that ships must be built to certain fixed
carried out in this matter.
designs,
and cargoes had often
to
be adapted to
suit
a vessel's arrangements
rather than the latter being
made
to suit
the former, resulting in
much annoy-
ance, inconvenience,
and expense.
in oversea trade, however, but
With the expansion

changes in materials ot
more
especially with the
construction
from
wood
to iron,
and iron
to
steel
and the progressive

where applied
for the
spirit
of the age,
came a gradual evolution of
type, until
the cargo steamship of

to special
to-day has reached a high standard of

trades, has
excellence,
and
become almost
the last word of efficiency
purpose intended.
variations
The
to
their
which have marked

of
:
this evolution
and brought cargo
vessels
in
present
stage
viz.
development
trades
;
have been, generally speaking,

in
the
following directions,
(i) in design of structure to provide hulls of degrees

;
of
in
strength suitable
for
different
(2)
form of immersed body and

of
materials
;
general
outline
and appearance
(3)
in
disposition
(4)
in
internal construction.
STRENGTH TYPES. It
of great
density, for
was long ago recognised that

occupy
little
for
:
economical
that cargoes
working different cargoes should have different classes of vessels

instance, which
space
in
comparison with
weight, such as
carried
in
;
iron
ore
or
machinery, and heavy general
cargoes, should be
strong
vessels
having great
draught
and displacement and limited

ships
hold space
general
and cargoes of less density, such as grain, cotton, wood, and light
be accommodated
capability.
cargoes, should
less
in
of relatively
their
greater
hold
capacity, but
deadweight
Thus, until
recent
revision,
Lloyd's Rules provided special
schemes of scantlings
75
for
three strength types,
76
viz.,
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
three-deck,
spar-deck,
AND CALCULATIONS.
types.
and awning-deck
Of
these,
the
first-named
was the strongest, and was reckoned to be able to carry any kind of cargo to
any part of the world on a greater draught than any other type of vessel of equal dimensions. With regard to the spar and awning-deck types, we have
the
authority
of
the
late
Mr. Martell, a
former
chief
surveyor
to
Lloyd's
Register, for saying that they were

carriers.
not originally intended as exclusively cargo
The upper
weather
'tween decks were really meant to
accommodate passengers,
side
and
the
deck
built
and
of
the
shell
plating
and
framing
light
above
the
second or main deck, were allowed to be of comparatively
construction.
But although
thus
smaller scantlings
than the
corresponding three-
deck vessel of same absolute dimensions, these

comparative strength.
lighter vessels
were not of
their
less
Their draughts were restricted, their loads reduced, and
hence also
the leading
movements acting upon them
so
that
thinner
materials were quite sufficient to ensure as low a
stress per square inch
on the
upper and lower works as in the corresponding three-deck type of
vessel.
In the development of ship construction, the foregoing types have undergone modification. In Lloyd's latest Rules, only two distinct standard types are
mentioned,
viz.,
the
still
full
scantling
vessel,
and an awning or shelter-deck
type.
The
latter
has
the characteristics of other vessels of the class, namely, light
draught and large capacity, but has otherwise been greatly improved.
FORM TYPES. With regard to changes of form, it must be admitted that body of the modern cargo steamer is no thing of beauty. The sentiment which demanded fineness of form and grace of outline has passed away under the
the
pressure of ever-increasing competition.
From
*6
the fine-lined under water bodies,

7,
with displacement
sides of former days,
and the nicely rounded topmore or less vertical sides and bluff ends, with displacement co-efficients ranging from '8 upwards. Certainly this side of the development of cargo ships has not proceeded on
co-efficients
of from
to
we have come
to sharp
bilges,
aesthetic lines.
Appearances apart, however, and considering making standpoint, the changes have been in searches of the late Dr. Froude and others, and vessels, has shown that at moderate speeds like
ordinary cargo
vessels
the case from a purely
money-
the
right
direction.
The
re-
experience gained from actual

8 or 10 knots
be overcome in propulsion is largely due to surface friction, the element of wave-making resistance only becoming As a considerable increase in displacement and important at higher speeds. in deadweight capability can be obtained by a moderate increase in therefore surface, the easiest and cheapest way for an owner to increase the earning
resistance
to
the
the
speeds of
power- of his vessel
is
obviously to
fill
her out forward and
aft,
and
this
has
become the order

with the
fullest
of the day.
Of
course, for the
best results, the filling out
process must be done with judgment.

co-efficients.
rise
An
expert designer can do
much even
In general, vessels
floor
of
'8
blocks
and upwards
In some
should have
.
small
of
and
relatively
sharp
bilges
amidships, thus
allowing most of the fining away to be done Lowards the extremities.
TYPES OF CARGO STEAMERS.

cases this
77
method has not been
followed.
It
should be said that in Lloyd's

design
former
this
full
rules,
the half girth appeared as a factor in calculating the numerals, and

lighter
induced some builders, for the sake of getting
scantlings,
to
cargo vessels with abnormally fine midship sections, thus causing the ends
to
be very clubby.
But such
vessels
when
steer
built
invariably proved
unsatisin a
factory.
They were found
difficult to
and
therefore
unmanageable
seaway, also harder to drive, than vessels of 'similar block co-efficients designed
on normal lines. Under the new rules the girth does not influence the numerals, and there is now no temptation to design freak ships of the kind mentioned; still, owners should not take too much for granted in ordering their cargo "tramps," but should see that they get a maximum of good design with
any given conditions.
More striking than the changes of the under-water forms, and those which have caused cargo vessels to be classified into various form types, have been those
due to the imposition of deck erections on the fundamental flush-deck steamer. Very early in the history of the iron merchant ship, the necessity of
affording
some protection
to the vulnerable
machinery openings led to the
latter
being covered by small
bridge
erections.
Then
the
obvious advantages of
latter to
having the crew on deck caused the accommodation for the
be raised an
space
from
below and
fitted
in
a forecastle, this
erection
seas,
incidentally forming
release
admirable shield from the inroads of head
and the
of the
under deck making a desirable addition to the carrying capacity. Finally, poops were fitted, experience showing the necessity of raising the steering platform
from the
level of the
upper deck.
whose outlines are

fig.
characteristic of
Thus the three-island type was many of the cargo steamers of
arrived
at,'
to-day (see
68).
The
in
next step in the development of deck erections was in the direction
of increased lengths, as, under
Government Regulations, which became operative

in
1890,
considerable reductions
as,
freeboard
could
in
their
thereby be
gained, and,
particularly
provided
they
had
openings
end
bulkheads,
which,
however, might be closed in a temporary manner, the erections were allowed

to be exempt from tonnage measurement. Thus long bridges became common, and eventually vessels were built with bridge and poop in one, making, with a disconnected forecastle, one form of the well-deck type (see fig. 69). Fig.
68.
Fig.
69.
e&e
73
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Fig.
AND CALCULATIONS.
70.
Fig.
71.
&6
^
i>
Fig.
72.
The obvious advantage of having a continuous side and deck, and the admirable shelter which the enclosed space would afford for cattle, etc., very soon produced the suggestion to fill in the former gap between forecastle and bridge; and this was rapidly carried into effect when it was found
that
0j-
by
having one or more openings in the deck with no more than temporary means of closing, the space would escape measurement for tonnage. In this way the shelter-deck type (see fig. 70) was evolved a type in recent years much run upon for large cargo vessels, and which, as previously mentioned, is now a standard of Lloyd's rules.
shelter decks, but
Other modifications have consisted of short bridges on longer ones and on these can hardly be considered as constituting distinct
types.
For
the
smaller
classes
of
cargo
carriers
all
steamer has been developed, familiar to

quarter-decker, which, in reality,
who
of take an interest in ships, as a
somewhat
special
type
is a one or two-decked vessel with the' main This raising of the after deck was undoubtedly due to considerations of trim. It was found that owing to the finer form aft and the large amount of space taken up by the shaft tunnel, the tendency
deck
aft
raised (see
fig.
71).
the normal deck line was to trim by the head
when
with loaded, the predominance
correct this state of things the hold was increased by raising the deck. While the quarter-deck has certain advantages, such as good trim and general handiness, it has some drawbacks, one of which is the difficulty of
this.
of cargo at the fore end causing

aft
To
space
making up the strength

plan
is
sufficiently at the
to
double the
shell
plating
break of the main deck. The usual and overlap the main and quarter deck
stringers at this part being also overa steel deck or part steel deck, the latter
stringers in
way of the break, the hold

size requiring
lapped.
In vessels of a

is
79
overlapped where broken to form the quarter deck, and the two portions connected by substantial diaphragm plates. The doubling of shell and overlapping of stringers
is
also carried out.
The
good the
foregoing, or
loss
something equivalent,
It
is
is
what must be done
of continuity.
seen to involve a considerable

there
this
to make amount of
bracketing and troublesome

the vessel.
fitting
work, which tends to raise the

too,
is
first
cost of
In the vicinity of the break,

in
spite
much broken
still
stowage
space;
yet,
of
all,
for
some
trades
type
remains a strong
favourite.
Another modified type, in some respects the opposite of the last in that it leads to an increased hold capacity forward over the normal type, is the It is to be supposed that with ordinary cargoes this partial awning-decker. type would trim badly, but it appears to have been found very suitable for It was at one time very popular, but of recent special light bulky cargoes.
years has not been
much
in,
in evidence.
fig.
The
external appearance of the partial
awning-decker
forward well
the
strength
is
shown
the
in
72.
It is
seen to be a quarter-decker with the

for
filled
and the precautions already described

this
maintaining
at
break have also to be taken in

distributing
case.
is
One
clear
consequence of the long erections now become prevalent
un-
doubtedly the
really part of
modern system of
the hull proper,
the
materials
of
construction.
Bridges which are very short have small

otherwise,
structural
value, as they are not
and should not be considered

however,
with
in estimating the
longitudinal
strength.
It
is
bridge
erections
of
which must withstand the structural bending stresses acting on the vessels of which they form part. Moreover, it follows from the principles expounded in the previous chapter, that the heaviest longitudinal materials should be placed at the deck, stringer, and sheerstrake of an erection, whether
substantial lengths,
it
be a long bridge, an awning or a

is is
shelter
deck, as the
moment
of inertia of
the material at a section
thereby increased, and the stress under a given load,
which
of
maximum
value at these parts, reduced.

this
Modern
vessels are
now
required to be built in
way by
the rules of
Lloyd's Register and of the
old practice of making superstructures of light and massing the strength at the second deck from the top being disbuild This may be considered to mark an important advance in the continued.
other classification bodies, the
scientific construction of ships.
CONSTRUCTION TYPES. Coming now

place in the
internal
to
the
changes that have taken

to
construction
Fig.
of vessels, we find these
be of a wide-
reaching character.
73*
is
the midship
section of a large passenger

all
and
cargo steamer as built 25 to 30 years ago, and illustrates

of the time,
viz.,
the characteristics
thin
side
framing,
numerous
tiers
of beams, ordinary floors,
and deep hold

*
keelsons.
The expansion
of commerce, however, the
opening
See an interesting paper on "Structural Development in British Merchant Ships," by Foster King, in the Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects for 1907, to which the author is indebted for particulars in preparing some of the sketches in this chapter.
Mr.
J.
So
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
trades,
AND CALCULATIONS.
of vessels
to
for
up of new
and the
specialising
these trades, led
first
to
increase in the average size of vessels, then

internal economies.
various
modifications in
their
The
trouble and expense attending the use of
dry ballast
led
to
the
adoption
of
water
ballast
tanks,
which,
ultimately
becoming
fitting
incorporated in the
structure,
caused the disappearance from the holds of the

fig.
huge plate side girders which, as shown in

ordinary
floors.
73,
accompanied the
in
of
In a later chapter
we
shall
deal
detail with ballast tanks,
but their general design and arrangement
may be
the
An
early modification in the
structure was
gathered from figs. 74 to 85. deepening of the holds by the
Fig.
73.
suppression of the lowest
tier
of
the time, and the fitting at every
fifth
beams, required by the construction rules of or sixth frame of plate webs having face
stringers
bars on their inner edges, the
hold
being deepened to
come
in line
with the inner edge of the plate webs, and the whole forming a strong box-like arrangement which amply made up the deficiency caused by the omission of
the hold
beams
(see
fig.
74).
This
style of construction
long remained in favour

capacity, particularly
and
is
still
sometimes preferred, but the

eventually led
to
itself,
its
loss
of stowage
for case cargoes,
deepening of the frame girder

or another
is
in favour of the the system of framing which in one form
general
abandonment
found
in the cargo steamers building in the yards to-day.
TYPKS OF CARGO STEAMERS,
Si
82
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
natural
the reduction in
development which came, although not quite immediately, was size of the hold stringers, which, as stowage breakers, were
obnoxious
for
all
found not
alone
less
than the
the
webs.
Moreover, the deep side framing

of local stresses,
was
sufficient
demands
and owing
is
to their
proximity to the neutral
axis,
the extent to which these hold stringers assisted

trifling.
fig.
me
ship against
bending was comparatively

fifteen
is
hold stringers of
years
ago,
and
frames
in
76
In fig. 75 those of the

to
shown the
them
side
present day.
Their work
tripping,
now
to
to
keep
the
the
shell
in
position,
prevent
and
stiffen
between the frames.

Fig.
76.
330 Feet Steamer.
Recent experiments made by Lloyd's Register have gone to show that a frame depth of 7 inches (the limit of the experiments) there is no tendency to side tripping, and since then vessels have been built with a re-
up
to
duced number of hold stringers, and in a few recent cases with none at all. Whether the hold stringer will ultimately disappear from the modern ship This, it may be said, as an element of construction remains to be seen. by some naval architects, but the general feeling seems is the view taken
to
be in favour of
its
retention
in
a modified
of
steel
form.
sections
in
Improvements
the
in
the manufacture
recent
years,
and
broad-minded view now taken
by the
classification
societies,
have
made
TYPES O* CARGO VESSELS.

it
33
of
parts,
possible
for
builders,
following the
line
of simplification
to
still
the demands of shipowners for large holds clear of and numerous hold stanchions. Hence has come the well-known singleVessels of a size ordinarily requiring, by Lloyd's former deck type {see fig. 77) and two steel decks, have been built with a rules, three tiers of beams single steel deck and one tier of beams, the structural strength, transverse and longitudinal, being made good by deepening the side frames and inPurely creasing the scantlings of the deck, shell plating, and double bottomfurther
satisfy
beams,
stringers,
Fig.
350'
77.
51'
0"
0" x 2ff 0".
LINT 0f_BBI0CEJ)KK
single-deck
vessels
have gone on increasing

proceed
so
in
size
feet,
until
they
it
have attained
likely
lengths
of 350
feet,
and depths exceeding 28

long
as
and
appears
the
advancement
it.
will
still
the
needs of commerce demand

so
far
In Lloyd's
of
latest rules,
the construction of single deckers

is
depth
about
31
feet
provided
for,
but
as
up to a moulded we are aware, no

be
in
single-deck vessel of ordinary

Fig.
sition
design has been built approaching this depth.
78
illustrate?
a type which
the
may be
considered to
It
the
tran-
stage
towards
pure
single decker.
has
bulb
angle
framing
.84
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
in
and strong hold beams widely spaced

a broad hold stringer. N.E. coast and have
builders
association
this
with
arched webs
Many
proved
vessels
of
type
have
been
built
highly
satisfactory.
The
firm.
designers
and on the and first
of this
type are an
important Wearside
hold
With the removal of hold stringers and beams, the presence of numerous pillars A middle line row for most became specially objectionable.
is
trades
perhaps
no great
drawback,
but with
the
increased
breadths
at-
Fig.
SS.
350' 0"
78.
49'
0" X
28' 0".
Lig0F_8RUCE_DECK
tendant
day,
on
the
steady rise
in
general
dimensions,
the
now
the
order
of
the
and the side, with For a time, and up to a the ordinary construction, became imperative. certain point, the case of vessels with breadths beyond that at which quarter
additional
rows
of
stanchions
between
middle
met, without resorting to the latter, by increasbeams and ot the middle row of pillars, but a limit was soon reached, and the question of the omission of pillars had to Hence arose the system of fitting wide be reviewed from other standpoints.
stanchions are
the
necessary, was
ing
scantlings
of
the

spaced strong
closely
pillars pillars
35
Centre
in
line
in
association
with
deck
girders.
pillars
rows
of
spaced
in
with
one or two quarter

feet
each
hold are
cases
say,
now
the
four
fonnd
centre
vessels
of
50
breadth
the
and
hold.
upwards.
In
some
by,
row has
heavy
great
been
pillar
omitted,
whole
work
being
done
specially
columns
in
each
The
in
convenience of the
latter
arrangement from a
it
stowage
stand-
point can readily be conceived, and although

cost
entails a considerable addition

it.
over the
common
arrangement,
many shipowners have adopted

79.
Fig.
SS. 340' 0" x 45' 6"
27'
3"
and
34'
3".
A
of any
few vessels
kind,
have been
to
built shall
so
as
to
be able to dispense with
pillars
and
these
we
refer
presently
SPECIAL TYPES. Besides

may be considered
acter,
the types of vessels already described which
the standard ones, there are others of quite distinct charthe

enterprise
which the needs of commerce,

of shipbuilders,
is
of
shipowners,
genius
have called into being.

turret-deck
Of
of
these, probably the
and the most

Fig.
important
the
well-known
type
Messrs.
Doxford.
the
79
shows the midship section of one of these vessels, and differences between them and those of ordinary form.
illustrates
striking
86
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
outward form
at
The
principal
departure
is
in the
the
topsides,
which,
up with a moderate tumble home, are curved inwards, forming a central trunk or turret. The working platform is on the top of this turret, which runs forward and aft and contains all hatches, deck machinery, derricks, and everything requisite for efficiently working the vessel. The internal framing of the majority of these vessels (see fig. 79) is on
instead of being carried
but in recent cases the hold beam and web-frame system no hold obstruction principle has been carried out, hold beams and pillars being entirely omitted, and the strength made good by fitting deep web-plates
the wide-spaced
;
Fig.
SS.
350'
80.
x
26'
0"
50'
0"
3"
and
33'
6".
with
fig.
attachments to the turret deck, ship

So.
sides,
and tank
top,
as
shown
in
Among
its
the
advantages claimed for

qualities,
it
this
it
type
over the ordinary ones

for
are
self-trimming
safety
which
the
make
to
all
well
suited
bulk
cargoes
as
the
greater
which
affords
to
vulnerable
openings,
such
than
hatches
ordinary
ventilators,
etc.,
;
owing
turret
being
much
higher
the
weather deck
increased
its
greater stiffness
better
it
and longitudinal
of
to
strength,
owing
to its
shape
and circumstance making

depth
distribution
possible
the latter reduce the structural weight and thus in-
longitudinal
materials,

crease the deadweight.
87
nice appearance,
Although it cannot be said that these vessels have a must be admitted that they have been a long time in service, and seem to be increasing in popularity as purely cargo boats. Another type, of which there is now a considerable number afloat, is This class is of normal single deck Messrs. Ropner's patent trunk steamer.
it
construction to the main or harbour deck; above this there
is
a central trunk
running
fore-and-aft;
the
top
of
etc.
the
latter
forms
is
the
working
deck and
is
fitted with
hatchways, winches,
The
Fig.
ship
kept in form by strong beams
81
x
25'
SS. 350' 0"
60'
0"
3"
and
33'
3".
at
hatchway ends, and the trunk This strongly built centre stanchions.
the
is
stiffened
like
by webs and supported by

design,
is
ship,
the turret
specially
suitable for
(see
fig.
bulk cargoes like grain, the trunk forming an admirable self-trimmer

patent ship
81).
is
The Dixon & Harroway

self-trimming arrangements.
another type whose speciality
is
its
In
this vessel (see fig.
82) the upper corner of the
hold
space.
is
plated
in,
the
main frame of the
vessel
being carried up in the hold
This corner space is well adapted for ballasting purposes, the high This type is of position of the ballast conducing to steadiness in a seaway.
88
SkiP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
Co Em CO N X
Co
types of cargo steamers.

great
39
longitudinal
strength
transverse change of form set
and is also well suited to resist the tendency to up when a vessel is labouring in a seaway. Self-
trimming also forms the chief claim to distinction of the vessel shown in fig. It is seen to resemble the last type somewhat with the corner tanks away; 83. and on the latter account is not so efficient from a strength standpoint.
As
aft
in
the
Ropner trunk
vessel,
the
ship
is
worked from a
is
central
fore-and-
platform.
Still
another variation of the trunk or turret type
that
this
devised by Mr.
Henry
Burrell.
Like
the
other
vessels
just
referred
to
one
is
self-
Fig.
SS.
305'
84. and
30'
0" x 46' 9" x 24' 0"
3".
trimmer, and, as well as the upper trunk, has the corners at the bilges
(see fig.
filled in
84) and the inner surface sloped towards the centre, thus obviating the
the
broken stowage space which might otherwise occur at the bilges. Incidentally, corners thus cut off from the holds form a desirable addition to the
capacity.
ballast
The
deck,
sides
and trunkways are supported by cantilever

built,
webs, and there are
no hold
pillars.
Other special types have been
or are building, differing
more
or less
from the foregoing, but in general not sufficiently to make it necessary to refer One design, however, that of Mr. Isherwood, is of such distinctive to them.
and
interesting a character as to warrant
its
being singled
out.
This
type
is
go
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
the
longitudinal
AND CALCULATIONS.
in
this
framed on
system,
and
respect
recalls
that
famous
work of Scott Russell and Brunei the Great Eastern. Like with widely the new ship has main frames and beams running fore-and-aft, There is, however, no double skin on the spaced transverse partial bulkheads. type, except that the sides, the inner bottom being of the normal present-day main
internal framing
Fig.
is
the earlier vessel,
longitudinal instead of transverse.
85
shows
this
the
midship
section
of
medium-sized
cargo
steamer
to
It
framed
consist
on
of
system.
The
at
bulb
angles
beams and frames are seen wider spacing than on the transverse system.
longitudinal
should
be noted, however, that
the
settlings
of
the
frames
are
gradually
Fig.
85.
increased
greater
towards
the
bottom of the
of
vessel,
where
they
have
to
withstand
loads, the
intensity
the water pressure
increasing in
proportion to
the
depth below the surface.
The
transverse
strength
is
made
up
by strong
transverses
or
partial
bulkheads attached to the shell-plating between the frames, and stiffened on The transverses are spaced from about their inner edges by stout angles. 12 feet to 16 feet apart in ordinary cases, according to size of vessel, the
largest
vessels
having the closest spacing.

as
The double bottom,

girders,
previously mentioned,
floors
has fore-and-aft continuous

the
tranverses
with
intercostal
transverse
latter
in
line with
and
also
midway between them, the
being required to provide sufficient strength

for
docking purposes and bottom through grounding.

It
is
to
resist
the excessive stresses which
come on
the
claimed for
this
type
of vessel,
several
samples of which are now

it
afloat
and giving good accounts of themselves,

relative
that
has
greater
in
first
strength
is
and
point
this
less
weight than
as
the
normal
from
type.
The
greater
saving
weight
cost
of great
importance,
apart
any reduction of
which
may represent, it means for the and therefore increased earning power.
vessel
deadweight
capability
Fig.
86.
The Isherwood system

oil
of construction appears to be specially suitable for of an

oil
vessels.*
Fig.
86
is
a section
viz.:
steamer framed in
this
way, the
dimensions of which
inches;
are,
length,
depth
at centre,
29
feet.
355 feet; breadth, extreme, 49 feet, 5 The longitudinal frames from the deck to
the bottom they
are bulb
long,
the upper turn of the bilge are bulb angles as shown; on

are
built
of plates
and bars
inches
the spacing
is
29
oil
inches.
The beams
30
the
feet
angles
spaced
27
apart.
fitted
The main
in
tanks
are
and
two strong transverses are
each
for
tank
between
boundary bulk-
*See a paper by Mr. Isherwood in the T.I.N. A.
1908, from which
figs.
85 arul 86 are taken.
92
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
heads. The transverses are fitted to the shell-plating between double angles and have heavy double angles on their inner edges. The longitudinal frames and beams and longitudinal stiffeners on middle line bulkhead are cut at the transverse bulkheads and efficiently bracketed In way of the thereto in order to maintain the continuity of strength.
double bottom, which

alternate
line,
is
fitted
for
a portion of the vessel's length amidships,

to
transverses
are
fitted
continuously around the bottom

are
fitted
the
middle
these
are
and
the
longitudinal
efficiently
girders
in
long
lengths
between
transverses,
and
attached
thereto.
The remaining
transverses
stopped at the deep girder in the double bottom next the margin-plate, and
are
then
fitted
is
intercostally
fitted
margin-plate
intercostally
between the longitudinals to the centre line. The between the transverses, and connected to
collars.
them by double-riveted
watertight
the
comparison
of
this
of
longitudinal
stress
acting
amidships
vessel
with
that
acting
on
this
an
oil
on the bridge gunwale vessel of the same

is
dimensions built on the ordinary system, showed the former to be

cent,
less
than
the
latter.
In
spite
of
there
stated
to
18J per be an
estimated
saving in weight
of materials,
under the new system, of 275 tons.
CHAPTER
V.
Practical Details.
KEELS AND CENTRE KEELSONS.The

foundation of
or steel
the
keel
may be
of
keel
considered the
fitted
full
ship's
structure.
The
simplest form
in
iron
vessels
consists
of
a
it
forged
is
bar
running
into
almost
the
length of
the
vessel.
At the ends
scarphed
the
stem
rib.
and
sternpost,
three
items together forming a complete

Fig.
RIDER
longitudinal
The
bars
forming
87.
PUTE
STRAKX
together by These scarphs are frequently riveted up previous to the fitting of the shell by means of small There is an objection to the tack rivets, so as to allow the keel to be faired. tack rivets, in that, if it be necessary to remove a keel length, use of
the
keel
are
fitted
in
lengths
averaging
about
40
feet,
joined
vertical scarphs nine
times the thickness of the keel in length.
93
94
say,
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
for
AND CALCULATIONS.
repairs
after
grounding,
to
to
be
removed
the
in
order
they are sometimes omitted.
plates on both sides of the keel have knock out the tack rivets for this reason The main rivets connecting the scarphs together,
;
and
also
keel
to
to
the shell, are
of large
in
diameter, spaced
five
diameters
as
in
apart,
centre
centre,
and arranged
Fig.
two rows, usually chain
style,
88.
fig.
87,
although
zig-zag
to
riveting
is
occasionally
adopted;
in
the
latter
case,
care
must be taken
It
keep the
rivets clear of the
garboard strake butts.
will
be
to
seen
the
this
keel
has
by referring to fig. 8 7 that the only connection that main structure is through the riveted connection to the
this
garboard strakes.
For
reason
it
is
frequently called
a hanging keel.
Fig. 89.
BAR
RIDER PLATE
HvEEL
INTERCOSTAL CENTRE KEELSON
The
vessels,
vessels.
simple bar keel
is
sometimes
floors,
fitted in association
with a centre keelson
running along the tops of the
consisting of double bulb angles in small

angles,
and a
vertical
plate
and four
floors
two top and bottom,
in
larger
In the largest
plate
vessels, a rider plate is fitted
on top of the upper angles

This style of keel-
and a foundation
on top of
below lower angles.
KEELS AND CENTRE KEELSONS.

son,
95
is
which
is
depicted in
fig.
87, but
without a foundation plate,

external
keel.
seen to
already
have
no
direct
connection with
the
From what we
the
know
of the bending of beams,

perfect
we must
separately,
see that
means a the same

angles
as
to
one.
as
Bending
if
the keel
by no and keelson do not offer

arrangement
is
resistance
rigidly joined.
Moreover, the
floors
lying
at
right
the
line
of stress
give
no support, but develop a tendency
to trip,
plan
shown exaggerated in fig. 88. The weaknesses pointed out in the above may be largely corrected by fitting plates between the floors, from the
Fig. 90.
FOUNDATION
PLATE
-,_
96
It
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
will
AND CALCULATIONS.
be observed that a practical difficulty crops up in the riveting to the garboard strakes, in the case of a side bar keel, as five There are two thicknesses of plating require to be united by the same rivets.
of the
keel
rivets, of size and spacing similar to the bar keel, and as it is punch these holes before fitting the plates, it can be imagined that very careful workmanship is needed to keep the rivet holes concentric. As a matter of fact, they are frequently more or less obstructed. In such cases,
rows of such
usual to
before
proceeding with the

plan
of
riveting,
the
holes
should be rimered out.
The
objectionable
a
of drifting partially blind
holes
that
It
is
is
to
say,
of driving
so as to clear a known, and has been proved many times in practice, that the bruising which the material round the edges of the holes gets by drifting, renders it brittle and therefore liable
tapered
bar
round
steel
or
drift
punch
into
them,
passage for the rivet
should
rivets
not be encouraged.
to break away, loose
resulting in
to
all
consequence.
keels
is
An
objection
entail.
common
It
is
projecting
the
increase of draught
in
which they
always
considered a good feature
a vessel,
and
Fig. 91.
FLAT PLATE
KEEL
INTERCOSTAL CENTRE KEELSOM
FLOOR
INTERCOSTAL'
particularly in a cargo vessel, to
have a moderate draught of water.
The
reason,
of course,
is
that
many
ports will be
which would otherwise be closed. what is called a flat-plate In this case, the ordinary shell-plating is continued under the dealing with. vessel instead of being stopped on each side of a projecting keel the middle
to adopt
;
open to a vessel, if of shallow draught, These considerations have led many owners keel in preference to the one we have been
line
strake
is
increased
(see
keel of the vessel
somewhat figs. 91 and

substitute
in
in
thickness,
91a).
be the This horizontal plate would of itself

is
and
considered to
be
very
inefficient
is
keel,
but
it
usually fitted
plate,
vertical
centre
the two
for the rigid vertical bar of the ordinary conjunction with an intercostal or continuous being connected together by double angle bars.
With an
tinuous
centre
intercostal
centre plate, the
floor plates
are
continuous
with a con-
centre
plate
plate,
they
side.
are
severed at
middle
the
line,
on each
In
both
;
cases
floor
and abut against the and centre plates are

of the
parts.
connected by double vertical bars

It
this
prevents any
keel,
movement
rolling
should be noticed that with a

projecting
keel
is
flat-plate
It
is
the
reducing property
of the
lost.
the
custom, however, in
modern
caro-o
KEELS AND CENTRE KEELSONS.

vessels,
97
bars
or
rolling
to
make up
(see
figs.
for 75,
this
by
is
fitting
longitudinal
chocks
at
the
bilges
76,
etc.).
The
bottom
flat-plate
type
of keel
frequently fitted
where there
is
a double
(fig.
91b).
As
the floor plates are then of considerable depth, a
much
with
more
case,
satisfactory
connection with
the
the
centre
plate
is
obtainable
than
ordinary shallow floors; by Lloyd's Rules double
angles are not required in this
except
in
machinery space, where they are

are
always
necessary,
until
the transverse
number
angles
reaches 66, corresponding to a vessel say, 300' x 40' x 26,

required
for
when double
half length
amidships.
Fig.
91a.
CENTRE THRO
PLATE
KEELSON
CENTRE THRO PLATE
Fig,
91b.
-
CONTINUOUS CENTRE GIRDER

1
DOUBLE BOTTOM
qS
SHJP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
Length.
stem
beams,
to
The
after
length
part
(L)
is
to
the
of
the
sternpost
be measured from the fore part of the on the range of the upper-deck
to
except in awning or shelter-deck vessels, where it is on the range of the deck beams next below the awning or
be measured
shelter deck.
Breadth.
the
vessel.
The
of
breadth
(B)
is
to
be
the
greatest
moulded breadth of
from the top
except
in
Depth.
of keel
to
The
top
depth
(D)
at
is
to
be measured
of
at
mid-length
beam
side
uppermost
continuous
taken
of
to
deck,
awning
vessels, where it may be below the awning or shelter deck, provided the height
or
shelter-deck
the
deck next
decks
the
'tween
Fig.
AWN
1
92.
BRlOCEQECK
INC OR SHELTER PSjCK OR
does not exceed

outline
feet
B and D
vessel.
are
indicated in
fig.
92,
which shows an
thus
midship section
these
of a
From
dimensions the scantling numbers are obtained
The
the
transverse
number = B 4- D Longitudinal number L x (B 4- D). number regulates the frame spacing and
Transverse
taking
a
vessel
the
scantlings
feet
of
floors.
Thus,
of
45
feet
breadth
28
and
28
depth,
we have
Transverse
number = 45
in
4-
73.
And under
the
this
number we
inch
find
frame spacing should be

'46
24 Jfor
appropriate Table of the Rules that inches, and the floors 30 inches deep at
the
middle,
of an
thick
length
amidships,
tapering
to
-38
of an
inch
at
ends.
Lloyd's numerals.
99
The
i.e.,
scantlings
size
of
the
frames
by the
of the
vessel,
is
is
unsupported.
The frame
are governed by the transverse number, and also by the extent to which the frame assumed to be supported at the first tier of
beams above the base and

unsupported length of frame.
of
at
the
bilge.
Reverting
to
fig.
92,
is
the
tier
Two
cases are indicated,
one assuming a
beams
the
to
exist
unsupported
at
from
the
below the upper deck, another assuming the frame to be It will be observed that bilge to the upper deck.
line
bilge
is
measured from a
squared out from the tank at side.
Fig. 93.
In
the
this
case
is
there
is
an inner
scantlings
bottom
of
when a
for
vessel
has
ordinary floors,
line
squared out from the height of the floors at middle.

provide
The
this
fig.
rules
frames
of
values
of
d up
to
27
feet,
figure apparently marking the
limit
purely
of
single-deck
different
vessel.
In
is
93
the
framing
of
three
single-deck
vessels
dimensions
given,
and shows how the

longitudinal
scantlings
increase
with increase in size
of vessel.
The
side
number
plating,
regulates the scantlings
of the keel, stem, sternpost,

keelsons,
and bottom
double bottom, side
stringers,
lower deck
IOO
stringer
plates,
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
It
is
and lower deck

of
plating. to
also
employed with a number

the
giving
the
proportions
length
depth
in
fixing
scantlings
of
the
upper works.
The importance
out
in
of distribution
is
of materials
in
Chapter
decks,
IV. }
fully
recognised
the side
materials are concentrated

shelter
less
at
and depth of girder, pointed Thus the heaviest Rules. and deck-plating of upper, awning, and
the
at
and of long
vessel
in
bridges.
Also the scantlings

that
is
these
parts
are
in
a deep
than in one
proportionately
shallow.
for
The depth employed

use with the Tables
top
of keel
to
is
obtaining the proportions of length to depth

at
to
be measured
at
the middle of the length from the

all
the
top deck
is
side
in
cases,
except in way of a short
bridge,
when
the depth
to
be taken
at
to the
upper deck, which thus becomes
the strength deck.
The
scantlings
the upper deck
beyond
the ends
of a
long bridge, are to be determined by taking the depth for proportions to the
upper deck.
Shallow vessels, which
taken to the upper
have
lengths
equal
to
to
or
exceeding
bridge
of
the
3J
depths,
deck, are
or
this
required
have a bridge extending over the

lieu.
midship half length,

the ship
strength
girder.
compensation
in
As
the
deck becomes
depth
those
of
the
deck,
means a
case
of the
substantial
increase
vessels,
In
the
still
shallower
of
namely,
having
has
lengths
to
laid
exceeding
carefully
14
depths,
question
the
longitudinal
strength
to
be
considered,
and Lloyd's Committee require proposals

keel the transverse
be
before
them.
to
FRAMES. Next
fundamental part
of.
the
frame
-is
probably the most

floors.
a ship's structure, especially in vessels with ordinary

it
As
is
previously explained,
extends from the keel to the top of the vessel in

the
a transverse plane, and gives

fitted
(see
figs.
form of the ship

vessels
at
the
to
point at which
it
37 and
74).
Frames of
built
Lloyd's Rules
size
may
In
be spaced from
special
cases,
20
to
2>Z
inches apart,
according to
inches,
if
the
of vessel.
the spacing
fore
may exceed 33
from a
to
fifth
made.
the the
At the
is
end,
the
vessel's
compensation be length from the stem to

suitable
to
collision
bulkhead, owing
liable
at
sea,
the
pounding
stresses
which
exceed
this
part of
inches,
vessel
the
frame spacing should not
27
unless the frames are doubled to the lowest tier of the beams.
the frame spacing should not be greater than 24 inches.
In the peaks
Each complete transverse frame may be made up of two angle

frame and reversed frame, as described
in
in
bars,
i.e. %
a
as
Chapter III.;
or
it
may
;
consist,
many modern cargo steamers, of a single angle or bulb angle or it may be of channel section, with the addition, in the case of a large vessel, of a Lloyd's Rules provide tables of scantlings of frames of these reversed angle. In fig. 94 the side framing required for the vessel marked A styles. various
in
fig.
93
is
shown, the three equivalent types being indicated.

flange
in
The
the
part
fore-and-aft
flange,
of
frame
is
riveted
to
the
shell-plating,
is
and
lower
transverse
vessels
having
the
ordinary
floors,
at
its
attached
to
floorplate.
When
construction
consists
of
frame
FRAMES.
101
to
it
and reversed frame, the

vessel,
latter
is
riveted
the
frame
on the
the
sides
of
the
of
to
the
turn
of
the
bilge,
whence
sweeps
along
top
edge
the floor,
which being thus

line,
stiffened at
top and bottom,
becomes an
efficient
transverse girder.
Both the frames and reversed frames are usually butted

bar straps being
fitted.
at
the centre
covering angle
The frame
butt-straps,
and are placed back with the frame, the floor-plate being between. These heel-pieces should be so fitted as to bear on the top of the keel, when of simple bar type, as in this way stresses due to docking or grounding are communicated
or heel-pieces, as they are called, are usually about 3 feet long,
back
to
Fig.
94.
directly to
the framing; .without unduly straining the rivets connecting the keel
strakes.
to
the
garboard
length
Heel-pieces
the
are
only
fitted
for
three-quarters
the
vessel's
amidships,
line
form
is
at
the
ends
making them unnecessary.
Where
is,
the middle
keelson
a centre through plate, the heel-pieces are

is
not usually fitted;
and where the former

fit
associated with a flat-plate keel
it
of course, impracticable to
them.
At the decks, the framing on each

cross
beams,
special
attention
side of the vessel is connected by being given to the beam-knee connections, as
the combination of beam, frame, shell-plating
and deck-stringer
in this neigbour-
102
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
hood is most efficient for resisting the transverse racking stresses to which, as we have seen, a vessel may be subjected when rolling among waves at sea.
WEB FRAMES. When

angles
a transverse rib
edge,
it
consists
of a
deep plate with

frame.
stiffening
on
its
inner
is
known
six
as
web
the
Lloyd's
Rules permit a system of web frames at

paratively
light
frame spaces apart,

for
with
comat
intermediate frames,
to
be substituted
heavier frames
of the ordinary frame table, provided a deck be laid on the

the height d.
is
tier
of
beams
fig.
In
fig.
95, the
largest
It will
shown with web
frames.
93 be seen that the angles connecting the
of the three vessels indicated in
Fig.
95.
SECTION
SECTION SHOWINt
SHOWING
WEB FRAME
INTERMEDIATE FRAME
'iNTERWlDiATCl
TfUMES / 6V5V-4ZB-A
webs
as
to
the
shell-plating
and
to
the side stringers are of the

fitted
the webs, and
that
angles
are
to
the inner edges of the webs

really
same thickness and

partial
stringers.
When
and
webs become of considerable depth, they are

to
bulkheads,
shell
develop
their
full
efficiency
should
have
substantial
connection.
Rules,
Thus webs
Lloyd's
angles
require
24 inches and above, in vessels built to double angles to the shell-plating, or equivalent single
rigidly
its
double riveted.
A
beams,
web frame being held and at the bilge by
at
the
or
deck
tank
by
side
its
connection
to
the
floor
connection,
forms
WEB FRAMES.
girder of
103
comparatively
short
span,
at
least
when
stringers,
it
which are
to
only
properly
the
held
at
the
bulkheads.
compared with the side For this reason
web frames continuous and the side stringers done. At the junction of each web and stringer, the discontinuity of the latter is made good by a double angle connection to the webs, and by fitting a stout buttstrap to the stringer face bar (see fig. 95). Web frames are attached by bracket knees to beams at their heads, the knees being double riveted in each arm and flanged on their inner edge. At the lower part, when associated with an ordinary floor, the inner edge of the web frame is swept into the top edge of the former, the
is
advisable
make
is
intercostal,
and
this
usually
connection to
nection
angle angle
(see
is
the
floor
being
to
an
overlapped
bottom,
riveted
it
one.
When
of
the
con-
to
be
the
made
margin
the
an
bar
inner
should
consist
riveted
on
bar
to
plate,
with, in addition,
a substantial gusset plate

the
or
from
top
of
the
web on
will
to
inner
bottom
plating
fig.
95.)
FLOORS.
bending
the
line
These
vertical
plates
be
observed
to
have a
maximum
sides,
depth, governed by the size of vessel, at the

stresses
at
middle
line
where the transverse
are greatest.
Thence they gradually taper towards the

half breadth, half that at centre line.
depth
three-quarters
the
measured out from the middle
on the run of the frame, being

a
From
its
this point,
the upper edge of each floor sweeps into the line of the inside of the frame,
terminating at
height
is
from the base
line
equal
to
twice
the
depth at the
frame,
middle
line.
There
of a
one such
indeed,
vessel
floor
at
each frame,
floor,
is
and
small
reversed frame
acteristic
vessels,
forming,
a transverse girder,
which
the
most charin
feature
built without
in
an inner bottom.
Except
the
at
floor-plates
are
fitted
two pieces, connected by an overlap or
buttstrap
the
middle
line,
or
is
alternately
fitted,
on each side of that

floors
line.
When
it
a vertical
through centre-plate
the
are
fitted
close
against
on each side, a riveted connection being made by double vertical angle bars, The loss of transverse strength due to cutting the as shown in fig. 90. floors is also partly made good by a horizontal keelson plate fitted at the centre line on top of floors, referred to when dealing with centre keelsons. When
inner
bottoms
are
fitted,
this
part
of
the
structure
undergoes
considerable
modifications, as
we
shall
see
presently.
as
SIDE KEELSONS.
floors
As
well
the centre keelson, vessels with ordinary
line. The main and floors in their correct relative positions, intercostal plates are fitted between the floors and connected to the shell-plating and to double angles on top of the floors. These intercostal plates need not be connected to the floors, but in order
have keelsons midway between the bilge and the middle

of these
function
keelsons being to keep the frames
to
develop
their
full
efficiency
should
be
fitted
close
is
between them.
In
small vessels, under 27 feet breadth, one side keelson

in
larger
fig.
considered sufficient;
vessels,
27
feet
and under 50
for
feet
in
breadth,
sizes
two are necessary.

shown.
In
96,
side
keelsons
vessels
of various
are
to4
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
50
feet
BILGE KEELSON.
in
In
as
far
vessels
of
and under
is
54
feet
breadth,
side,
addition
to
two side keelsons,

carried
bilge
keelson
aft
required
on each
and should be
like
forward and
as
practicable.
This keelson,
shell-
a side keelson,
(see
fig.
should have an intercostal
plate
connected to the
plating
96).
Fig.
96.
SIDE STRINGERS. Between

is
the bilge and the deck
beams the framing

by
stringers
tied
together,
in
and
stresses
to
some
angles angles
extent
riveted
distributed
to
con-
sisting
small vessels
vessels
of single of
similar
reversed
with
frames and lugs,

intercostal
stringers
and
latter
in
larger
to
associated
an
side
plate
this
connected
the
shell-plating.
all
Lloyd's
Rules
to
require
these
of
type in vessels of
sizes.
According
Fig.
Regulations, the
number
97.
SECTION
AT A.B.
~^r~
of
side
stringers
feet,
\_y
depends
is
B on the value of
very
small
vessels,
û
s^7~
d.
i
When
is
this
is
feet
and
less
than
feet
feet,
14
to
that
in
one
sufficient;
is
21
feet,
two
are
necessary;
and when d and angle

bars,
20
feet
where d is 14 and under 27
three
All
should be
fitted.
keelson
and
stringer
plates
when continuous, should
BEAMS.
105
be
fitted
in
long
lengths,
and
to
obviate
any sudden
discontinuity
of
the
strength,
plates
adjoining butts
should be carefully shifted from
each
other.
Both
sisting
feet
and bars should be strapped at the butts, the angle-bar straps conof bosom pieces of the same thickness as the keelson bar and two long, having not less than three rivets on each side of a butt (see fig. 97).
BEAMS. A
strength
in
(see
tier
of
beams
of
is
always
;
fitted
so
as
to
tie
the top of the

as elements of
frames together and support the deck

the
structure
71,
the functions of generally

as
beams
ship
are
have
been already dea
scribed
pages
72).
The number
of tiers
it
of beams
also
required in any vessel

for
is
question
is
of
transverse strength, but
depends on the trade
which she
intended.
Fig.
98.
ELEVATION SHOWING STRINGER FACl ANCLE.,
Passenger boats usually require one or more decks below the upper one for
purposes of accommodation.
cargo,
ever,
Many cargo vessels, owing to the nature of their need one or more 'tween deck spaces; in most cargo boats, howas has been said elsewhere, the desire is for deep holds, clear of beams
also
or
other
obstructions.
in
this
Lloyd's
latest
Rules allow considerable scope to the
in a previous paragraph, they allow him, up to a certain point, to design his vessel entirely clear of beams below the upper deck, if he so wishes. The value of tf, in such a case, will, of
designer
matter.
As was seen
course,
be
(see
relatively
fig.
great,
and the scantlings of the

is
side
framing relatively
heavy
it
93).
This
just
the
for
penalty
is
obviously
its
one;
each
exacted for unobstructed holds, and frame is a girder, whose strength is
governed by
span.
Io6
SHIP CONSTRUCTION AND" CALCULATIONS.
Spacing of
beams, such as
in
is
Beams.
According
to
Lloyd's
Rules,
complete
tier
of
required to form the upper point of support of the frames

:
regulating
scantlings of the latter, may consist of Beams at every frame. (2) Beams at alternate frames. (3) Beams widely spaced up to 24 feet apart. In arrangements (2) and (3) the beams are heavier than
the
(i)
in
(1)
and
in
(3)
broad
stringer
must be
fitted
heavy
stringer
fitted
face
bar, and large horizontal and the beams (see fig. 98).
on the ends of the beams with a gussets must be fitted between the
Lloyd's
:
Rules
require
beams
to
be
at
every
frame in the following places

watertight
flats.
(1) (2) (3)
At
all
At upper decks of single-deck vessels above 15 feet in depth. At unsheathed upper decks, when a complete steel deck is required
by the Rules.
(4)
(5)
At unsheathed bridge, At upper, shelter, or

length,
shelter
and awning decks.

decks
in
awning
vessels
over
450
feet
in
whether the decks be sheathed or not.
Under
erections,
such as poops, bridges, and forecastles in vessels

in
for
breadth,
less than 66 feet upper deck beams may be on alternate frames, except
one-tenth the vessel's length within each end of a bridge, where

of
all
they are to be fitted at every frame.

(6)
At
the
sides
in
hatchways,
including
steel
those
iron
of
engine
and
boiler
openings,
unsheathed
or
decks.
Elsewhere,
only
if
deck
beams
may be spaced
27
two
frame
spaces
apart,
but
the
is
frame spacing does not exceed
inches.
easy to grasp the reason for close spacing the beams on unsheathed With thin decks and widely spaced beams, the plating would probably sag between the latter, which would make the decks most unsightly; with beams at every frame the sagging tendency will be very slight. The close beam spacing in way of hatches is necessary in view of the heavy weights which may be brought upon the deck there during loading operations. When a wood deck is laid, beams may be at alternate frames (except as above stated in vessels over 450 feet). In this case, the steel deck is supported between the beams by the wood deck, the deck fastenings for the wood deck being fitted between the beams. The beams forming the weather
It
decks.
decks are usually cambered, so as to throw

lower
tiers
off
water quickly
those
of the
are
to
sometimes
weather
cambered
decks
is
and
sometimes
straight.
The
of
usual
camber given
or
\ inch per foot Lloyd's Rules allow the beams of weather decks to be
with
less
of
length
beam.
fitted
without camber
vessels (30,000 continuous deck
than
the
if
usual
at
amount,
in
the
case of
of
large
longitudinal
is
number)
least
half the
length
the
arch,
top
it
covered by erections.
On
the principle of the
might be thought
that
camber should give additional strength
to beams, but, as has
been pointed
BEAM
out,* the
sides
SECTIONS.
io 7
of a
ship are
not really abutments, so that this can scarcely

sections
in
fig.
be the
the
case.
BEAM SECTIONS. Beams

strength
B,
are
fitted
of
different
according
99.
to
required;
in
most
of
these
section
being
E, are
for
included
Sections
A and
at
and
large
vessels,
adopted when the beams are
every frame.
G
for
is
not often used
ordinary
to
section,
however,
special
beams
to
built
are
used when
are
beams
fitted
are
be
the
the
fitted
common D and carry the ship's boats. Sections F frames. to alternate

beams
;
it
is
and J
very
only
the cut
where
to
extra
strength
sides
is
required.
vessel
In
way
is
of
the
machinery,
material
binding
of
the
together
usually
for
much
away owing
necessity
of
;
providing
ample
space
it is, therefore, of importand boilers ance to make any beams that may be got across the vessel in that locality as strong as possible; beams similar to those just mentioned are is a form of beam found suitable (? usually fitted, with satisfactory results. for the ends of hatchways, the angle bar being, of course, fitted away from
shipping and unshipping the engines
the
hatch
opening.
In
general,
where
heavy permanent
deck weights
adopted
will
are
carried,
specially
strong
beams
are
needed,
and the
section
be
that
dictated
by the experience of the designer.

99.
Fig.
In
order
to
obtain
the
special
strength,
and
the
as
to
allow
of
substantial
knee
connections
between
depth
beam ends and

their
frames,
reduced
great
in
towards
extremities,
beams are not might be done in the case

ship
of an ordinary loaded girder supported at the ends.

strength at
this
The
reasons for
having
part
of a
shall
ship
have already been explained.

describe a few methods of forming and
BEAM KNEES, We
fitting
now
beam
seen to
knees.
Several examples taken from Lloyd's Rules, of a
common,
fig.
and very
It is
efficient
one when the workmanship

of a
triangular
plate,
is
good,
into
is
shown
at
100.
consist
fitted
the angle
between the
the
top
of
beam and
Sometimes
the ship's side, and

for
well
to
riveted
to the
beam end and

fitted
frame.
lightness,
is
and
minimise obstruction to stowage, the

This knee can be
to
inner
edge of the knee-plate
hollowed.
any
of the
beam
sections
given
above.
Another way of forming a beam knee is to cut away the lower bulb for a end of the beam, and weld in a piece of plate or bulb This plate, the knee being afterwards trimmed to the size and shape required.
short distance from the
is
called
a slabbed knee
*
(see
fig.
101).
Unless great care
is
exercised,
the
See Practical Shipbuilding, by A. Campbell Holms.
ioS
welds
of
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
these
the
AND CALCULATIONS.
;
knees
bracket
will
give
trouble
for
this
reason
this
style
is
not so
popular as
knee, nor as
Fig.
the
one we are about
to
describe.
In
100.
BEAMS AT
EVERY FRAME
BEAMS AT ALTERNATE FRAMES
C.
MUST NOT BE LESS THAN

OlAMETLR OF RIVETS
Six
TIMES
Fig.
101
Fig.
102.
this
last
case,
each end of the beam

indicated
in
fig.
is
split
horizontally at about the middle

is
of th^
depth, as
102,
and the lower part
turned down;
BEAM KNEES.
a piece
is
I09
of plate
to
cut
shape and
it
welds, but
it
is
welded into the space so formed, and, finally, the beam size. This knee also depends on the quality of the stronger than the previous one, and has a fine appearance
is
is
are mainly met by the shearing strength of the rivets, must be sufficient in number and diameter. Lloyd's Rules require that in knees under 17 inches deep there shall be not less than 4 rivets of finch diameter in each arm, while knees 40 inches deep require nine f-inch diameter rivets in each arm the number varies between these limits for
stresses
known As the
as
a turned knee.
these
knees of intermediate depths.

Obviously, only about half the
will
number
of rivets required in bracket knees
be needed
for
welded knees of the same depth.
The depth and thickness of a beam knee varies with the depth of the beam, and the position of the latter in the ship. Generally, beams which form the top of a hold space are required of maximum depth, the distorting
stresses
being greatest
at
these places.
Hence,
in steamers
where there
is
but
beam knees are of greater depth than if there were intermediate decks. The upper deck beam knees in vessels which have a range of wide-spaced beams below the upper deck, are to be of the scantlings of
a single tier of beams, the the knees of an upper
deck
of
tier
where
are
it
is
the
only one.
In sailing ships,
for
beam knees
beams *of mentioned
than
those
at
all
tiers
beams
in
to
be the same as
one
tier
upper deck
It
similar
scantling
steamers
require
in
having
only.
that
Lloyd's
the
Rules
necessary
at
beams
in
sailing
ships
tier
to
may be be heavier
These
bulktherefore,
of
same lengths
fitted
steamers
sailing
having
one
only.
requirements
are
very
as
vessels
have
no watertight
they
are,
heads
except
one
rigid
the
extreme
forward
end
without the
of her bulkheads,
transverse stiffening which every steamer possesses in virtue and need the bracing given by beams of special strength and
depth
depth
of
knees.
All
beam knees should measure

knee.
across the throats at least
of the
full
of the
beams at every frame are to have plate moulded depth. Thus, in vessels 23 feet and under 24 feet depth, the knees are to be 33 inches x 33 inches and in vessels 26 feet and under 27 feet, 42 inches x 42 inches; the knees Deepening the knees for vessels of intermediate depths varying between these. strengthens the frames by shortening the unsupported length ; it also stiffens the vessel at the deck corners and arrests any tendency to change of form that might develop when the vessel is labouring among waves at sea. BALLAST TANKS. Nearly all modern cargo steamers are constructed to
In large single-deck vessels the
varying in
size
bracket knees
with
the
load
in
water-ballast
in
when
necessary, the water being carried in double bottoms,

in
peak tanks,
purpose.
deep tanks, or
all
the
Frequent^,
it
these
methods
some other space specially devised for are employed together in a single
steamer,
when
is
desired to be able to proceed to sea without using suppleballast.
mentary stone or sand
no
Ballast
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
tanks
are
AND CALCULATIONS.
in
sailing
not
usually
to
fitted
ships,
as,
unlike
steamers,
they have
long
voyages
perform
In their case, therefore, Another important reason for omitting

seldom.
saving in
first
and load and discharge comparatively rapid means of ballasting are of little use.
ballast
tanks" in
sailing
ships
is
the
cost.
Still,
where there have been special reasons
for so doing,
double bottoms, and even deep tanks, have been installed in sailing ships.
When
devised
water began to be introduced as a means of ballasting, shipbuilders

or less successful plans, to
it,
many more
which we need not here
refer, for
economically carrying
adopted.
plating
before they arrived at the efficient system

it
now
generally
shell-
From
and
the
the
first
was seen that the broken space between the

floors
tops
of
the
in
the bottom of the
ship was admirably
suited for this purpose, since

available for profitable
use could thus be
made
of space not otherwise
employment.
In the
earliest vessels the tanks
were usually
only in one or two holds, and to obtain an adequate ballast capacity the tanks
Fig.
103.
BALLAST TANKS.
reversed frames with plugs of wrought iron, the latter being tightly
place
a-nd
Ill
wedged
to
into
carefully
caulked.
Neither of
these
methods was
found
be
very satisfactory, as the abrupt termination
of the
tanks gave rise to
decided
weakness in the structure

ship, watertightness at the
at the bilges
moreover, even with careful workman-
margin was
difficult to secure.
Both of these objections were eventually overcome by severing the main and reversed frames at the tank margin, and fitting a continuous bar directly on to the shell-plating, the loss of transverse strength being made good by
fitting
substantial brackets from the frame bar
on
to
the
margin plate of the

from the name
at
tank top.
of
its
This arrangement, known as the M'Intyre

is,
System
the
introducer,
in
principle,
the
one now adopted
margin in
all
vessels having a ballast tank extending over the greater part of the length.
In
the earliest vessels built, on this system, the angle connecting the margin-plate
to to
the shell-plating was fitted inside the tank
and the margin-plate connected

margin-plate
is
the
tank-top
by an
angle
bar
now,
the
flanged
at
the
Fig.
104.
FRAMED
CONTINUOUS W.T.ANGIE
REV.
FRAME CUT
top and the shell bar brought outside the tank, improvements which have led
to
much
better workmanship.
Fig.
104 shows the improved M'Intyre System.
In constructing a ballast tank extending over a portion only of the length,
a point of importance
breaks.
is
the
maintenance of the longitudinal strength at the

In such cases the usual plan
structure
clear
To
stop the tank structure abruptly at any point would accentuate the
weakness of sections lying immediately beyond.

is
to
continue the keelsons of the part of the

so
as
of the double
bottom,
to
scarph the
of
three
latter
for
some
distance
(Lloyd's
Rules require
minimum
It
scarph
frame
spaces),
and
to
connect
them
to
the
longitudinal girders where practicable.
very soon
came
to
be recognised that by making a

It
ballast
tank con-
tinuous,
and
for the full length of a vessel, other
advantages besides the import-
ant one of carrying water-ballast could be secured.

that the double skin afforded
vessel's safety
was seen, for instance,
by the tank top-plating would greatly increase a against foundering, in the event of grounding on a rocky bottom
also that the material required for the construction of the tank, being at a con-
112
siderable
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
distance
AND CALCULATIONS.
axis, would be very efficient in resisting These considerations led to the adoption of a continuous ballast tank in many vessels, and when later, the Board of Trade consented to measure the depth for tonnage in such cases to the inner bottom
from
the
neutral
longitudinal structural stresses.
plating, a fore-and-aft
The
fitting
of a
part
full
double bottom became the rule in cargo steamers. length tank brought immediate changes in the internal
of the
hull.
framing of
the length
this
It
was
now found
possible
to
reduce the
depth of the tank as compared with that of one extending over a part only of
;
but this
made
it
impracticable to follow the usual plan in building
of fitting longitudinal girders on top of ordinary floors,
and a Cellular System
of construction was introduced, and
came
to
be generally adopted.
system,
There are two principal methods of constructing a double bottom on this The first consists of illustrated in figs. 105* and 106* respectively.
girders
longitudinal
suitably
spaced,
and
floorplates
fitted
at
alternate
frames,
bars.
the
girders
being connected to the inner and outer bottoms

at least
by angle
By Lloyd's Rules
34
feet
one longitudinal girder
is
required in vessels under
whose breadth of tank amidships is under 28 feet, and two between 34 feet and 50 feet in breadth, whose breadth of tank amidships is between 28 and 36 feet. Sometimes the parts are flanged in
breadth,
in
vessels
although the cost is thus somewhat reduced, there being and less riveting, there is a loss in rigidity, for which reason flanged work here is not very common. In way of the engine space, owing to the great vibration there due to the working of the machinery, the floorplates are fitted at every frame and stiffened at their upper edges by double reversed bars floorplates must also occur at the boiler bearers. As a rule flanged work is not resorted to in this region.! Before and abaft the engine space, at those frames to which no floorplates are attached, brackets, which in medium-sized! vessels should be wide enougn at the head to take three rivets in the vertical flange of the intermediate reversed angles for 4
lieu
of angles,
parts
but
fit
fewer
to
the
vessel's
length
amidships,
are
fitted
to
the
centre
girder
resist
and
margin
plate,
binding these parts together and strengthening them to
the stresses
set
waves.
up by the action of the water ballast when the vessel is in motion among The reversed bars in way of these intermediate frames are riveted to
;
the tank top-plating, to Avhich they act as stiffeners

are dispensed with
frequently, however, they

in
and the inner bottom slightly increased The side girders and floors are pierced with manholes
parts
thickness in
lieu.
to give ready access
to
all
of
the
tank,
a
is
;
considerable
saving
in
weight
being
also
thus
it
effected.
The
centre
girder
more important than the

it
others,
forming as
is
does a kind of internal keel
has,
therefore,
heavier scantlings,
not
re-
duced by manholes except perhaps at the extreme ends, and is stiffened top and bottom by heavy double bars (see fig. 105). In the earliest vessels built on this plan, the longitudinals were continuous and the floors intercostal, the
* Figures taken
from Lloyd's Rules.
t See Remarks on Stiffening of Double Bottom at Fore End, p. 116. X When the longitudinal number is 20,000 and above.
BALLAST TANKS.
former,
113
axis,
it
owing to
the
their
distances
from
the
neutral
being
usual
considerable
the
floors
elements in
to
longitudinal
strength.
Nowadays,
is
for
be continuous and the girders intercostal, an arrangement leading to greater

of construction
strength,
simplicity
a
of
most important point and

howe'ver,
in
to
longitudinal
which,
modern
the
vessels,
latter
calculations
some reduction show

is
in
to
be
still
ample.
in
An
important advantage of the

the
arrangement
short
a great
increase
the
stiffness
bottom,
comparatively
floorplates
girders.
obviously having greater
strength
and
rigidity
than
long
fore-and-aft
Fig.
105.
SECTION AT INTERMEDIATE FRAME
PLAN
23"
*
-H-,.-^^. EL
BRACKET
SIDE GIRDERS
=H*J.
/* 1
1
ft
I
or
in
CENTRE GWOtR
LZ
ti
^^TfF""^
When
as
longitudinals
are
continuous,
order that their
efficiency
as
strength
elements
may not be
impaired, the manholes through

in
different
them should be as few

clear
possible,
and those
the
rule
girders
shifted
well
of
each
other
transversely.
When
vessels
which exceed 26
is
inner bottom
fig.
vessels exceed 400 feet, and in single-deck moulded depth, the above plan of framing the not considered adequate, and the second method, shown in
lengths
of
feet
106,
should be adopted.
In
this
case,
the floorplates are at every frame
ii 4
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
to
AND CALCULATIONS.
margin plate on
each
side,
and continuous from centre girder

longitudinals,
while
the
except the centre one, are intercostal.
The
floorplates
and side
are the
girders have lightening holes,
one or two through the

intercostal
floors into
each cellular
Fewer side girders required by this plan, only a single one being necessary on each side of centre if the ballast tank be under 36 feet in width and the breadth ship under 50 feet, and only two if the tank be under 48 feet and
space,
and one through every
girder
plate.
of
the
ship under 62 feet in breadth,

larger vessels
;
the
number being
girders with
proportionately increased in
closer floors gives
the spacing
of the
the
approxi-
mately the
in
same extent of unsupported area of

case.
the
previous
The
intercostals
are
and tank top-plating as attached to the floors and to the

shell
Fig,
106.
FLOOR AT EVERY -FRAME'
PLAN
inner and outer skins by riveted angle bars or flanges

as being riveted to the frames
and the
floors,
as well
and
to angle bars
under the inner bottom plating,
have angle connections to the centre girder and the margin-plate; the centre girder attachments, consisting of double angles for half length amidships when the transverse
number reaches
or exceeds
66.
In the
latest
vessels
of this
size,
single
angle attachments between the floors and centre girder have sometimes been It is seen that as regards the inadopted, the flanges being double riveted.
ternal framing of
the inner bottom, the longitudinal strength in this last plan
is
somewhat
increase
strength,
less
than in the previous one, but in view of the tendency towards

in
of
breadth
modern
vessels,
demanding
considerable
transverse
and of the greatly enhanced stiffness of the bottom on account of the numerous deep floorplates, it would appear that the continuous floor on every frame method of construction is the better one, particularly as the
BALLAST TANKS.
"5
absence of the bracket work required at the intermediate spaces in the previous plan renders the work of simpler construction. This arrangement is at anyrate a
favourite
with
many
builders,
who have
frequently
adopted
size.
it
in
much
Rules
smaller
vessels
than
recognise
the
greater
the
tank,
shell-plating
requiring it owing to their strength of this plan over the previous one by allowing (except the flat keel and garboard strakes) in way of the
those
Lloyd's
when
-52
to
'66 '66
of an inch in thickness, to be slightly reduced;
when
the
plating
exceeds
of an inch in
thickness,
no reduction
is
allowed.
Fig.
107.
TANK. SIDE BRACKET
Il6
increase in breadth
single bars with
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
double bars or equivalent
for
this
and depth,
particularly the latter,
double-riveted flanges
quickly
become necessary
this
pur-
pose, over
some
to
portion at least of the vessel's length.

require
special
Experience has shown
the
fore
end
attention
in
respect,
and Lloyd's Rules

vessel's
demand double
length
angles
from the collision bulkhead to one-fourth the

in
from
the
the
stem
of
is
vessels
of
moderate
fitting
size.
Besides
the
foregoing,
at
with
growth
vessels
additional
strength
becomes
to
necessary
the
tops
the the
tank
margin,
which
provided
by
gusset-plates
of
wing brackets and to the sides of the tank top-plating.

angles have been substituted for the gusset-plates with
In recent instances,
results.
good
106,
Detailed
sketches of these arrangements

gusset-plates
are
at
shown
every
in
figs.
105,
and
in
107.
These
case by
or
angles
to
are
fitted
fifth,
fourth, third,
second or single
each
of
Irame, according the

transverse
the vessel's the
size,
the limits of
d,
being fixed
the
number and
value
i.e.,
length
unsupported
frame.
little comment. Lloyd's be arranged in longitudinal strakes and the butts shifted well clear of each other and of those of the longitndinal girders, when these are continuous, and this is usually done. In some districts, notably the N.E. coast, transverse strips have been fitted under the watertight bulkheads to allow the building of the latter to be proceeded with at an early stage of the
The
fitting
of the inner bottom plating calls for

it
Rules recommend that
work, but the system cannot be otherwise
commended.
To
save the fitting of

at
packing pieces, inner bottom plating

objection has
is
sometimes joggled
the
seams, but
been raised to the depression thus caused in the surface, as forming lodgments for water, particularly where ceiling is laid, rapid corrosion
resulting
this
in
consequence.
is
Like other longitudinal material, the

the ends;
strength,
there.
it
thickness
of
plating
to
reduced
at
is
increased
in
way of the machinery

to
space
give
additional
but
more
particularly
allow
for
<the
corrosion
which takes place
Structural
not bestowed
centre
girder
vessels, in
efficiency in double bottoms would not be obtained were care on the riveted connections. It is especially important that the
should not be weakened

therefore, these
at
the
less
butts
except in the
case
of
small
and
side
than treble riveted amidships, very large vessels they should be quadruple riveted.* The butts of
must not be
girders,
where continuous, should be double
riveted,
and
in
laro-e
vessels
treble
riveted.
The tank
top-plating
strength,
is
an
important
riveting
element
in
both
the
longitudinal
for
and transverse
consideration.
and the
of the
of butts
line
careful
The
in
butts
middle
and seams calls strake, and those of

;
the margin plate, must be at least double riveted throughout
in large vessels
they should
be treble and
of inner
the
largest
vessels
quadruple
riveted.
The
for
re-
maining
* In
riveting
butts
bottom
plating
are
to
be
double
riveted
half
of butts
Lloyd's Rules, and also in those of the British Corporation, the requirements as to and edge joints at any part of a ship are fixed by the thickness of the
part.
plating
and the position of the
PEAK TANKS.
length,
strake,
vessels,
17
and
in
large
vessels
treble
riveted. stresses
The edges
are
of
the
middle
in
line
where
the
transverse
bending
greatest,
except
this
small
should be double riveted, and in the largest vessels

the
should apply
to the clear
remainder of the plating; medium-sized vessels have single riveted edges

of
middle
line
strake.
All
the
preceding connections are usually
overlapped.
On
fore-ends
resist
page 73 reference was made to special stresses which come upon the To of full vessels when sailing in light trim among waves at sea.
If
built
these stresses, such vessels are provided with extra strengthening forward
in
way of the inner bottom.

frames,
on the
cellular
system with comparafloors
tively closely
spaced longitudinals, continuous or otherwise, and

the
floors
at
alter-
nate
are to
be
fitted
to every frame,
and the main frames

collision
;
doubled from
a
fifth
margin plate to margin

vessel's
plate
from
the
bulkhead
the
to
of
the
length
the
aft,
measuring from the stem

to
also
three
for-
strakes
of plating next
to
keel are
If
maintain
with
their
midship thickness
floors
ward
frame,
the
the
collision
bulkhead.
built
continuous
shell-plating
at
every
as
in
the
frames are to be
;
doubled,
special
and the
increased,
last
case
but in addition,
to
intercostal
girders
must be
fitted
of
for-
a depth equal
half that
of the centre girder, and be extended as far
ward
in
as
practicable.
In both cases the rivets through the plating and frames

to
this
region
are
in
be
of
closer
spacing
than
elsewhere.
It
should
be
of
mentioned that
girders
full
vessels
having
floors,
ballast
tanks those
constructed with
longitudinal
if
on top of ordinary
and
in
without inner bottoms,

is
forms, adequate strengthening of a similar nature to the above
necessary.
PEAK TANKS, In
ballast
;
steamers, after-peaks are
now
usually adapted for water
in
some
cases,
the
fore-peak
is,
is
also
so
constructed,
but more
;
rarely.
The
like
principal value of peak tanks
of course, their trimming effect
they are
weights situated at the extreme ends of a lever poised at the middle, and
this
have great power in

their
respect.
In strengthening these compartments

of the
stresses
floors,
for
work,
we have
load.
to
bear in mind the special nature

it
set
up by the
rivets
Unlike ordinary cargo
does not
lie
on the
but
presses immediately
on
to the shell, thus inducing severe stresses

shell-plating
to
on the frame
which bind the

is
the structure
for
this
reason the pitch
not to exceed 5 diameters. It is not usual to increase the shell-plating or framing in thickness, as owing to the shape at this part these
of such rivets are
amply
strong.
The boundary formed by

;
the
hold
bulkhead,
however,
and of considerable area, care has to be taken to prevent bulging ; this is done by thickening the lower plating if the tank is a deep one, and making the stiffeners heavier and closer spaced than at A centre line bulkhead or washplate is required in all ordinary bulkheads. such compartments, to prevent the water from damaging the structure by
requires
special attention
being
flat
dashing from side to side in the event of a free

the
effect
surface,
vessel's
and
to
minimise
which such
free
surface would
have on a
stability.
Such
washplates need not be of strong construction, but should be securely attached

to the
bulkhead and underside of the deck.
n8
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
of
DEEP TANKS. These
usually
consist
ballast;
ordinary
hold
compartments
specially strengthened to carry water
one or two of them are freWhere one only is required, quently fitted in large modern cargo steamers. the compartment immediately abaft the engines is usually adapted for the purpose where there are two, they are generally placed one at either end
;
of the
engines and boiler space.
When
Fig.
situated
thus,
the
machinery being,
108.
SECTION
ELEVATION
BRACKETS
us
' -j
Tj/
PECK
(TVT
y
PLAN.
ALTERNATIVE PLAN, FRAMES CONTINUOUS

ELEVATION
SECTION
of
course,
assumed
amidships,
the
water
ballast
has
its
greatest
power
in
sinking the vessel bodily, without materially changing the trim.
The same system

tanks,
but
increased.
stiffeners
of strengthening is followed here as in the peak deep tanks being larger, the stiffening has to be correspondingly The end bulkheads must have heavy vertical and horizontal
of
bulb
angle,
in
or
other
section,
to
fitted
on
opposite
sides
and
deck,
bracketed at their ends,
the
one case
the
double
bottom
and
SPECIAL BALLAST TANKS.
II 9
and in the other, to the ship's sides. A centre line division is required, and must be of strong construction, as it takes the place of pillars, as well as acting as a wash plate. It should be connected by double angles to the deck and double bottom, and have substantial, close-pitched stiffeners bracketed at top and bottom. Cases have occurred in which the action of the water has swept this bulkhead entirely from its boundary connections, showing the need of having the latter specially strong. The deck forming the top of the tank is required to have beams spaced on every frame, and there should be large beam knee connections to the sides, as severe strains have been found developed at this part due to the action of the water in a partially-filled tank, when the vessel has been in motion at sea. Midway between the centre line and the ship's side, runners are required under the deck beams, and, in order
PLAN
to
tie
the
exerted
top and bottom of the tank by the contained water when the
pillars
together, against
vessel
is
the
lifting
forces
in
motion among wave^ a

the frame
row of strong
plating
is
are required.
in
The
side
riveting through
tanks,
and
shell-
of close
pitch
way of deep
ship's
as
the
is
load
acts
directly
on
the
the
shell-plating.
At the
watertightness
secured in
much
same way as at the margin of a double bottom. A continuous bar is fitted and caulked to tank top plating and shell, the side frames, which have, of course, to be severed, being bracketed to the tank top (see fig. 108); sometimes, where the side framing consists of frame and reversed frame, only the reversed frames are cut, the frames being doubled in the vicinity and watertight
collars
fitted
;
in
for
this
last
case,
the
severing
at
of
the
reversed frames
(see
fig.
is
further
compensated
by
fitting
brackets
alternate
frames
109).
120
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
for the
AND CALCULATION^.
is
Access to deep tanks
purpose of shipping cargo
obtained by means
is
of watertight hatchways, one of which, owing to the centre division,
required
on each side of the centre
line.
OTHER TANKS. As
arrangements
well
as
the
foregoing,
in
many
ballast.
steamers
special
in
have
been
devised
for
carrying
water
Thus,
the
cut
82).
Harroway and Dixon type of vessel, corner spaces under the deck off from the holds, and specially strengthened for this purpose (see
In
the
Burrell
(see
fig.
are
fig.
type
84).
the
ballast
In the
space
have been
to
specially
in
system, which
ship
in
consists
are built up and utilised for water Ropner Trunk type, portions of the trunk The M'Glashan strengthened to the same end. continuing the double bottom up the sides of the
bilge
corners
latest
the
of
height
these
of the
deck,
is is
also worthy of
mention.
thus
The
chief point
for
favour
arrangements
the
high
position
secured
the
centre
of gravity
of the water
ballast,
leading to steadiness and general good
behaviour when in a seaway.
TESTING OF TANKS. On
watertightness
completion,
ballast
tanks
are
tested
for
by putting them under water pressure.

intended for
the
Each compartment
by a
head
of
of
a double bottom
to
water ballast
is
pressed
water
the
in
height
actual
of
bear
service.
of water
less
feet
waterline as being the greatest pressure it need Peak tanks and deep tanks are tested by a head above the top of tank, but the head must in no case be
load
than to
the
height
of
the
load waterline.
of
pillars
PILLARS.
been pointed
stresses
The
It
importance
in
ship
structure
ties
has
already
out.
was shown that as

to
struts
and
they communicate
from one part to another, and thus cause the strength of the various
structure
act
parts
of the
ones,
strain
together.
liable
Short
pillars
are
more
effective
at
than
long
less
as
the
latter
are
to
collapse
by side bending
much
than
that represented
by the compressive strength of the material.

e.g.,
Pillars are,
therefore, increased in diameters with their lengths;
in
a vessel
feet long
of 55 feet
beam
with two rows of
pillars,
the latter,
if
just
under 8
and supporting a beam of a third deck, should have a diameter of 4 inches, and if just under 22 feet a diameter of 5! inches; intermediate lengths having diameters between these. The strength of pillars should also advance with
the loads they have to bear;
for
instance,
those in the upper erections, since
they have only the weight of the deck structure and

of comparatively small size
;
load to support, may be under second or third decks below the upper deck, which may, therefore, have heavy loads of cargo to support,
those
fitted
should be of considerable diameter.

the cargo
is
In
the
holds, too, the
side
pressure
of
liable to
bend the
as
pillars unless
they be of substantial diameter.

greatly
As
of the
well
as
acting
struts
and
ends
ties,
pillars
augment the strength

middle of a
will
beams they
beam,
of the
support.
at
A
its
pillar
placed but not

its
below the
fixed
rigidity
;
rect-
angular
strength
fixed
supported
latter
there,
double
ships
the
and
greatly
increase
beams
in
have
ends, but
middle
line pillars is
except as modified by this circumstance, the strength value of equally great. If two pillars be fitted to a beam so as
PILLARS.
to divide
its
121
is
length equally, the effective

is
span
a third of
its
original value,
for
and the strength of the beam
correspondingly increased;
is
and so on
any
number of
for
pillars,
pillars.
Use
of this
made
in vessels as they increase in breadth
instance,
beams 43 feet and under in length require only a centre row of but when they exceed this length, two rows become necessary; when
of
the
length
beam exceeds 60
feet,
an additional
row
is
required,
placed
Fig.
110.
Fig.
111.
1
Fig.
u
112.
17
Fig.
113.
-^
Lln_
Fig.
115.
Fig.
114.
Fig.
116.
in
one at the centre line, and another at each quarter breadth of the vessel, those At the ends of the the latter rows being hence called quarter pillars.
the
vessel, as
beam
decreases
in
length, the
number
of rows
of pillars
may
be correspondingly reduced. Where there are several decks, the various rows of pillars should be arranged as nearly as possible over one another, in order to rigidly join the upper and lower parts of the ship's structure.
HEADS AND HEELS OF PILLARS. The

heels
forms
part
of
the
heads
vessel
and
to
of
pillars
are
governed by the
nature
of
the
of
the
^
122
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
and
is
which
connection
but has
the
is
made.
;
Figs,
no
first
in
illustrate
two
methods
is
of
attachment to bulb-tee beams
the
the usual one, the second
not so
common
so
the
advantage of gripping the
beam round
Figs.
the
relieves
rivets
when
to
the
pillar
is
under tension.
show the connection

are
to
fitted
and channel beams

pillars
respectively.
and and 113 When beams

bulb,
112
on every frame, the

runners
being at alternate frames,

pillars
it
is
necessary
the
have
under
them
in
way of the
so
as
to
support
Fig.
117.
^^^p^^vt
i
^tm
Fig.
118.
Fig.
119.
^^
U
Fig.
120.
Fig.
121.
Fig.
122.
Fig.
123.
_V
intermediate beams.
M
by
this
be of
other
;
approved
it
These runners should consist of double angles, but may Figs. form. 114 and 1 15 show two styles of the
be observed that the attachment to the beams is lug; where the beams are of channel section 116 is a suitable form where the pillars have to
is
beam runner
means of a
is
will
riveted
angle
unnecessary.
for
Fig.
be
on
reeled
line
shifting
boards, as
frequently the case with
those at the middle

pillars
in
cargo vessels.
The
plan
adopted
is
to
fit
consecutive
HEADS AND HEELS OF PILLARS.
123
opposite flanges of the channel runner, thus forming two lines between which the shifting boards may be reeved. Where intercostals to the deck-plating
are
are
also
required, as
in
the case of quarter pillars to deep tanks, or where pillars

fitted
widely
figs.
spaced, they are
in
various
ways,
figs.
117,
118,
and
119,
126 and
127, showing
some of
these with
pillar
head attachments.
strong girders
stresses.
The
intercostals transform the

stiffen
beam
the
runners from simple
ties into
eminently qualified to
deck and to distribute the

in
fig.
The
heads.
heel attachments of pillars are not so varied in form as those of the
A common
or
to
one
is
shown
the
horizontal shoe forged

plating
on
to
and is seen to and through riveted the lower end

120,
consist
of
to the deck-
the
beam, as
case
may
124.
be.
favourite
method when
Fig.
<&?
s^&>
ALTERNATIVE PLAN
/
/
SHOE- BEVELLED
72117/ /T7VSf?S7K
'
EZZZZZ ZZSzdssfea Z&AVY
SSaZSaSS
^-w-wwy;^
the
heel
to
lug
the
comes on an inner bottom, plating, and connect the

122).
is
to
rivet
a short bulb angle

the
vertical
or
tee
figs.
pillar
to
flange
(see
121
steel
and
lags
This plan
latter
is
sometimes followed
to
to to
decks when the being
are
for making attachments to be wood sheathed, the vertical flanges of
the
made deep enough

(see
fig.
allow of the
facilitate
heel
of the
pillar
being
above the wood deck

at
this
part.
123)
the
caulking of
the latter
of pillars should consist of at least two f-inch they reach a length of 18 feet or a diameter of 4 inches there should be three rivets in each end. Pillars 5 inches or above in diameter
rivets.
The end attachments
When
require
a four-rivet connection
at
the
ends.
124
Pillars
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
are
AND CALCULATIONS.
be
portable
;
frequently
required
to
in
way of the hatches,

of
cargo.
for
example,
they
must
be
removed
the
heels,
when
these
loading
many kinds
plan in
fig.
Bolt and nut fastenings are often adopted

occasionally,
desirable,
to.
(see alternative
124), but
particularly
at
are
figs.
found
can,
impracticable
or
un-
and arrangements such as those of

fitted
124 and
125
are resorted
When
strut.
in
either of these
ways a
pillar
of course,
only act as
WIDE-SPACED PILLARS. While

are
several
rows
of
close-ranged
pillars
valuable
to
vessel
as
regards
her
strength,
from
point
of view
of
all
stowage
cargoes,
they
the
are
obviously
somewhat
of
drawback.
With
almost
pillars, particularly those in the wings, must give rise to a conamount of broken stowage, and although by splitting up the cargo they prevent damage through side pressure when the vessel is rolling, many
siderable
Fig.
125.
WOOD DECK
owners
in
have
of
sought
a
to
dispense
requiring
with
say,
them where
three
possible.
For example,
pillars,
it
vessels
breadth
complete
rows of
to
is
permitted,
and, for the
above reasons, usually preferred,

row, with
substitute
instead
one complete middle
line
With
pillars,
this
modified
at
arrangement,
deck,
of
however,
two rows in the wings at wider spacing. beam runners, having intercostal
fitted
attachments
the
each
must be
in
way of each
pillars
line
of
quarter
scantlings
latter,
the
intercostals
and
being
governed by the
spacing
load.
of the
the breadth of deck to be supported,
and the probable

scantlings
In Lloyd's Rules,
pillars
Tables are provided giving the

girders
at
of wide-
spaced
and of the
trades,
their
heads.
For many
spaced, the
as
mentioned in the previous chapter, even when thus
have been found to be too numerous, and the centre row dispensed with, and a very wide spacing aqlopted for the quarter has been
pillars
WIDE-SPACED PILLARS.
pillars,
125
being
fitted
in
some
vessels
not
the
more than two

decks have been
aside
even in long
and the loads communicated to the pillars, by means of runner girders of enhanced strength, and the greater stresses brought upon the pillars have been met by making the latter of special size and construction. 126 and 127 illustrate two Figs. arrangements to Lloyd's requirements. These pillars, it will be noted, are
holds.
In such
cases
supported,
Fig.
126.
/BEAMS
HANMELS
GIRDER
IO*3V3V-60
DOUBLE CHANNELS
PILLARS
12
DIA*
PLATING 54"
TANK TOP
FLOOR
INTERCOSTAL GIRDER
stepped on the tank-top at the junction of a floorplate and intercostal girder.
This
is
necessary
similarly
for
rigidity,
and when
pillars
cannot
be
so
placed
they
must be
supported by means of brackets or have seatings built on
the tank-top.
OUTER BOTTOM.The
shell-plating.
Its
most important part of any ship

is
is
the outside
leading function besides

this,
to
give
the structure a capacity to disa garment over

all
place water, but,
being spread
like
the inner
126
framing
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
in
and securely
riveted
thereto
parts
every
direction,
resist
it
binds
the
the
whole
stresses
together and enables the various
to
efficiently
severe
brought upon them when the vessel is in lively motion among waves at sea. Every part of the shell-plating is of importance, but owing to their positions
must be of greater comparative strength than others. We have greatest longitudinal bending stresses come upon the upper and lower works, and the least in the vicinity of the neutral axis; so that,
parts
some
seen
that
the
Fig.
127.
with
the
vessel
upright,
at
the the
sheerstrake
at
the top,
and the
neutral
keel,
garboard,
and adjacent
material
least.
strakes
bottom,
are
most
of
severely
at
about
mid-height
the
stressed,
while
is
the
position
the
axis
stressed
It
has also
been pointed out that the above conditions become modivessel, the side-plating is raised
fied
when, through the rolling of the

of
towards the
top
the
girder
increased
stress;
away from the neutral axis and has to sustain a much this, and the fact that the longitudinal sheering stresses
OUTER BOTTOM.
where they occur in the length, are
a
27
maximum
at
the
neutral
axis,
must
be borne
the
are
mind when apportioning the scantlings to the various parts of shell-plating. Towards the ends of the vessel the structural stresses less than amidships, and the thicknesses are reduced; this applies to all
in
longitudinal
materials
in
a ship.
societies
The Rules
strake,
of
all
classification
require the sheerstrake, the keel-
and those adjoining,
to
be specially heavy, the strakes from above the
upper turn of the bilge to the sheerstrake being of smaller scantlings. Of course, in certain places, where severe local stresses may be anticipated, special strength is introduced. Thus, the afterhoods of the strakes which
come on
part
the
sternposts
stresses
in
steamers
are
retained
of
midship
in
thickness
to
withstand the
of
the
which the working of the
propeller
plates
brings
upon
that
structure.
For the
same reason the

boss
plates,
the
in
immediate
thickness
vicinity
of the propeller shaft,

that required for the
called
are
increased
beyond
is
same
it
strakes midships.
to in
Usually, the shell-plating

of the
thickened
forward
where
the
has
take
the
chafe
anchors
is
and
in to
some
special
ice
vessels
plating
the vicinity
of the
stem
thickened
withstand
pressure.
shell-plating
The
are
actual thickness of the various parts of the
of a vessel
For example, in a small vessel, say one 90 feet or 100 feet in length and under 10 depths to length, with a longitudinal number under 3350, the shell scantlings in fractions of an inch would be keel-plate, amidships '44, ends "36 garboard strakes, where there is a bar keel, amidships '34, ends '30 ; shell-plating, from flat keelplate or garboard strake, to strake below sheerstrake, amidships '30, ends '26; sheerstrake '32 strake below '3, ends '26. In a cargo steamer of average size, say about 360 feet long, with a proportion of length to depth of between by the
size
governed
of
the
latter.
11
lings
and 12, and a longitudinal number of 28,400, the corresponding would be keel-plate, without doubling, '94 to "66 garboard
:
scant-
strake
to
with
bar
keel,
'64
to
'54
from
;
flat
keel-plate
or
garboard
strake
upper turn of
sheerstrake,
62
bilge,
"6o
to
"46
from upper turn of bilge to strake
below
In
*6o
to
'44;
sheerstrake,
72
the
to
'44;
strake
is
below
at
sheerstrake,
to
'44.
In
each
sets
case,
the
second
if
thickness
keel
that
the
ends.
each
of
these
there
of
scantlings,
strake
;
and
sheerstrake
omitted,
is
comparative
taper
uniformity
throughout
have been expected from our considerations above.

is
this is what Another point of interest
be might
the
the
small
vessels,
small
amount of compared
the
towards
those
are
the
the
ends
in
the
scantlings
of
the
with
of
other.
Structurally,
great,
end
the
tear
thicknesses
in
smaller
vessel
probably
too
but
for
as
even
of
maximum
prevents
larger
thicknesses are
small,
the
necessity
in
of allowing
the
wear and
the
liberal
reduction
permissible
heavier
material
the
vessel.
arrange
Having decided upon the scantlings, the next point of importance is to the end joints of the plates forming the various strakes. These should be disposed in such a way as to avoid having too many weak points
128
In
the
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
Rules
stipulate
same
strakes
transverse
section.
Lloyd's
to
that
joints
in
ad-
joining
must not be nearer

alternate
joints
each other than two spaces of frames,
and those in that the end
strakes
at
least
one space
clear.
They
also
demand
or butts
of the
sheerstrake
be shifted clear of those of
the deck stringers
by two frame spaces, and the end joints of the garboard
Fig.
128.
\1
l
!
i
i
'
Ui
i
iii
i I
'
,-l
i
'
' ,
i *
'
'
r
i
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;
ji
1t
i
Hi^J
#E Jh
I
:!
'
^-U-fr
1 :
1 :
ii
ii:
' I
îirn
strake strake
on one side of the on the other side.

a
shift
ship clear
by a
like
distance of those of the

is
same
128
This
latter
precaution
the
keel
of course because of the
proximity of the garboard

illustrates
strakes,
only
separating
them.
Fig.
of joints or
It will
butts
embodying the minimum requirements of
Lloyd's Rules.
be observed that there are here four passing strakes

129.
1
. i ; 1 j
Fig.
tt~i
I 1 I
ii
I
"
'
'
Tri
'
1
~1
nUUj
1
I I
l!
<
Tfry^
' I
1
'
rt'^
I
if 4--t.i -1
l
I ,
I I
L
1
, I
4-fr.4 ^Î't it
I
I
1
' I I 1 I l
I ' 1
1
!
ihTTi
1
l <
^m ......
j
'
*
,
++M4 rm
between may be
than
that
joints
4+r4 lj44JUj3r^hrnrrn
same frame
length,
It
iLUWJJiUiJULU'JiilL
which
to
^^tiUJr
space.
occur in the
Nowadays, as plates
disposition
rolled
almost
any desired
a
is
better
not,
of
joints
of
fig.
128
is
easily
obtainable.
however,
necessary
to
have more than a certain number of passing strakes between consecutive butts in a frame space, no more, indeed, than is required to ensure the same strength
OUTER BOTTOM.
at
129
rivet
a line
of
end
joints
as
at
line
of
frame
holes,
is
the
latter
being
taken as the standard because the loss of sectional area
there unavoidable.
In strength estimates,
of
course, allowance
rendered
frames.
to
the
actual
joints
by
the the
edge
rivets
must be made for the assistance between the joints and the
in
By
calculation
best arrangement
any given case could seldom called

to
for,
be arrived at;
as
such calculations are in practice, however,

is
a good constructor from his experience

satisfactory
perfectly qualified
Figs.
devise
an
altogether
different
disposition
of
joints.
129
and
130
illustrate
arrangements carried out in cargo vessels recently

point
built.
A
breadth.
be noted As very broad

to
in
arranging
lead
shell-strakes
is
the
question
of
in
their
plates
to
saving
in
riveting
and
the
work of erecting fewer plates being required for the ship than where the There are obstrakes are narrow they are naturally popular with builders. jections to their use, however, in that the lines. of weakness which occur at
Fig.
130.
the
butts
are
increased
thereby,
and
that
the
edge
laps
being
fewer
than
where the strakes are narrow, there is some loss of longitudinal stiffness. For these reasons excessively wide strakes are not adopted by the best shipObviously, plates may be broader in large than in small vessels, builders.
as
there
a
will
still
be a
of
in
sufficient
number
20
feet
of strakes
fix
in
the
former case to
give
good
at
shift
butts.
Lloyd's
Rules
in
the
maximum
and
at
breadth
inches
of
in
strakes
vessels
48
inches
vessels
depth,
66
28 feet in depth and above.

of forming the joints of the plates at the edges and ends call
The methods
for careful attention.
In early vessels the edges of the strakes were arranged in

fig.
clinker fashion (as in
131),
but this had

slips
several
objections,
it
the
principal
one being the need

at
fig-
of tapered
at
the
frames
was,
therefore,
aban-
doned in favour of the

132.
now
universal raised
this
and sunken
style
An
obvious
advantage of
of frame
shown over the preceding one is

strake system,
that
only half the
number
slips
are
required,
which,
being
parallel,
3o
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
Other advantages consist
are also less costly
and more
easily
fitted.
the
increased efficiency of construction consequent on having, at least, half the plating directly secured to the framing without packing, and in the possibility
Fig.
132.
of fitting
all
the
inside
strakes
simultaneously instead
In
of one at
a time, the
method
or
of plating on the clinker system.
many modern
vessels frame slips

shell
packing pieces have been dispensed with altogether, the
plates
being
OUTER BOTTOM.
dished or joggled at the edges (as shown in
surfaces
directly
fig.
131
133), so as to bring their inner
on
to
the
flanges
of
the
frames.
The advantages claimed

three
are
more
and
as
efficient
less
riveting,
there
being two instead of
thicknesses
It
to
join,
weight and cost in the materials of construction.

is
has also
little
been said that there

this,
a saving in displacement, but there
is
very
is
in
against the
saving in weight of ship at each frame,

the
plating
there
the loss
of
displacement due to the depression of
between the landings.
Fig.
133.
Fig.
134.
ft
This
depression,
too,
it
capacity for grain cargoes.

the
should be noted, causes a reduction in the internal Moreover, there is no saving in workmanship, as
to
joggling of the
plates has
be put against the
fitting
of
the
packing.
Its
diffi-
On
the
score
of appearance alone,
many owners
sherl-plating,
object
to
the system.
cc*st
greatest drawback,
however,
is
probably found in the increased

to
and
culty of carrying out repairs
the
when, through the accidents
of collision
or grounding,
these
become
necessary.
132
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
also
be obviated by joggling the frames (fig. As the plates are not dished, there is a saving in displacement 134). represented by the weight of the packing pieces; also, there is no loss in in-
The
fitting
of packing pieces
may
Fig.
135.
ternal capacity.
able,
In the case of
repairs, if
conveniences for joggling be not avail-
ordinary way.
renewed frames may be put For these reasons,
in
without joggling, packing being used in the

plan has found favour with
this
many
owners.
OUTER BOTTOM.
In
133
instead
at
some yachts and
other
special
vessels,
strips
of
overlapping,
(see
fig.
the
135).
edges are butted, thus necessitating inside
the seams
;
By
greater weight
also entails a method double the number of rivets is required it than the common of material and is considerably more costly method. The flush joint has a decidedly good appearance, but obviously the
this
important considerations of cost ancf weight are sufficient to debar
its
use in
any but the vessels above referred
to.
The number
vessel.
of
rows
of
rivets
required
in
the
longitudinal
seams
of
is
governed by the thickness of

In small
in
the
plating,
and, therefore, by the
size
the
thickness
rivets
is
craft, in which the shell-plating is less than -36 of an inch from the keel-plate to the strake below the sheerstrake, a single
is
row of
region
sufficient;
in larger vessels, in
which the plating in the same

is
'46
of an inch, or more, a double row of rivets
required in
its
the
seams.
The
landing edge of the sheerstrake, on account of

riveted.
importance,
should always be at least double
Until recently, double-riveted seams were considered sufficient even for the
largest vessels, but for reasons already given {see
and upwards,
plating
is
built to Lloyd's requirements, or
page 69), in vessels of 480 feet where the thickness of the sidenecessary to
treble
rivet
less
than
'84
of an
inch,
it
is
now
the
seams
in the fore
and
480
after
bodies for one-fourth the length and one-third the

axis.
is
depth in the vicinity of the neutral
The seam
to
riveting
at
of vessels
these
of
from 450
84
feet to
feet
in
length,
also
be increased
parts,
proportionately
to
their
length.
In very large vessels which have side-plating
must be treble riveted for i the and treble riveting at seams. The end joints of shell-plates may be formed either by butting or overlapping examples of single, double, and treble riveted joints, formed in both these ways, are shown in fig. 137. In making the sketches, overlapped-edge seams on the raised and sunken-plate system have been assumed with the edge seams formed otherwise, there would be some differences in the details of the end joints. The question of the number of rivets is decided by the percentage of strength required in the joint compared with the solid plate. In no vessel, however, should the end joints of the shell-plating be less than double riveted. With increase in size of vessels, the need of greater longitudinal strength has made it essential to resort to treble and quadruple riveting at the end joints.
inches
in
thickness
or above, the edges
length midships.
Fig. 136 illustrates single, double
vessels, especially when the proportion of length to depth is double buttstraps treble riveted are required for the end joints of the sheerstrake and neighbourhood.
In the largest
excessive,
in
favour of the former are

materials,
In comparing overlapped joints with those having buttstraps, notable points reduction in number of rivets, saving in weight
:
and reduced cost of construction. It has been objected that the projections due to overlaps cause a drag on a vessel's speed, on account also that the overlapped joint has not of the dead water which they create
of
;
the nice appearance of the flush type with the strap inside
but the question
34
cost
has,
for
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
quite
of
the
cargo vessels at anyrate,
established
the
supremacy of
former.
Both lapped open when under

through
the
joints,
stress,
and those having single due to the line of the

the
joint,
straps,
have a tendency to
stress
resultant
not passing
to
middle
of
thus
causing
bending
action
be
Fig.
137.
OUTER BOTTOM.
Fig.
i3S
138.
SECTION AT AB.
Cat away where dotted in
way
of edge lap.
Fig,
139.
TZ3
SECTION AT AB.
Dooted part cut
away
for
breadth of edge
lap.
136
generally
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
thus
the
effected with
AND CALCULATIONS.
joints,
overlapped
the
if
same cannot be
the
said
for
those
is
of
all
butted
type.
In
to
the
latter
it
case,
will
opening
it
at
the
seam
at
wide,
an attempt
recaulk
but make
moreover, repeated treatment of this sort renders the material

to
brittle
break away.
better
way
to
deal with
first
such a case
is
more unsightly and liable to fill the seam

the
rust
with a suitable
this
cement,
taking
care
to
thoroughly clean out
and makes the joint watertight. With overlapped end joints, some difficulty is experienced in obtaining good work where crossed by the seams of adjoining strakes. Until a few years ago, the usual method of construction was to resort to packing pieces,
restores the flush appearance
but
great
this
caused
unfairness
in
the
landings
at
it
each
lap
joint,
and,
unless
care were
taken
in
fitting
the
packing,
is
could
not
in
be
satisfactorily
caulked.
139.
A
plate
method now
first
largely
adopted
to
that
shown
figs.
138
and
In the edge
the
figure,
which
to
refers
is
a joint in an outer strake, the end bear
of one
in
way of the
so
as
joint
seen to be tapered away for the breadth
of
the
lap,
allow
the
landing
of
the
outer
strake
to
evenly on
joint
to in
inner
one without the necessity of packing.
In the case of a
this
scarphing of
difficulty
an inner strake a similar plan is followed (fig. 139). An objection the seams at the end joints is found in the increased of executing repairs, where, as may sometimes be the case, the
machinery may not be available.
shell-plates
requisite
surfaces
left
care must be taken to shear from the faying which come together to form a joint or the rag by shearing must be chipped off, otherwise it will be difficult to close
In
working
i.e.,
the
surfaces
the
work.
at
To
edges
it
facilitate
caulking,
plates
forming outside strakes are usually
planed
and
is
at
one or both ends.

caulked.
In the case of plates forming
insides strakes
necessary to plane
one end only, the other end and the

finally shaped and punched shelland nuts which should be sufficient in
edges not requiring to be

plates
When
plates
are
to
secured in place by bolts
number
found
quickly
in
thoroughly
close
the
joined,
otherwise
difficulty
will
be
obtaining
satisfactory riveting.
RIVETS AND
show
itself
RIVETING. Nowhere
in
will
lack
at
of the
efficiency
riveting.
more
the
hull
of
a
well
vessel
than
The
thicknesses
shifted
of the
materials
may be
if
distributed,
and the
joints
carefully
from one another, but
vessel will soon slacken the connections
The
rivets
strength of a riveted joint

it,
be weak, the straining of the and render her leaky and unseaworthy. depends on the aggregate sectional area of the
the
riveting
latter,
in
on the spacing of the

rivets
heads and points of the
used,
centre to centre, on the style of the and on the material and workmanship.
The number
a
single,
of rivets
treble,
in
a joint varies
according as
the
is,
latter
is
to
to
be
the
double,
or
quadruple riveted one

in
that
according
percentage of strength required

plate.
the
We
should
have
already
indicated generally
joint
be employed in a ship,
riveted
compared with the unpierced when and where each class of and we now propose to deal with the
butt
as
details
of these
connections.
RIVETS AND RIVETING.
137
be governed by the thickness of the adequate shearing strength had alone they join. If the provision of to be considered, wide-spaced rivets of large diameter might be fitted, but for watertight work the distance between the rivets next the caulking edge,
sizes
The
of rivets
may be
said to
plates
especially in
will
thin plates,
must not be too

flexibility
great,
otherwise
the water
pressure
cause
;
tendency to
in
is
the
also
plate
rivets
a
of
comparatively
the
close
pitch
between consecutive necessary to resist the opening

edges
reason,
action the
caulking tool.
For the
plate.
same
the
line
of
the
rivets
next
caulking edge
should not be further from the edge

the
of
strake
than
about twice the thickness of the

If
rivets
were of large diameter compared with
plates
joined,
their
would greatly exceed the strength of the material between them and the edge of the pla'.e, and the connection would consequently To fail, when under stress, by the rivets tearing through the plate edges. prevent this happening, a maximum diameter of rivet is fixed at about twice With the rivet at one diameter the thickness of either of the plates joined.
shearing strength
from the edge of

the
the
plate,
it
can be shown by a simple calculation that

is
shearing
strength
of
the
rivet
approximately equalled
is
by the
resistfail
ance of the material to tearing, and thus the joint

in
not more likely to
one direction than another.

size
As
of
plates
rivets
increase
in
thickness with increase
in
of
ships,
the
diameter
become considerably reduced from

is
the
maximum
given above.
efficiency
Obviously, there
a limit to the
size
of
rivet
which can be
in
a riveted joint of rivets which
worked by hand, and when great strength is required and machine riveting is not available, this is obtained by
increasing the rivets in

size
number may be used

of
is
rather than in diameter.

in
A
than
lower limit to the
any case
to
is
fixed
by the punching machine,

the
thickness
of
which cannot punch holes

the
plates,
diameter
much
less
as
the
punch
liable
crush up
under the load.

rivets
In the subin
steel
1
joined table
It
we
or the
give Lloyd's
rivets
Rules for the diameter of

1^-
ships.
will
be seen that
or
inch
diameter are required for plates
inch
to
in
thickness
keel
thereabouts.
sheerstrake,
T
These
heavy plates
ordinary
are
usually
restricted
machine riveting may be employed, but in the big Cunarders Lusitania and Mauretania^ the riveting of a large part of the shell was done by special hydraulic machines with gaps
the
w here
sufficient
to
take
the
full
width
at
of
strake,
the
strakes
being
fitted
and
riveted
up complete, one
a time,
and consecutively.
Thickness of Plates in Inches.
T38
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
and end
joints
and-aft seams of shell-plating, the edge

joints
of deck-plating, in end
overlaps,
in
of
shell-plating
where these
are
quadruple riveted
double
buttstraps,
butts of margin plates, floor-plates

joints
and
fore-and-aft
and tie-plates, in the athwartships of inner bottom plating, and elsewhere. In some posifor
tions,
the need of providing sufficient strength entails the adoption of a closer
spacing
of
in
than
required
watertightness.
Thus
3
the
rivets
in
the
J-
end
joints
shell-plating,
where
buttstraps
are
fitted,
have
the
rows parallel to the

;
joints,
and of
3J
a spacing of 3 diameters diameters in the rows at right

except where they are quad-
angles to the joints

ruple
riveted
with
the
thus
left
overlapped end
rivets
joints,
overlaps,
is
are
diameters spacing in both directions.

riddled with
holes,
Although the plate

sufficiency
failure
pretty
in
severely
there
to
is
still
of
strength
the
material
between
them
prevent
the
of the
connection in that direction.
In a few places, where special reasons
demand
it,
the spacing for water-tight
work
tight
keels,
is
extended to
five
diameters centre to centre.

flat
The
rivets
in
bar keels,
those in the angles of keels of
plate type, also the rivets
connecting waterIn the case of
bulkhead frames
as
to the shell plating, are of this spacing.
the
rivets
are
large
and the
machines,
which
effectually
close
enough
obtain
to obtain
good caulking.
a
closer
line
is
done by hydraulic the surfaces, the spacing is found close In the case of bulkhead frames, although to
riveting
is
usually
watertightness
rivet
pitch
might be desirable,
the
to
resort
holes.
to
it
would accentuate the

section in
this
of
weakness through
through
the
frame frame
rivet
The
;
standard weakest section
that
ordinary
rivet
holes
the
to
way of the
closer pitched
bulkhead frame
rivet holes is
made up
by doubling the shell in way of the outside strakes in the vicinity of the bulkhead, or other compensation is made. When unhampered by the necessity
for
caulking,
we
find
that
the
spacing
etc.,
is
widened.
distance
In the
frames,
rivets
beams,
keelson angles,
bulkhead
stiffeners,
the
between
may be
in
seven diameters.
certain
In the case
of
frames,
this
spacing
becomes modified
viz.,
circumstances.
to
When
up
the
frames
are
of
widely spaced,
rivets
is
26 inches
and
is
upwards,
to
make
inches
of
5
the
number
to
their
spacing
must
be
reduced
deep,
6 diameters.
A
a
similar
reduction
required
its
when the framing

efficiency.
viz.,
and above,
channel
a
develop
full
When
spacing
each
the
axis
frame
consists
to
bar
and inner reversed

the
rivets
bar,
the
must be reduced
shell
diameters, because
liable
connecting the frame to
plating
are
to
relatively
high
the
stress,
due
to
the
neutral
latter
of
the
frame girder being

bar.
drawn
towards
inner
edge of
the
by the reversed
this
out.
rivets
oil
In
is
way
to
Experiments carried out by Lloyd's Register have borne of deep ballast tanks, and peak tanks, the spacing of
5
frame
bulk
be
6
diameters,
and
in
way of the
to
oil
compartments of
that
vessels,
diameters
apart,
owing
rivet
the
circumstance
the
is
weight acts
directly
on the
shell
plating,
and the strength of the framing

connections.
is
brought into play entirely through the

forming the heads
RIVET HEADS AND POINTS. There

of
much
few
variety in the
methods
styles
and points of
rivets
of
the
commoner
RIVET HEADS AND POINTS.

are
139
as in
shown
in
fig.
140.
in
The
first
rivet
marked A
tank
are
is
known
and
the
pan
type,
and
pan-
rivets
employed
is
the
shell,
decks,
top,
handwork
thus:
generally
where strength
the
consideration,
usually
made
The
fits
head
is an efficient form, the shoulder under the head giving it power when riveted up. The rivet-head marked B is in favour with some
good binding
tightly
shipbuilders.
into
It
is
considered that the plug-shape

secures
watertightness
when hammered
of the
the
hole,
and
independently
frequently
laying
up
process;
with
pan-heads,
affecting the
such
hammering
etc.,
brings
a strain on the
rivet
is
head without
times
shank of the
tops,
rivet.
The plug-head
to
its
someit
used
for
decks,
tank
but
owing
it
lack
of strength
has
of
not found favour for shell work.

the pan-head,
to
Clearly
has
not the binding power

is
liable
and having little or no shoulder, under severe stress it At G a snap form of head be drawn through the rivet hole.
is
j^,
indicated.
It
is
occasionally
is
employed
in
handwork
at places
in
etc.
sight,
where
flush
a nice
appearance
is
desired,
such as in casings, bulkheads,
The
head
is
(see F)
only used in special cases where a surface clear of projections
required.
plating
It is a somewhat expensive form to work, as, of course, the must be countersunk to receive it, but it has fair holding power and
makes
efficient
work.
the commonest,
Of
It
is
rivet points
it
and most
as
efficient,
as,
is
the flush one
(see
D).
In general,
is
associated
with
a pan-head,
for
example, in shell work.

order
to
usually
finished
flush,
slightly
convex,
shown,
in
maintain
the
strength.
Being
point
for
the holding power of the rivet has to be obtained by
giving
in
the
the
this
shape of an inverted cone.

purpose
is
The widening
point
is
of the
hole
drill-
the plate
of
called
countersinking, which entails the

flush
ing
each
hole
after
punching.
The
are
sometimes
the
this
adopted
where plug, snap, and goes with a snap point
flush
(see
heads
G).
It
employed.
Usually
snap
head
it
cannot be said that
point,
while
14
looks
well,
is
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
always
is
AND CALCULATIONS.
of
reliable.
The manner
off, is
using
the of
snap
this
;
tool,
with
which
the the
the
is
point
finished
the
is
cause of
much
loose.
frequently
snap
result
applied before the rivet
thoroughly beaten into the hole, with
that
many such
is
rivets
afterwards
riveting,
work
but
The snap
are
style
of
head and point

ably satisfactory.
used in machine
This
is,
the
results
then invari-
of course, due to the great pressure available, which

the
squeezes
joint.
the
rivet
thoroughly into
point
hole and at the same
time closes the

efficient,
The hammered
to
indicated at
shape,
it
A and B
necessary
rivet
is
very
as
in
order
to
obtain
the
conical
is
to
subject
to
the
material
fill
a severe beating-up process,
which causes the

This type
thoroughly
the
hole, thus obviating the chief defect of the snap point.
At a tap
where the point
In
inserted
fitting
rivet
is
is
illustrated.
is
really
is
a bolt, and
is
used
inaccessible for holding up.
It
frequently employed in
connecting shell plates to stern frames at the boss and at the keel.
tap
rivets,
the
holes
are
first
threaded,
the
is
the rivet
being then
rivet.
and screwed up with a key

rivet
is
fitted
to
square head on the
When
the
sufficiently
tight
the
head
rivets
chipped
are
off
and
the
the
rivet
caulked.
In shipwork generally,
bars
the
holes
are
for
made
the
in
plates
and
and
by punching. are punched
The
from
in
positions
spaced
reason
left
off
i.e.,
or
marked from
surfaces
this
templates,
the
place.
is
faying
surfaces,
which
come
is
together
when
fitted
One
for
taking
precaution
to
ensure that the rag, which
frequently
round the hole on the underside of

;
the plate or bar after punching, shall be clear of the jointed surfaces
is
another
to take
advantage of the shape of the punched hole to increase the efficiency
of the riveting.
As
and
is
well
known, a punch
its
in
penetrating a plate
makes a
so
fitted
cone-shaped hole, which has
smallest
are
to
diameter at the point at which the
punch
that
enters,
plates
which
holding
be
than
joined
together
the
are
corresponding holes
form two inverted cone frustrums,
finished rivet
having thus
much
greater
power
if
it
were merely cylindrical.

fill
Rivets are usually manufactured with
cone-shaped necks to readily

is found which is
up the
space under the head
(see
fig.
140).
in the
A
tion
disadvantage of punching holes in steel plates

the
material
in
deteriora-
of
the
vicinity
of
the
hole
thereby caused.
lia-
This deterioration takes the form of break away when through bility to
rivet holes are
brittleness,
stress
the
rivet
steel
having thus a
the
bears
upon
it.
When
t
removed. The by annealing the plates after punching, t\e. heating them to a cherry red and then allowing them to cool slowly. Drilled holes are not largely employed in shipwork because of the greater
countersunk
this unsatisfactory material is largely
strength
may
also
be
restored
cost.
Drilling,
unlike
punching, does not impair the quality of the material,

is
but
the
cone
shape which
got
by punching
as
at
drilled holes
by
specially countersinking them.

to
could only be obtained in Sometimes, when considerations

sheerstrakes
drilled
of cost are not allowed

stringers
intervene,
the
are
of
some
large
vessels,
the
holes
in
place
and upper deck by portable
STRENGTH OF RIVETED CONNECTIONS.

electric
tools.
I4 1
By
this
means, perfectly concentric holes are obtained, and a

connections have
good
quality of riveting thus assured.
STRENGTH OF RIVETED CONNECTIONS. Riveted
been frequently experimented upon with a view to obtaining the conditions of maximum efficiency. Iron rivets are found to have maximum shearing strength
when
to
in
iron plates
in steel plates
their
shearing
strength
is
less
f-inch
falls
rivet, for instance, in
iron plates has a shearing strength of 13*6 tons, which
effect
This appears to be due to the increased shearing Iron rivets are, however, much used of the harder plates upon them.
tons in steel plates.
ships,
in
steel
as
they are more

is
easily
worked
than steel
rivets,
and
their
deficiency in strength
rivets
readily
in steel plates give
made up by increasing them in number. Steel Indeed, the excellent results when carefully worked.
is
quality of
workmanship
This
is
in riveted connections
is
of
first
importance.
A
while
point worthy of note
the
friction
which
exists
between parts riveted

place
in
together.
due to the contraction which

the
surfaces
in
takes
to
the
rivets
cooling,
causing
contact
press
on
one
another.
shown that the frictional resistance caused by and heads are countersunk, is 9*04 tons per with snap heads and points, the rivet, and by f-inch rivets, 4*95 tons In hydraulic work 1 -inch tons. rivets, 6 "4 tons, f-inch, 472 results were
Careful
i-inch
experiments*
have
rivets,
when the
points
the
frictional
strength
is
greater.
It
is
probable that connections are seldom

friction
stressed
this
beyond what can be

the
rivets
will
resisted
by the
stress
between the surfaces
in
case
not be
under
to
be no movement
in
the joints
and there will therefore disturb the caulking and cause leakage.
at
all,
Of
is
course,
frictional
resistance
has
its
highest
efficiency
only
this
is
when
care
taken in
fitting
the
plates
the
efficiency
of a joint
and in riveting them. may be low indeed.

unsatisfactory riveting
When
blind
not done
One
holes.
fruitful
cause of
are
or
partially blind
As mentioned above, rivet holes are usually marked from templates, Oband the plates and bars are punched before being erected into place. viously, to obtain an exact correspondence of holes with so many separate
processes
is
a most
difficult
matter,
so
that
even in work of
of
line
;
fair
quality
When only slightly unfair, the holes may be This tool should not, however, be by using a steel drift punch. holes which overlap to any great extent, as the tearing of the driven into steel by the punch has a very pernicious effect upon it, much the same, indeed, as that caused when punching the plates in the first instance, i.e.,
corrected
the
material
to
moderate number of holes are percentage may be very large.
found
out
in
careless
work,
the
becomes
brittle
and
liable
is
to
fracture
under
stress.
The
best
way
use
cure
partially blind
holes
to
rimer them out to a larger size and
rivets
of increased
diameter. the shell-plating, the

in the
DECKS.
*
Next
to
decks are perhaps the most imTransactions of the Institution of
See an interesting paper by Mr. Wildish,

1885.
Naval
Architects for
142
portant
features
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
of
AND CALCULATIONS. The

top deck
serves
a ship's
structure.
the
purpose of
making the holds watertight and

It
is
suitable for the carriage of perishable cargoes.
also available
as
flat
to
walk upon, from which the crew

in
may perform
this,
it
the
various
operations
required
position
working the
ship.
But,
besides
occupies
commanding
as
a feature in the design.
We
saw,
when
dealing with strains, that the top and bottom
members of a beam
as
are of great
value
in
resisting
longitudinal
bending
axis.
tendencies,
they
occupy positions
such as the hull
most remote from the neutral

of
In a
beam
or
girder,
ship,
the
top
member
;
is
formed by the upper deck and the topmost

importance
of this deck as an item in the 'Tween decks, although they may not be disposed so suitably as the upper one to resist longitudinal bending, are yet splendid stiffeners of the hull, tying the sides together and offering powerful resistance to racking tendencies. These intermediate decks are a
parts
of
the
shell-plating
the
strength
is
therefore
obvious.
necessity
in
large
passenger
space
vessels,
the
off
sleeping
and
other
accommodation
In cargo
being
vessels
provided in the
purposes
thus
cut
below the upper deck.

freight,
they are also necessary for

large
some kinds of
although for general

intermediate decks,
trading
are
holds without
obstructions, such
as
now much favoured (see Chapter V.) The minimum number of plated decks
structurally
required by an ocean-going steamto
ship,
speaking,
varies
according
her
size,
i.e.,
taking
Lloyd's
Rules,
according to her longitudinal

course,
in
number.
sailing
vessels,
Of
the
small
steamers and
no
steel
it.
deck may be
structurally necessary, the
strength being sufficient without
In such a case
necessary
watertightness
of
or
the
holds
may be
the
secured
by covering the
with
beams
with
wood
flat
deck,
caulking
seams
oakum and
paying them with
pitch.
A
a
finer
wood deck has some advantages over one

appearance,
fitted
of steel.
It has, for instance,
and
is
pleasanter
to
walk
upon,
for
which
is
reason
it
is
always
turally.
in
passenger vessels, even when a steel

in
deck
steel
required
are
strucdesiris
For vessels trading

the
effect
it
hot
climates
wood weather decks

or iron
able,
as
of
the
sun's
rays
on
to
unsheathed
decks
such as to make
of
almost
steamers,
impossible
move about on them.

seldom wood-sheathed
is
The decks
on account
ordinary
cost,
tramp
however,
steel
are
of the
and because a
than
or
iron deck
for
steel
found to stand
in
much more
small
knocking about
vessels
one
is
of
wood,
of
which
or
reason
iron,
many
cargo
for
the
upper
deck
fitted
although
uncalled
by
considerations
of strength.
DECK DETAILS. The

indeed,
faces,
all
most important part of the deck

stringer plates
is
the stringer;
tiers
of
beams must have
riveted to their upper sur-
whether a complete deck be
strake to the deck,

it
is
connected to
fitted or not. These plates form a margin by means of which, through the medium of an angle bar, the shell plating. At weather decks this bar is continuous;
at intermediate
through, and the attachment to the shell
decks the stringers are slotted out to allow the frames to pass is obtained by means of short, inter-
DECK DETAILS.
costal lugs
143
between the frames, a continuous angle bar, however, being fitted by way of compensation, along the stringer just inside the frames. In fig. 141 the usual methods of fitting stringer plates at an upper and at As will be seen, in conjunction with the an intermediate deck are illustrated.
shell
plating,
it
tendencies to deformation of transverse form.
forms a powerful T-shaped girder eminently adapted to resist The upper-deck stringer plate is
specially important as affording considerable resistance to longitudinal bending.
The end
vessels;
largest
joints
of this
strake
in
larger
ones, treble
must be at least double and quadruple riveting is

double
straps
joint
riveted,
even in small
while in the
the
latter
essential;
vessels,
treble-riveted
are
required.
in
fig.
Both
142.
methods of forming a
stringer
end
arc
shown
Fig.
141.
SECTION
UPPER DECK
SECTION
DECK BELOW UPPER DECK
PLAN
PLAN
S~7
_l_q1
~_"b_ _0 _
<n
L]J
IS*. l'_
Ul
.0
L^j
144
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Fig.
AND CALCULATIONS.
142.
o|i
io o o o| O
DECK DETAILS.
the
are
other, or
is
*45
cut and a double-riveted lap or butt joint
made.
Tieplates
of
the
same
thickness
as
the
stringer
plates
of
the
deck
on
which
they are
fitted.
If a steel or iron deck is to be fitted, the tieplates are, of course, dispensed with, and the deck plating, which is usually considerably less in thickness than the stringer plates, is arranged in fore-and-aft strakes of considerable
breadth so as to minimise the number of
deck plates
the ends.
in ordinary
for
rivet seams. The end joints of merchant vessels are invariably overlapped, and should
be double riveted
unsheathed, the
half length amidships, single riveting being sufficient at
The seams
are
usually single-riveted
overlaps.
When
decks are
as
end overlaps should be arranged looking toward midships,
Fig.
144.
ELEVATION
SECTION
-4
_l1ii 2 J?
I
? _^_ ......
_?
o o
^COAMING
THICKENED PLATING.
O
o
o
.
jo
"
'o/[
i
î
SjK
PLAN
^CASING STIFFENERS
t
'f
* |
o~o
o ilTl
l'o
Ho'o
o|o|
II
Tf
DECK BEAMS
For the same reason the fore-and-aft strakes this allows of better drainage. should be fitted clinker fashion, and the seams so placed as to impede drainage When decks are to be covered with to the scuppers as little as possible. wood, the clinker arrangement makes the fitting of the deck-planking more difficult; in such a case, the raised and sunken system of deck-plating allows
of better work.
steel
In
many
recent cargo vessels- the

obviates
edges of the unsheathed

the
decks
are joggled, which
the fitting of slips at
beams, but
has been objected that the depressions thus caused in the it deck form lodgments for drainage water.
surface of the
At
all
of the material, the extent
deck openings compensation has to be made for the cutting away of this compensation depending on the strength
146
required
in
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
the
AND CALCULATIONS.
latter
purposes, and
been fitted for strength In some cases increase in thickness of the strake of plating alongside the openings is found sufficient; The strake in others, where the openings are very large, doublings are fitted. upper deck of large of plating alongside the machinery openings on the
deck,
and
whether
flat
the
has
not
merely as a
to
walk on.
vessels to
Frequently, it is strengthened sufficiently so as is an important one. make, when combined with a strong vertical coaming plate, a rigid girder
well
adapted to
resist
longitudinal
strains
(see
fig.
144).
The
cautions
corners
of large
deck openings are particular points of weakness on

etc.,
account of the sudden discontinuity of the deck-plating,

are
and unless
pre-
taken there
is
is
a probability of fracture occurring at these points

stress.
is
when the The

145, but
vessel
under severe
taken
at
this,
usual precaution
as well
as
to
fit
corner
doublings
as
the
upper deck
within the half length,

if
within
the
same range
at
shelter,
awning and bridge decks,
shown in fig. and also there be such,
the
being greatest at such places, girders should be fitted under the decks in line with the hatch coamings, to which they should be efficiently
stresses
joined,
or abreast
of them,
if
not
in
the
same
line,
in
the
vicinity
of
the
corners of the openings, so as to bridge over the
weak
ments have been found to

of straining at
the
effectively strengthen vessels

;
Such arrangewhich had shown signs

points.
hatch corners
usually fitted
Gutterways are
these are
to
be
laid
they are now required by Lloyd's Rules. round the margin of weather decks where with wood. They are formed simply by running an a
fixed
angle
it
bar fore-and-aft at
the
stringer
plate.
distance
from
are
the
ship's
side,
and
with
riveting
to
Steel
gutterways
frequently coated
cement
as
a preventative against undue corrosion.
WOOD
of steel
or
DECKS.
iron,
In
fitted
laying
wood
tier
deck, whether
it
be on top of one
important
that
tfre
or
merely on
close
of
beams,
the
it
is
In way of the tieplates and stringers in a non-plated deck, and of the edge seams and end laps where a deck is plated throughout, the underside of the planking should be
metal
work.
planking should
down on
be scored out so as to obtain a solid bearing and an even upper surface. With a plated deck oh the raised and sunken system, the planking fitted over
the sunken strakes of the plating.
is
thicker than that over the raised strakes by the thickness

in
Sometimes the difference
thickness
is
made up by
slips of
WOOD
wood, but
this steel
is
DECKS.
47
wood and
deck
laying
causes
to
happens
pitting
most objectionable, as spaces are thus left between the decks which a slight defect in the caulking of the wood become receptacles for the lodgment of water; when this Before and general decay of the steel deck quickly follow.
steel
work should be coated with a suitable preservative composition, such as Stockholm tar powdered with Portland cement, and each This plank should be separately coated with tar before being bedded down. prevents the likelihood of lodgment spaces for water existing between the
planks
the
metal
and
wood
teak,
to
cause
it
decay.
The
oily
best
wood
and
is
for
weather
suited
is
decks
to
is
undoubtedly
used
less
as
is
of
it
an
is
nature
well
stand
changes of temperature, but

for
somewhat expensive.
vessels,
it
Pitch pine
are
frequently
It
is
weather
decks
of
cargo
where
required,
these
as
sheathed.
costly
than teak, but more of
is
pine
so
deck must be
but
it
thicker
is
than
a
one of
grain
therefore
teak.
Pitch
fairly
pine
does
not
wear
pine
uniformly,
of
hard
is
and
durable.
Yellow
makes
It is
deck, and
much used
in passenger steamers.
handsome very soft and

a
Fig,
146,
therefore
extra
requires
it
frequent
renewals.
in
On
this
account
decks
of
and
have
because of
the
its
cost,
is
seldom used
this
cargo
vessels.
Care should be taken when laying wood

of
to
hard
side
planks uppermost;
reduces the likelihood
the
deck wearing into
Three intermediate planks should separate butts in the in places. same frame space. The plank butts should be of vertical type {see fig. 146) and arranged to come between beams where a steel deck is fitted, and on They should be fastened with bolts the beams where there is no steel deck.
holes
at
each beam, or between the beams, where there

lie
is
a steel deck
it
and
to
ensure that the planking shall
perfectly
flat,
when
6
exceeds 6
inches
inches in
breadth
broad,
it
should have double fastenings.

a
screw-bolt
is
Between
and 8 inches
;
a bolt and nut and
considered
sufficient
planks are over 8 inches broad, two bolts and nuts are required.
when the Deck bolts
should be galvanised, and should have their heads well bedded in white lead, When screwed up from below, the heads should with grommets of oakum.
be
sufficiently
sunk in the deck to allow of a dowel being

be
laid
fitted
over the top.
Pine decks should not

If this precaution be not
until
the
is
wood
is
thoroughly seasoned.
at the
taken, the deck
likely to
open
seams and
148
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
become leaky as well as unsightly. six months to elapse, according to

time
six
Lloyd's Rules require a period of four to

thickness, from the time
of cutting
to
the
of using.
months.
be seasoned for required where a satisThe above periods of seasoning are not
Pitch pine
planks for weather decks
should
factory
It
artificial
method of seasoning
is
adopted.
should be mentioned that wood decks are

like
now being superseded

corticene, etc.
in
passenger and crew spaces by compositions

thus covered are
carefully laid,
litosilo,
Decks
comfortable to walk on, have a good appearance, and, when

well.
have generally been found to wear
CARGO HATCHWAYS. There

each
must be
to
at least
one deck opening into

being
these
main compartment of a
it.
vessel
allow
of
cargo
shipped
into,
and discharged from

of considerable
size,
In
to
the
latest
cargo
for
steamers
hatchways are
measure-
so as
be suitable
special cargoes of large
ment,
of 16
such as pieces of machinery.

feet,
Lengths of 24 to 28 feet, and breadths are common, while these dimensions have frequently been exceeded.
in
We
large
have already indicated some of the means adopted to prevent these

the
gaps
deck from
the
becoming dangerous points of weakness, and

hatch
it
now remains to show how The main portion of

fitted
openings are framed.

consists
this
framing
of
to
vertical
coaming
plates
fore-and-aft
and athwartships and

in
carried
down
the lower edge of the
direction forming an abutment for the and those fitted athwartships stiffeners to the continuous hatch-end beams, to which they are securely riveted. The conneccoamings and the severed beams is effected by tion between the hatch means of angle lugs, fitted single where beams are at every frame, and double where they have a two frame spacing (see fig. 147). Lloyd's Rules require
deck beams,
those
fore-and-aft
beams
that
have been
cut,
that
to
there
shall
7
-J-
be three
9^-
rivets
in
each flange
of
these
lugs
when attached
to
beams
to
inches
is
deep, the
12
number being increased

to
four where
the
depth of beam
10 to
is
inches.
as
The
deck-plating
fitted
so
abut against the coamings, a riveted
by means of a strong angle bar. In non-plated decks broad tieplates are fitted on the beam ends and against the coamings, and in this way a strong T-shaped girder is obtained round the edge of It should be mentioned that when decks are laid with wood, the opening.
attachment being secured
the
vertical
project
flange of the hatch-coaming bar is fitted of sufficient depth to h inch above the wood, so as to facilitate the caulking of the latter. Weather deck hatch coamings (see fig. 147) should be of considerable
height above
seal
weak covers which heavy seas which in rough weather frequently fall upon the deck. On upper decks, coamings should have a minimum height of 2 feet except under awning or shelter decks. In
the
deck so as
to
protect the comparatively
the
openings from
receiving
the
full
force
of
the
certain classes of vessels, which have deep wells
deck and
height
liable
the
aft
end
of
the
forecastle
2
between the front of the bridge on the upper deck, the coaming
should not be
to
less
than
feet
6 inches, as these spaces are specially
flooding.
Obviously, on bridge, awning and shelter decks, which are
CARGO HATCHWAYS.
situated
149
high above the

not, in
fact,
water/line,
hatch coamings
inches.
in
may be
efficient
.the
of reduced height;
they need
exceed
18
Weather deck coaming

a substantial character.
in to
plates,
order to be
inroads
as girders
sea,
and
as
protecting walls to the hatchways
against
from
should be of
feet
For instance, the coamings of hatches, under 12

of an
length
should be
-36
inch thick, while those having lengths

'44
of
16
24 feet should have side coamings
of
an inch thick;
end coamings
Fig.
147.
ELEVATION
'5
those
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
from
loss
18
of
feet
The
lower
of
strength
is
decks
inch,
24 feet, a depth of 20 inches is considered sufficient. due to reducing the depth of the hatch coamings at made up to some extent by increasing the thicknesses by '04
to
an
as
compared with
are
upper
for
deck
hatches
of
the
same
decks.
length.
Round
style
it
corners
usually
of
preferred the
for
hatches
on
weather
but
the
This
has
at
makes the
also
less
fitting
wood
covers at the corners somewhat difficult;

the
tarpaulins,
for
is
convenient
fastening
otherwise
it
obvious advantages.
the
To
is
begin with, the
tendency
deck
to
strain
hatch corners
less
where these are round than where square.
Round
Fig.
148.
ELEVATION
DETAIL ATA..
'
3Ji3t<46
DETAIL AT CO.
7-T.y-r--'
DETAIL AT HATCH CORNER
SECTION AT A.B.
KJl-j'iTTi.r'ir
SgSSSSSZZ: .^-"^^l^JJJv T-.--TT7^
fffTT
to
ft"
L VERTICAL FIANCE CUT AWAY
corners are
less
likely
have also a nice appearance.

obviously,
damage cargo which may collide with them ; they The same advantages of having round corners,
'tween
148).
do not extend
type
to
to
deck hatches and, consequently, they are
usually
of square
(fig.
In
order
strengthen
hatch
coamings
against
inroads
from
the
sea
and to provide adequate support to the wood covers, portable athwartship In hatches 10 and under 16 feet long, one such beam, beams are fitted. of a plate with double angles at top and bottom, or other equivalent formed
section,
is
required;
in
those
of
16 to
20 feet in length, the
portable
beam
CARGO HATCHWAYS.
becomes a web-plate extending double angles top and bottom.
are
to
151
of
the
girders
the
bottom
coamings,
of
this
fitted
with
Two
web-plate
description
required in hatches from 20 to 24 feet in length. These portable beams are frequently bolted between double angles riveted to the coamings, when they .act as ties as well as struts, and to some extent compensate for the gaps in the deck made by the hatch openings occasionally, they
;
are
arranged to ship into special shoes.

Fig.
149.
SECTION AT
AB
WATCH COAMING
N
STFTE.NqTHENE.0
LlLU OP
PILLARS
SECTIOM
THRO
MAI.' OlAMr
SECTION THffO*EP,
Web-plate
in
beams
the
thickness to
in hatchways below the upper deck should be equal coamings to which they are attached, and should extend
to the lower
edge of the coamings.
Where
the latter are shallow, as
in
the
case of 'tween deck hatches, the web-plates are to be a quarter deeper in the middle than at the ends, and stiffened top and bottom by double angles.
The
top angles
of the portable webs, as
already hinted,
form lodgments
1^2
for
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
the wood covers, but, as previously mentioned, heavy seas frequently fall upon the deck, and the covers have to sustain a substantial share of the This is provided by fitting weight; they therefore need additional support. strong steel or wood fore-and-aft bearers. In small hatches from 6 to 10
feet
broad, a single bearer fitted at the centre

or
is
sufficient;
in
larger hatches
three
more
if
in
the
breadth
are
required.
to
The
afford
fore-and-afters
should
fit
into iron or steel shoes securely riveted
the end coamings and to the inter-
mediate webs,
than
or
2
any,
and the shoes should
a bearing surface not less
inches broad.
bars
To
support the a
the
wood
covers at the hatch sides, ledge

at
least
rest
are
is
fitted,
giving
to
bearing
surface
if
inches
broad.
This ledge iron
riveted
hatch
rest
coamings between the webs, except

consist
where the side moulding and ledge
of a
single
special
(see
section,
when it As well
is,
of course,
at
continuous
of
for
the
length
of the
hatch
fig.
147).
at
as
the
top
coamings,
mouldings are
frequently
fitted
the
bottom on the inside to take the chafe of cargo. The latter requirement is sometimes met by flanging the lower edge of the side coamings, instead of fitting mouldings. At weather deck hatches, to ensure watertightness, strong tarpaulins are fitted over the wood covers, usually two or three to a hatch, one placed above another. The tarpaulins are secured in position by means of flat iron bars wedged into cleats riveted to the hatch coamings, round which they are spaced about 24 inches apart. In many recently built cargo vessels hatch beams have been fitted all in one direction, i.e., either all athwartships or all fore-and-aft, the direction being that of the shorter dimension of the opening, which, in ordinary cases, is
athwartships.
Lloyd's rules
now
provide for arrangements of wholly transverse
webs
3
for
hatches ranging in breadth
from
12
to
20
feet.
The
way.
supports
at
the coamings for the
wood
covers in this case should have a

this
bearing surface
inches
broad.
Fig.
149 shows a hatch framed in

in
HATCHWAYS INTO DEEP TANKS. These

and have means of closing the testing pressure on the crown of the tank, without
struction,
sary.
should be strongly framed
watertight
viz.,
tank,
an
8-feet
manner as they must withstand head of water above the

leak.
straining
or
showing a
larger
feet
To
and,
simplify
con-
watertight
hatchways
are
are
made no
feet
than square
absolutely
as
neces-
Usually
out,
they
about
are
to
already
pointed
owing to .the presence of

are
the
middle-line
abreast.
bulkhead with which

of
these
150),
deep
they
tanks
provided,
fitted
two
bulb
The coamings
(fig.
is
hatchways
are
frequently
built
consist
of
deep
angles
but
of
sometimes
substantial
It
is
of
plates
and
angles.
The
back
cover
at
a
-
plate
feet
thickness, with angle or bulb angle
stiffeners
fall
about
or
spacing.
secured
in
position
at
by nuts and
the
joint
to
is is
bolts,
nuts
and watertightness
rubber. a
effected
To
gain admission
the
tank
without
in
by packing it removing
the
latter.
and through bolts, with spun yarn or

the
hatch cover,
watertight
manhole door
access
to
usually
fitted
CARGO PORTS AND DOORS. Many

ports
to
vessels are
fitted
with small side

useful
in
give
the
'tween
decks.
These are found
load-
Cargo PORts and books.

ing certain classes
while the
ports
153
to
of bale goods,
holds
are
being
say,
filled
through
square,
is
and allow the 'tween decks the main hatchways.

sufficient
be stowed
When
for
side
do not exceed,
opening
in
feet
the
it
the
shell-plating
provided,
for
short
distance
and
fitting
stout
compensation by doubling the strake above angle around the edge of the
cutting
Fig.
150.
SECTIONAL ELEVATION
DETAIL OF FASTENING
ALTERNATIVE
OF SECURING
METHODS
COVER
RUBBER
SPUN YARN
BOLTS SPACED
"
6"
APART
opening.
close
The door
;
is
sometimes secured
however,
strong
of
by bolts
are
and nuts
inside,
at
sufficiently
spacing to ensure a watertight joint with

surfaces
usually,
canvas and red lead between

fitted
the
backs
one or two
being used according to the

at
size
the
door;
is
and
to
obtain watertightness
the joint
spun yarn or rubber packing
used.
154
In
very
certain
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
vessels
AND CALCULATIONS.
in
in
those
in
engaged
the
ship's
the
side
cattle
trade,
for
instance
large
doors
are
fitted
in
way of
in
the
bridge
or
shelter
'tween
decks.
These doors
make
for
big
gaps
the
side-plating
is
and
have to be carefully compensated above and below the opening and
for.
Usually the
shell-plating
doubled
spaces,
some
are
distance,
fitted
say two
in
frame
beyond each end of the doorway.

each
it;
end of
web frames
also
the
'tween
decks at
The
shell
doublings
make good
the longitudinal
Fig.
151.
ELEVATION
SECTION
THRO
DOOR
DOOR
FRAME
DOOR
NAME
6*6x-60"
strength,
and the web frames

long and
5
restore
the
Fig.
loss
entailed
gives
fitted
in
the
cutting of the
cattle
side
frames in way of the opening.

feet
feet
151
as
details
of a
door
12
inches
deep,
in
a large
modern cargo
hatchways
and passenger steamer.
DERRICKS AND DERRICK POSTS. Large and numerous

are of
little
value unless an efficient installation of appliances for working the
cargo in and out of them
be also provided.
This
is
specially
the case with
DERRICKS.
*SS
steamers whose economical working demands the utmost despatch in the loading and unloading of cargo. Sailing ships usually make long voyages and are seldom in port; they can, therefore, afford to spend a longer time there than
the
less
more
is
ubiquitous
steamer.
latter.
than those of the
gear
seldom
fitted
in
Moreover, their working expenses are much For these reasons an expensive system of cargo sailing vessels. Hand-power winches are considered
is
sufficient,
and the cargo gear
usually
suspended from the lower yards or
from convenient wire spans.
The
cargo gear of modern steamers
may
consist of (i)
ordinary derricks
with steam winches, (2) hydraulics derricks, (3) steam cranes, (4) electric cranes. Electrical appliances, although frequently proposed, have not yet come much
into use.
Steam cranes are frequently
fitted
in
coasting vessels, as they hoist
Fig.
ELEVATION
152.
and slew quickly, and thus minimise the time a vessel need remain in port important consideration where a vessel has to be loaded and discharged every day or two, or even more frequently. Moreover, steam cranes may be placed anywhere about the deck. They take up a great deal of room, however, and are more expensive than steam winches and derricks, for which reasons they are seldom fitted in ordinary ocean-going cargo vessels. Hydraulic derricks are sometimes fitted on first-class passenger steamers, as they work
an
smoothly and without noise.

ful
They
are costly to install, as, of course, a powerartificial
pumping engine
is
required in order to maintain an
head of water.
The system
vessels
is
of working cargo almost universally adopted in ordinary cargo
that
comprising steam winches and ordinary derricks.
The
if
latter
may be
five tons,
constructed of
wood
or
steel
if
for
small
lifts,
say,
from three
to
pitch-pine derricks are
commonly
fitted.
They
are hinged,
practic-
156
able,
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
on the masts, which, in cargo steamers, are now little else than derrick One derrick and winch per hatch is sufficient where the holds are of moderate size where they are large, however, and where loading or discharging can be carried out on both sides of the vessel at once, two derricks and
posts.
;
Fig.
153.
OUTREACHlS FOR
DERRICK.
SPANS
PLATING "50
EYEPLATES FOR SPANS

l\ MOULDING
DERRICK
TABLES
We thus see that in the usual arrangement, with a winches are necessary. hatches, the former may have to support four large derricks mast between two In special cases, where separate derricks are with their respective loads. for hoisting and for slewing, the number of derricks per mast may employed
exceed
four.
In
fig.
152
is
shown the usual way of hinging
derricks
on masts.
DERRICKS AND DERRICK POSTS.

Steam
the
57
winches
must
in
line
be
placed
with
careful
regard
to
the
derricks.
Single winches are,
of course, situated at the middle line with the middle of
winding
drums
with
the
derricks.
ship,
Double winches
should
be
placed on each
side of the
centre of the
to pass.
with a sufficient distance be-
tween them to allow a

are
to
man
the
To
to
obtain compactness, the inner drums

direct
frequently
dispensed with,
barrels,
it
and
of
to
ensure
leads
from the derricks
the
winding
the
axis
the
winches are inclined to the

square
to
middle middle
these
in
line. line,
Frequently,
as
is
preferred
are
have the winches
the
;
winchmen
to
then better able to
observe operations
cases,
the
(fig.
this
by means of snatch blocks on decks, or, better, by extending the derricks out transversely on tables With 153), so as to come in line with the middle of the winches. arrangement it is desirable to have the point of suspension in each case
direct leads
the
barrels are obtained
immediately over the heel of the derrick, otherwise

in
difficulty will
slewing
is
the
latter.
This drawback
is
found, for
instance,
be experienced where a single

If the
derrick
is
worked from a mast having considerable

fitted
rake,
and no arrangement
it
made
to bring the point of suspension over the heel of the derrick.

is
derrick
forward
there
is
a strong tendency for
to
lie
;
overboard,
and if aft on the mast, to lie over the middle of the hatch considerable power being required to slew the derrick, particularly if loaded, against either of these biassed directions. The advantage of plumb derricks is therefore obvious, and some vessels are built with vertical masts to this end.
When
on
it
a mast
is
situated
too
to
near a hatch to allow of a derrick hinged
being sufficiently
side,
it
long
plumb the
to
centre,
and swing
side,
clear
of
the
ship's
becomes necessary
the
resort to the
use of derrick posts.
may be placed between

posts were at
first
hatch
and
the
ship's
These and with a comDerrick

utility
paratively short derrick a sufficient outreach
may be
they
lifts
easily
obtained.
objected to as being unsightly,

of
this
sort,
but their great

are
has
in
outweighed considerations
and
the
now
to
be found
will
many
up-to-date cargo steamers.
Where
height,
are at all great,, derrick posts
should be
made
of
considerable
otherwise
excessive
stresses
be
brought upon them, as well as on the derricks and the spans.

readily demonstrated
This can be
by drawing a diagram of
lift
forces.
Derrick posts to carry
a 10-inch to 12-inch derrick, and
ordinary
cargo,
should be 20 inches to
feet.
24
in
incises
diameter at the deck, and have a height of 24 to 28

little
Large
derrick posts are constructed of |-inch steel plates, a
taper being allowed
the
thickness
towards the top.

is
To
deck.
give
rigidity,
a housing equal to the
height of one 'tween decks
desirable;
where
Fig.
this
cannot be obtained, deep
brackets
must
be
fitted
to
the
fitted.
154
shows a derrick-post and
appurtenances as ordinarily
SEATS FOR STEAM WINCHES, Etc. As
before mentioned, decks should
be stiffened locally in way of steam winches, by fitting plating on the beams, If winches are to be placed and by supporting the latter by special pillars. on a wood deck, the part under each winch should be of hardwood, or the wood deck increased in thickness locally, as the wear and tear is great at
i58
these
riveted
places.
to
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
bar
is
Sometimes a
steel
angle
fitted
round the winches and

against this bar, and
the
deck-plating, the
wood deck being butted

cement or
left
the
spaces
enclosed coated with
bare.
In such a case, the
Fig.
154.
winch
raised
sole
plates
are
either
bolted
stools.
directly
to
the
steel
is
or
the
iron
better
deck,
one,
or
as
on
or
channel
the
bar
The
latter
plan
the
stools
stiffen
deck and take
most of the vibration caused by the
SEATS FOR STEAM WINCHES.
59
working of the winches. In ordinary cargo steamers, which have, as a rule, unsheathed decks, winch stools like the above are commonly fitted. The steam supply and exhaust pipes to the winches (where the exhaust
steam
is
returned to a tank in the machinery space) are usually led from the
the line
iron
machinery-casing along the deck just outside

are
of the hatchways, and

155),
supported
on
stools
of
cast
or
wrought
(fig.
except where
they can be conveniently held by clips riveted to the casings or to the hatch
coamings.
the
deck to the
it,
mend
Sometimes separate exhaust pipes are led from each winch across ship's side. This latter plan has only cheapness to comas the cloud of escaping steam always present about the deck
is
during loading or discharging operations,
most objectionable.
solid
To
protect
fitted
the
winch
a
pipes
from
the
damage,
masts
are
plate
or
sparred iron
covers are
over them.
sailing-ship
MASTS.
the
hull
In
probably
as
important
as
itself,
since
her
power
of
locomotion
value,
depends
on
them
in
steamer they have a
much
reduced
and are even not indispensable,
Fig.
155.
some
the
classes
first
of
steamers
having
masts
the
none
of
at
all.
As seems
and
fitting,
therefore,
"we shall
consider
the
sailing-ship,
afterwards indicate
modifications
usual in
case
of a
steamer.
In a modern sailing-ship of average size, the masts, like the hull, are constructed mainly of steel, their diameters and scantlings being graduated in accordance with the strains they may be called upon to bear through the
action
of
the the
wind-pressures
lengths
on the
sails.
is
As
the
the
mast bending moments

basis
this
vary with
fix
of the
masts, length
natural
scantlings,
and,
in
compiling tables of
with
the
latter,
on which tb method is usually
followed.
Taking Lloyd's Rules, a lower mast 60

20
inches,
feet
long has a
maximum
feet
diameter of
of masts
a diameter of 32 inches, and

of intermediate
plating -fa inch thick, and one a plating thickness of -| inch,

lying
96
long
the scantlings
lengths
between
these.
less
sail
Mizen-masts of barques carry no cross-yards, and support a

than mainmasts;
their case.
area
reduced
diameters
and
scantlings
are
therefore
allowed in
The maximum diameter

are at
either
of a mast and
the greatest thickness of plating
the
deck, as
the
the bending
moment
the
is
obviously greatest there

of
towards
end,
diameter
and
thickness
the
plating
are
somewhat
i6o
reduced.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
circumference of a mast
is
The number
of plates in
the
governed
by
practical
considerations.
Lower
masts, with
;
under, are built with two plates in the round
a rule length of 72 feet and those above this length should usually overlapped at edge
in
not have less than three plates.
These
latter
plates are
and end
should be
is
joints
sometimes
outside, as
the
are
butted,
which
case
the
straps
fitted
opening at the joints due to bending of the masts
thus prevented, and better work can be

necessary.
Fig.
made
in the fitting of internal angles
where these are
156.
ELEVATION.
PLAN.
As
are
the principal stresses on masts are cross-breaking ones, the
end
joints
very
in
important,
and
in
all
cases
should
is
be
treble-riveted
above
the
deck;
riveted
way of the
but in
housing
below the deck

;
double-riveting
masts
loss
fitting
by
is
which
long,
meant
the
part
of
the masts
permitted.
feet
The seams should be

single-edge
riveting
is
double-
under 84
of
internal
considered
is
sufficient,
provided the
stiffening
effect
due
to
reducing the lap

feet
made good by
angle
bars.
Above 84
very great.
length,
double-
riveted seams are required as well as internal stiffening angles, as the bending
moments on masts
Rigidity
is
of this
length
may be
given to masts by securely fixing them into the hull, and stayFig. 156 shows the modern method of ing them by means of steel wire ropes.
MASTS.
161
framing a mast-hole and wedging the mast at the upper deck
the
deck
at
which
this
is
usually done.
in
the beams,
which,
be observed, a stout plate is fitted on non-plated decks, must have a breadth equal to three
As
will
diameters of the mast.
This plate
(fig.
is
riveted to the
beams and
through
(in non-plated
decks) to diagonal tieplates

distribute
143),
which unite
it
to the side stringers
and
the
stresses
communicated
from
the
mast
the
wedging.
riveted
greater in diameter than the mast is and when the mast is shipped the space between this ring and the mast, the plating of which should be doubled in this neighbourhood, is tightly wedged with hard wood. Above the deck the wedging is neatly rounded, and a canvas cover or coat, usually double, is bound to the mast and over the ring to prevent leakage of water into the hold space.
bulb
angle
the
ring
about 4 inches
to
deck-plate,
The doubling
to
of
for
the
mast
at
the
deck
is
to
give
strength,
but particularly
the
vessel
compensate
the
corrosion
and
pitting
which may take place in way of the

except
wedging,
material
being
there
inaccessible
is
i.e.
when
1 2
is
under special survey. When the mast-plating be removed before the third special survey,
doubled, the wedges need not
about every
years.
At the heel the mast should be supported on a strong stool, as very great downward stresses are communicated to the mast through the rigging, and if due provision be not made to resist these the mast may be forced downwards, the plating at the heel crushing up or the stool collapsing if not efficient Such movement of the mast would cause the rigging to become slack and valueless as a support against bending. Where a mast is stepped on a centre keelson, a good stool may be contrived by fitting a strong plate immediately under the mast, and supporting it by brackets connected to the keelson and floorplate on each side of the middle line. For wedging purposes a ring is fitted on the plate round the mast-heel, and to keep the mast from turning, an angle or tee lug, riveted The mast-heel plating to the plate, is fitted through the bottom of the mast. 2 feet up from the bottom. is usually doubled for about The main portion of a mast, and that upon which the principal diameters and scantlings are fixed, is known as a lower mast, but above this These upper spars there are a topmast, a topgallant mast, and a royal mast. are sometimes constructed of wood, but in modern sailing vessels of fair Lower masts and topmasts are occasionally size steel topmasts are common.
built
as
single
tubes, but
usually they are

in
separate, the
union between them

in
being effected by overlapping

case the topmast, which
is
the
manner indicated
of wood, passes
fig. In this 157. through a cap hoop at the lower
masthead, and
is
supported by a rectangular bar of iron, or

of the
fid,
which passes
riveted
for
through
to
the
heel
topmast
and
rests
the
lower
the
mast.
This
overlapping
on method
strong
is
cheek-plates
sometimes
adopted
topmast with the upper portions, the topgallant and royal masts but where the topmast is of steel usually consisting of a single wood spar the upper spar is frequently housed into its upper end.
uniting
;
The
scantlings
of
steel
topmasts,
like
those
of
lower
masts,
vary with
l62
the
bars.
joints,
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
length.
AND CALCULATIONS.
should have internal
single-riveted,
Topmasts 38
those
feet
long and above
stiffening
The edge seams

like
of topmast plating
masts,
may be
the
but the end

treble-
of lower
and
for
same reason, should be

a
structure
as
riveted.
Obviously,
as
so
tall
and comparatively slim
a
it
mast such
to
its
we have
described, must be strongly stayed in order to hold

cross-yards
that
steel
work
of supporting the
and
wire
sails
and
are
resisting
the wind pressure.

this
We
Lower
the
have
masts
mentioned
are
ropes
used
loop
for
purpose.
the
stayed
laterally
by shrouds, which
Fig.
round
mast
at
157.
PLAN OF TOP.
hounds and extend down

plates
to
the
gunwale, where
they are
size
attached to chain
are
also to
fitted
riveted
to
the
sheerstrake.
Shrouds of smaller
below the
to
the topmast
sides,
and
top-gallant
to
mast.
These are not carried down

lower
the
the
ship's
but
are
fastened
the
mast just
mast-top
topmast
trestle-trees
respectively,
necessary
cross-trees.
spread
being
as
obtained
shrouds,
and the by
the
means of
the
mast-top
and topmast
As
well
upper spaces are further held by backstays fastened to the gunwale and to In a fore-and-aft direction the masts are stayed to one another the mast.
by powerful
run
wire
to
to
ropes
at
various
heights.
The
stays
of
the
foremast
at
are
their
down
the a
forecastle
deck,
this
the
upper
ones
being
is
attached
allow of
lower ends
bowsprit
also
arrangement,
which
to
sufficient
spread in
the
stays,
permits
of large-sized
staysails.
BOWSPRIT.
Obviously,
as
in
all
163
staying
this
rigging
will
have
little
value
if
it
be
the
slack,
that
case
the
mast which
first
receives
the
stresses
due
to
wind
the
pressure
might break before the strength of the wire could be called upon.
Cases are
stays
all
on record of masts
respect.
collapsing
through
lack
of
efficiency
in
in
this
To
obviate such disasters, the standing side rigging of
vessels should
of which the shrouds and backstays
be provided with rigging screws of simple design, by means may be readily tightened up at any time.
BOWSPRIT.
structed
In
and
of
modern
as
it
sailing-vessels
of
fair
size
this
spar
is
con-
of
steel,
has
to
withstand
to
considerable
it,
bending
of
stresses,
due
for a
to
the
pull
the
maststays
attached
the
latter,
it
is
is
built
substantial
diameter and thickness
of plating;
indeed,
about the same as

passing
lower mast of equal diameter.

the
Usually
aperture in a
bowsprit
is
housed
in
the
forecastle,
through
the
an
transverse
bulkhead, or knighthead plate,

a vertical plate
fitted
at
fore-end
of the forecastle, and
abutting against
extending between the
upper and forecastle decks, and strongly bracketed to the main deck-plating. To secure it in position, the bowsprit is wedged in way of the knighthead
plate,
angle rings
Internal
being
fitted
to
the
latter
wedging.
in the
stiffening
angles
are
fitted
around the aperture to take the in the middle of each plate

28 inches in diameter,
round, and, in addition,
when
fitted
the spar exceeds

in
vertical
diaphragm
either
plate
is
some
distance
the
way beyond.
way of the wedging and extended The end joints of the bowsprit plating
;
outside
wedging should be treble-riveted

of
inside
the
forecastle,
they
may
is
be double-riveted. Sometimes, instead
being
at
housed
its
in
the
forecastle,
the
bowsprit
and bedded on the forecastle deck-plating, to which it is securely connected by strong angle bars the forecastle deck being stiffened in this neighbourhood by fitting the beams The outer part of a bowsprit when fitted as a separate on every frame. The latter is usually built of wood and is fitted spar is called a- jibboom. Frequently, in large modern sailingthrough the- cap-band of the bowsprit. ships the bowsprit and jibboom are made of steel in one length, when it
sloped away on the lower side
after-end
;
is
known as a " spiked bowsprit." The bowsprit is stayed laterally by means

fitted
bobstay bars are

of the
cap-bands at
of wire shrouds, and strong on the stem and the underside the fore-end of the bowsprit and jibboom.
to
eye attachments
YARDS. The
usually pitch pine.
cross-yards of small sailing-vessels are constructed of wood,
In large ships having

frequently
built
is, it
steel
masts, the lower yard

as
and the
one above
of
it
are
of
the
same material
the
this.
the
is
mast.
The
greatest diameter of a yard

its
of course, in
middle, and
taken at -^
lower topthe
latter,
;
length
at
the ends
is
tapered to half of
When
built of steel,
yards
sail
have single-riveted seams and treble-riveted end

are
joints.
The
to
and lower topgallant yards on each mast
usually fixed
but with attachments designed to allow of free movement to any angle
the
upper topsail and upper topgallant yards are attached to parrel hoops which
164
fit
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
loosely
AND CALCULATIONS.
position
A
ings.
on the mast, thus admitting of each yard being hoisted into by means of appropriate running gear. special feature in the masts and yards of sailing ships are the mount-
of a
to
These are very elaborate and are made of great strength, as the safety might be seriously threatened if even one stay attachment were give way, on account of the increased stress which would thus be brought
vessel
others.
on the
MASTS OF STEAMSHIPS. The

much comment.
mainly
fitted
masts
of
steamer
do not
call
for
As has been
said,
in
most modern cargo steamers they are
derrick-posts
in
for ornament; incidentally, they can be usefully employed as and standards for signal lamps, etc. The main function of masts sailing-ships, which is to carry sails, has been almost done away with in
steamers.
sails
No
yards
or
square-sails
are
now
carried
two small fore-and-aft
on each mast are

for
all
that are usually arranged for,
and these are

weather.
fitted
not
propulsion
vessels
but
to
give
steadiness
are
in
rough
This
In
of
many
has
modern cargo
in
even
these
omitted.
omission
sails
been deplored in some

neglecting
to
and there certainly seems a lack of economy use the power of the wind for propulsion when it is availquarters,
effect
able.
The
Owing
steadying
of
sails
when a
a
vessel
is
in â
seaway
are
is
well
known.
to
their
auxiliary
character,
steamer's
masts
of
smaller
diameters and scantlings than those of same -length in

fore-and-aft
sails
a sailing-ship.
Where
only are
carried,
Lloyd's
Rules
to
permit the
diameters to be
this
fifth
less,
and the plating of a thickness

is
correspond with
the working
of
reduction.
It
has been pointed* out that in the case of a steamer's

to
masts, whose
derricks,
main duty
scantlings.
derricks,
withstand
the
strains
due
to
the
breadth of the ship should be considered in fixing upon the diameters and
The broader a
therefore,
is
vessel,
the the
in
greater
will
and,
the
greater
this
bending
Rules
say,
stresses
present no notice
a
taken of
the
for
be the outreach of the on the masts. At masts, and in the case of

support
four
derricks,
very broad vessel, where

frequently
It
is
mast
for
has,
to
they
are
none too strong

to
to
their
work.
customary
heel
make a
is
steamer's
masts
sail
of
pole
is
type,
i.e.,
in
one
piece
greater
from
topmast
this
head.
As
being
the
that
fitted
spread
unimportant,
royal
no
height
than
necessary, so
topgallant
into
and
masts are
Frequently,
into
dispensed with, the

the
finishing pole
the
topmast.
topmasts
are
of
wood,
and
made
to
ship
telescope
fashion
the
upper ends of the lower masts, appropriate gear being provided for the purSuch an arrangement is demanded to allow of the vessel passing pose.
under bridges
like
in
reaching ports
of the
like
Manchester.
The edge seams

joints,
mast-plating
masts,
may be
single-riveted,
but the end
those
of
a sailing-ship's
must be
treble-riveted
above
the
See a paper by Mr.
W. Veysey
Lang, read before the Institute of Marine
Engineers
in
February, 1909.
MASTS OF STEAMSHIPS.
deck or partners, and double-riveted
of
in
165
the
housing.
When
of
the
masts
fitting
are
considerable
riveting
length,
the
strength
should
be
augmented
each
by
and
the
securely
internal
angle
bars
up
the
middle
plate
in
round.
steel
The masts must be supported

usual arrangement
is,
athwartships and fore-and-aft by strong
wire standing rigging.
The
the
say,
three or four shrouds, immediately abreast

stays.
masts
on each
to
fit
side,
with
two fore-and-aft
This
is
not the best
arrangement for the purpose intended.

it
Instead of the
close-spaced shrouds,
is
better
still
two with as great a spacing as

derricks
to
possible, as
much,
in fact,
to
as
will
permit the
swing
clear
to
of
the
side.
For access
masthead.
pointed
for
the
masthead an iron ladder may be riveted
the
mast, or
to
two additional put

in
shrouds
may be
fitted
at
close-spacing
at
with
ratlines
the
The need
the case
of strong work
ships,
the
mast-heels
has
been
of sailing
and
similar
remarks apply to steamers;
as well
Fig.
158.
as
the
bending
to
in
stresses
already
referred
to,
the
working
of
the
derricks
give
rise
considerable
downward
steps.
thrusts,
steamers
should
therefore
be
strengthened
brackets
to
way of mast
fitted
If
these
girder,
come
unless
on
the
an
the
inner
bottom,
should be
to
the
centre
mast-heel
centre
happens
girder.
be immediately over the junction of a

158
of the
riveted
latter
floor-plate
is
with
Fig.
shows the arrangement when a mast

in
stepped on a tunnel.
usually
consists
The
stiffening
way of the
plating,
at
is
step,
which
in
of stout
steamer's
is
angle-bars
to
the
not
shown
the the
sketch.
masts
similar
are
to
usually
that
wedged
the
upper-deck,
and
all
arrangement
very
described for a sailing-vessel.

is
BULKHEADS. This name

fore-and-aft
given
in
to
ship,
vertical
or
athwartships,
which,
separate of
little
partitions, whether compartments from
one
those
are
another.
Many
to
"of
these
cabins,
as
partitions
are
value
built
structurally,
as
of
wood between
or those which, though
of iron or
the
steel,
only intended
act
screens
and are therefore
of
lightest
de-
scription.
Bulkheads, however, which divide a steel vessel into watertight com-
66
are
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
of
AND CALCULATIONS.
structurally
their
partments,
therefore,
immense importance
interest
be of
in
to
consider
principal
and otherwise, and it functions and the
will,
lead-
ing
features
their
construction.
These main built and made

filled
partitions,
watertight,
which are usually placed transversely, are strongly so that in the event of a compartment being
shall
with water the

pressure
containing bulkheads
joints
tight
be strong enough to support
the
into
and
for
have
the
adjoining
of value
i.
compartments.
enough to prevent the fluid escaping Generally, main watertight transverse bulkheads
:
are
following reasons
As
rigid
Elements
in
of
Strength.
so
that
Where
also
they
occur
prevent
the
hull
is
practo
tically
transversely,
they
effectually
any
the the
tendency
deformation
framing,
efficiently
little
that
to
direction;
side
they
afford
support
to
longitudinal
latter
/>.,
the
stringers
and
keelsons,
when
are
bracketed to but when

transmit
them.
The
to
keelsons,
indeed,
of themselves have
but
as
rigidity,
braced
the
the
bulkheads
they
the
become
hull
to
efficient
girders,
and
the
stresses
brought
of
upon
the
massive
of
bulkheads,
structure
2.
thus
spreading
strength
the
latter
over
the
region
the
lying
between them.
As Safeguards Against Spread of Fire.

can hardly be over-esUmated,
contents
isolating
Their
they
fire
importance in
this
respect
as
with
their
from
each
other.
total
Many
do the various holds instances are on record of

through the
vessels
having been
bulkheads.
saved from
destruction by
medium
of their
3.
ing
of the
if
As Preventatives Against Foundering Consequent on the PiercHull by Striking a Rock or Otherwise. We are already
the
effect
familiar with
on the
flotation
of bilging
a compartment, and have
seen that
the vessel.
the latter be large the loss of buoyancy
may be
of
sufficient to sink
a sufficient
The importance of restricting number of watertight bulkheads

of the
the
is
lengths
therefore
compartments by
fix
obvious.
the
In the case of a steam-vessel, there are certain conditions which

lower
limit
With the machinery one at a short disamidships, for instance, there should be at least four tance abaft the stem, one at each end of the machinery compartment, and With the machinery one placed at -a reasonable distance from the sternpost. a minimum of three watertight bulkheads might be allowed, the afteraft, bulkhead forming one end of the machinery compartment. Of the above divisions the forward one, which is fitted as a safeguard
number
of
bulkheads
required.
in the event of collision,
is
probably of chief importance.

loss
It
should not be
the
placed too
far
aft,
or
the
of
buoyancy due
the
vessel
to
to
bilging
peak
the
comhead.
partment
may be
sufficient
it
to
cause
go
down by
Lloyd's Rules require
to
be
fitted at
a twentieth of the length from the stem,
measuring at the height of the lower deck.

has
The
collision
vessels,
bulkhead, as
it
is
immense service in saving called, abled them, though seriously damaged by collision,
proved
of
It
and has often enport in safety.

usually
to
make a
is
may
here be said that the collision
bulkhead
the
only one
BULKHEADS.
fitted
167
transverse
in
sailing
ships.
In
this
case
the
strength
is
made up
to
otherwise,
side
and the question of cost, to mention no other, has put any idea of fitting numerous bulkheads. The importance of the bulkheads which isolate the engines and
the
one
boilers
from
other
cargo
to
is
spaces
cargo,
also
scarcely
if
needs
were
bilging
emphasis.
The chance
tight
of
fire
is
and
damage
It
there
no
the
efficient
divisions,
clearly
apparent.
quite
necessary that
that
machinery
self-contained,
so
the
of neighbouring
fires.
compartment should be compartments would

leakage
not
mean the extinguishing of the The after-bulkhead is required

of
the
propeller.
boiler
so
as
to
isolate
which may be
the
the
stern
after
it
caused by the breaking of the stern tube, or by general vibration due to the
action
Usually,
it
is
placed
near
enough
of
to
prevent any loss of
buoyancy consequent on the partment being sufficient to endanger the vessel.

splendid stiffener at this part, an important
is
bilging
coma
Incidentally,
forms
consideration
when
the machinery
placed
aft.
Although no surveyor to the Board of Trade, under the existing regulations, could refuse to grant a declaration of survey that the hull, even of a
passenger
fitted
steam-vessel,
whatever
her
to
length,
was
sufficient
for
her
work,
if
with
bulkheads equivalent
the
foregoing,
such
an arrangement can
With increase in be considered satisfactory only in small steamers. bulkheads very soon become desirable, partly because of the need of providing greater transverse strength, but as this may be met otherwise, mainly because safety in the event of fire or bilging demands an
clearly
size,
additional
adequate sub-division of
the holds.
Lloyd's
length,
latest
Thus we
vessels
find,
taking
feet
Rules
for
example, that when steamare
reach
285
in
five
bulkheads
necessary,
the
distance
room bulkheads being sub-divided. In vessels of 2>35 feet tne a fter hold is in turn sub-divided, making six bulkheads, the number of watertight bulkheads becoming seven, eight, nine, and ten, when vessels reach lengths of 405, 470, 540, and 610 feet respectively.
between the
collision
and
boiler
>
Obviously,
the
question
of
sub-division
is
of
first
importance in purely
passenger vessels, no form of life-saving appliance being so efficient as a good
system
fore
of watertight bulkheads.
built but
Few
while
first-class
passenger steamers are

in
there-
now
can
float
sea,
safely with, say,
any two* compartments

even
a
open
communication and partly on
with
this
the
some
of
in
have
better
sub-division,
account,
as
few
these
have
of
been
subsidised
by the
they
Government
to
act
auxiliary
cruisers
time of war.
fitting
point
of
great
importance
in
the
bulkheads
the
is
that
one compartment may cause sufficient sinkage to submerge the tops of the bulkheads, in which case the water would find its way into all the compartments
should extend
well
line
;
above the
loadwater
otherwise
bilging
of
* In the report of the Bulkhead Committee ot 1890, the highest class of sub-division given as that which would enable a vessel to float safely, in moderate weather, with any two compartments in open communication with the sea.
is
63
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
and thus sink the vessel. In general, bulkheads should extend to the top deck of the main structure. In vessels with continuous superstructures, such as an awning or shelter deck, the bulkheads (with the exception of the collision bulkhead, which should extend to the awning or shelter deck) are usually stopped at the deck below, i.e., the upper deck, in virtue of the greater freeboard and reserve buoyancy of this class. In the 'tween decks of these vessels, a deep web frame or partial bulkhead is to be fitted on each side
immediately
over
the
watertight
bulkheads,
or
other
efficient
strengthening
must be provided.
CONSTRUCTION OF BULKHEADS. Although
an
ordinary watertight
bulkhead may never be called upon to sustain the pressure due to a compartment on either side becoming filled, it must be constructed strong
enough
of
to
meet such an eventuality.

thickness,
It
should, therefore, be built of plates

stiffened.
substantial
and be strongly
i.e.,
Lloyd's
Rules require a
'46
thickness of "26 of an inch in bulkheads having a depth from upper deck to

floors of
from 8
in
to
12 feet,
in the smallest vessels,

is
and of
feet,
of an inch
in
those
which the same depth

plates
joints,
from 44 to
or
50
i.e.,
in very large
vessels.
The
are fitted vertically
horizontally,
are usually lapped at
edges and at end

tight
and
single-riveted,
the rivets being spaced for waterjoints
work,
i.e.,
4I diameters
plates
apart.
At the points where the end
come
on the edges, the two
of the former are thinned

fitting
down
for the
breadth
of the edges laps so as to obviate the
of
slips.
In the stiffening of watertight bulkheads, the plan recommended by the
Bulkhead
heads).
Committee of 1S90
In the former
is
now
usually
(see
followed,
the
stiffeners
being
bulk-
arranged generally in a vertical direction
also
stiffening
of collision
stiffeners
were be arranged horizontally as well as vertically a cross-bracing arrangement which assured the strength of the bulkhead in a transverse as
Lloyd's
Register,
Rules of
bulkhead
required
to
well
as
in
a vertical
the
ship's
direction,
sides,
making
it
efficient
to
resist
pressures
tending to
stiffeners
is
force
which a purely
vertical
arrangement of
entirely vertical
not adapted to do.
By
the cross arrangement, too, the unsupported area
is less
than by the
of stiffeners
less
vertical.
Still,
the advantages of an
arrangement
is
are considerable.
To
begin with, as the depth of a bulkhead
than the width, stiffeners are shorter and therefore more efficient arranged than
vertically
when arranged
upon
to
horizontally
the
at
rigidity
of girders
varying
in-
versely as the cubes of their lengths.
Again, the pressure which a bulkhead

greatest
may be
called
withstand
is
the
bottom, and a range of
closely-pitched vertical stiffeners bracketed to the tank top are effectively placed
to resist this.
The
spacing of
stiffeners
in
ordinary
watertight
bulkheads
the
should
not
exceed 30 inches.
In the case of a collision bulkhead, as a vessel's safety

this
may depend on
vertical
stiffeners
bulkhead's
to
ability
to
withstand
dashing about of
the
masses of water admitted
the
fore
peak through
of
collision,
this
spacing of
should not exceed 24 inches, and in

stiffeners
case
there
should
side,
also
be
horizontal
consisting
bulb angles
on the opposite
CONSTRUCTION OF BULKHEADS,
spaced 4
are
short,
feet apart,
69
bracketed to the ship's sides.
As
they
the horizontal stiffeners
the
vessel
being narrow at
this
part,
add immensely
in
to
the
rigidity of the
bulkhead.
oil
Bulkheads which form the ends of

to carry oil in bulk, or
compartments
fulfilling
vessels
designed
which form the ends of deep-water

because,
affording
as well
as
ballast tanks, should
be
of
extra
strength,
the
main
function
of
must be able to resist the pressure of the mass of fluid which the compartment contains, the speed of the vessel being communicated to the fluid in a compartment through the bulkhead at its after-end also, as any compartment on occasion may not be quite full, its bulkheads should be strong enough to
ordinary bulkheads
in
sufficient
structural
strength,
they
meet the very severe

fluid
stresses
which the
rise
dashing
to.
about of
large
masses
of
in
for
partly-filled
tank would give

oil vessels.
Lloyd's
Rules
provide scant-
lings
the bulkheads of
Frequently, the
stiffeners.
edges
of plates
forming bulkheads are flanged to act as
of somewhat narrow plates, must not be more than 30 inches. There is here a saving in riveting, and fewer parts require to be put together; this system is therefore rather popular, especially as experiments have shown the arrangement to be as strong as the ordinary one, and as mild
This
entails
vertical
arrangement
since
the
distance
between
stiffeners
steel
may be
are
stiffeners
readily flanged
cold.
Lloyd's
Rules require that when flanged
stiffeners
12
inches or more in depth, intercostals are to be fitted between

to
the
and connected
fig.
face of the stiffeners (see
159).
not more than
10 feet apart,
trip
bulkhead plating and to a bar on the These intercostals, which are to be spaced should greatly stiffen the bulkhead by preventthe
part
ing any tendency to
on the
of the stiffeners.
stifTeners
In Lloyd's
the
full
Tables the scantlings of the

of
the
it.
are
shown
into
to
vary with
that
depth
bulkhead
as
governing
the
maximum
pressure
could
come upon
When
the
bulkhead
is
divided
zones
by the
abutment of steel decks, the scantlings of the lower stiffeners, that is, those between the tank top, or in single bottom vessels, the top of floors and lowest laid deck, are governed by the full depth as fixing the intensity of 'Tween deck the pressure, and the length of the stiffener as fixing the load. stiffeners are, in the same way, governed by the distance from the top of the
decks, and by the length of the and 'tween decks, except the upper This follows from the 'tween decks, should be bracketed top and bottom.
bulkhead to the lower

Stiffeners
part
of
the
'tween
stiffener.
in
way of holds
consideration that a uniformly loaded girder fixed at the ends

stronger
is
50 per cent,
and five times more rigid than one with free ends. Lloyd's Rules permit bulkhead stifTeners, in small vessels, to be fitted without end brackets, provided their scantlings be increased beyond the tabular requirements. In oil vessels, which are generally built without inner bottoms in way of the oil holds, the knee brackets at the lower ends of the bulkhead stiffeners should be fitted between the floors to the shell. At the edge every watertight bulkhead should have a strong connection
170
to
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
the
shell-plating,
AND CALCULATIONS.
one
is
inner
bottom
is
(where
to the
fitted),
Double angles make a good

the
latter
are
job,
frequently fitted
shell-plating
and deck-plating. and inner bottom and

particularly
in
but
it
becoming
is
increasingly
common,
less
cargo vessels, to have instead large single bars double-riveted in both flanges
arrangement
is
cheaper and
probably not
strong.
Lloyd's
Rules make provision
for
both methods.
Reference has already been made
Fig.
159.
to
the shell liners required in

rivets
way
for
ot
outside
st rakes,
as
compensation
for the
closer spaced
tight
necessary
the
caulking
liners
through
the shell angles of water-
bulkheads.
When
shell
are not fitted, as with joggled plating
or
framing, bracket outside

less
of
or
strakes
knees between the shell-plating and the bulkhead in way are necessary, except where the hold stringers are 5 feet
joints
apart.
The
on
one
side
only of a
bulkhead
require
to
be
CONSTRUCTION OF BULKHEADS.
caulked.
I7 1
angle
and keelsons pass through bulkheads, caulked fitted on the watertight side, and to give a finished Frequently, hold appearance, plate collars, uncaulked, on the other side. stringers are stopped at the bulkheads, and the longitudinal strength is made good by fitting substantial bracket plates connected to the bulkhead by angles, and to the stringers by a riveted lap (see figs. 159 and 160). The subordinate bulkheads of a ship, such as screens and casings, do
Where hold
stringers
collars
should be
not
call
for
a lengthened
description.
They
are
constructed
of
light
plates
and
bars,
the
former
having
single-riveted
joints.
They
tightness
are
is
not
usually
watertight,
fitting
and
where
perforated
by beams,
take
dust
secured
by
plate
collars.
Where
screens
the place of pillars, as in the case

rigidity
is
of side
for,
bunker casings and centre-line bulkheads, additional

is
called
and
with
obtained by increasing the

size,
thickness
of
plating
and making the

have open
floors,
stiffeners
of substantial
the
the
latter
being
fitted
two frame spaces apart in

vessels
line
beams and attached

is
thereto.
Where
the centre-line bulkhead
attached to the vertical plate of the centre keelson.

usually stopped
in way of the hatches, so as not when required for grain cargoes, the Although made good by wood shifting-boards.
is
A
to
centre-line
interfere
bulkhead
is
unduly with
division
siowage, and,
is
continuity of the
interrupted in this way,

vertical
when
properly built, a centre-line bulkhead

resist
a splendid
web, excellently adapted to
longitudinal
deflecting
to
stresses.
When
quarter
riveted
to
machinery casings
they
in
'tween
decks
built,
have
the
take
the
place
of
pillars,
must
be
strongly
and
stiffeners
should
be
the
beams.
is,
DOORS IN WATERTIGHT BULKHEADS. It

that watertight bulkheads
of
course,
desirable
should be
the
intact,
as their efficiency as subdivisions of

cases,
a hold
cut
in
is
then at
its
highest.
In some
however,
doorways
of
them.
For instance,
to
need
of
a
for
direct
means
access
must be from
the engine-room
the
shaft
tunnel, calls
door in the watertight bulk-
head
the
coal
fitted
it
at
the
after-end
of
the
engine-room,
Again, in
most cargo steamers,

reach
the
where the tunnel abuts upon it. a reserve coal bunker lies immediately before
doors
forward boiler-room bulkhead, in which
must be
cases
fitted
so that the
may
at
the
stokehold
level
in
all
floor.
In hold
special
doors
of
have
been
ceiling
the
watertight
to
bulkheads
hold
of
a vessel,
when
deck.
has
been
the
in
desired
foregoing,
to
pass
from
in
without
going
are decks,
on
so
Besides
particularly
at
passenger vessels,
height
to
doors
frequently
that to
made
their
watertight
bulkheads
get
the
the
in
'tween
the
passengers
may
readily
from
place
place
region
devoted
accommodation.
In designing doors
for watertight
bulkheads
it
is
necessary to
remember
one placed near the foot of a bulkhead would have to withstand considerable pressure, if from any cause a compartment on either side of it The framing of the doorway and the door itself are became flooded.
that
therefore
substantial
made
specially
strong.
Usually
is
these
parts
are
of
cast as
iron
also
of
thickness.
The
door
made
of
wedge
shape,
the
172
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
it
AND CALCULATIONS.
joint,
groove in which
metal
to
works,
any degree of tightness of the

thus
obtainable.
which
of
is
a a
metal
one,
being
As
in
the
case
bilging
door would quickly become inaccessible, arrangements must be provided for working them from a high level. Doors in engine and boiler-room bulkFig.
160.
SECTION
UrPERDECK.
rr
bulb angles so'apart
CONNECTION OF STRINGERS TO BULKHEAD
331
SECTION CF
SIDE STRINGEff
from an upper platform doors in other bulkheads Where doors open in a vertical direction (fig. worked from the deck. are 161) the apparatus for working them commonly consists of a vertical shaft with a screw at one end working in a fixed nut in the door. Where they
heads are usually wrought
;
DOORS IN WATERTIGHT BULKHEADS.

open
in
173
at
its
a horizontal
direction,
the vertical
shaft
is
fitted
lower end
with a small pinion wheel which works a fixed rack on the
door.
Doors in bulkheads which give access

designed to withstand
great water
pressure.
into
'tween
decks
need not be
of
plates
to
Usually, so
they
consist
as
hinged
operated
to
the
bulkhead and
either
secured
the
by snibs
fitted
be
readily
from
side
of
bulkhead.
is
The
joint
and the door frame on the bulkhead

yarn or rubber packing
(fig.
made
watertight
between the door by means of spun

vessels
162).
STEMS,
STERNPOSTS,
AND RUDDERS. In
Fig.
merchant
the
161
SHAFT TOR OPERATING DOOR
BULKHEAD
DETAIL SECTION
OF
DOOR FRAME
l t4t j
-DOOR
COVER PLATE
FORMING GROOVE FOR DOOR
stem
.
consists
of
solid
forged
bar
of
iron
or
steel,
or
of
rolled
hull.
steel,
of
suitable
breadth and
thickness,
and forms the fore-end of the
Nowadays,
are usually straight above the load-waterline with a slight rake say, two feet forward, to minimise the effect of a collision, should this happen, and to overcome the impression of falling aft at the head which a quite The clipper stem, so common at one time, is now vertical stem gives.
stems
in sailing ships, as it is a suitable construction on steamers and also has a fine appearance, it is always found. When associated with a hanging or bar keel, the stem becomes a continuation of the same, being connected to it by a vertical scarph similar to that em-
seldom
built
with a bowsprit,
ployed for uniting the lengths of the
"keel
bar.
When
the
keel
is
of centre
T74
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS*
through plate or side bar type, a modification of the ordinary vertical scarph
is
adopted.
is
By
referring
to
fig.
163,
stem
bars,
this
slotted out to receive the
it will be seen that the after-end of the ends of the centre girder and the two side
The total length of which together make up the thickness of the keel* scarph should be about eighteen times the keel thickness, Or double the
Fig
162,
DETAIL
SHEWING FASTENING
-RUBBER PACKING
DOOR
35 PLATINC
BULKHEAD
35 PLATING WEDGE 5*I *

J
TAPERINCTQ^'
DETAIL AT HINGE
OVAL PINHOLE
"
TO ALLOW DOOR TO CLOSE TIGHTLY
HORIZONTAL SECTION
ALTERNATIVE
BULKHEAD
PLAN
^^^^^^
/P; RUBBER DOOR
length
of
scarph
required
the
for
an
ordinary
points
bar
the
keel,
flat
to
allow a
bars.
reasonable
distance
several
between
terminating
of
side
There are
ways of making a connection between a stem bar and a flat plate 164 shows one adopted by many builders. The lower part of the stem is carried three or four feet on to the fore length
keel.
Fig.
of
the
keel,
STEMS.
175
in
and
is
securely riveted to intercostal plates, which
turn
are
riveted
to
the
floors.
The
lower ends of the frames in this vicinity extend below the top of
line
the stem the
shown dotted in the figure, and the fore end of as to come under the stem and yet fay against the ship's side. The keel-plate may be said to end where it rises on to the side of the stem (fig. 164), as in front of that point it becomes an ordinary strake of shell-plating. The preceding is an efficient plan, and obviates the necessity of tapering down and spreading out fanlike the afterend of the stem a more costly arrangement, but one which gives good work and formerly frequently adopted. It will be observed from fig. 165, which
bar to the
is
keel-plate
dished
so
illustrates
this
method,
the
that
the
keel-plate
is
dished round
the
after
part
of
it.
the
stem, and
in
continued for the distance of a frame space, or two under

previous
case,
Thence, as
the
keel-plate
is
lifted
on
to
the
side
of
Fig.
163.
END
OF
CONTINUOUS CENTRE
GIRDER
(NTERCOSTALS ALS
Vr^jsr-TT"
TACK. RIVETS
STEM
KEEL
t
SIDE
BARS
\
E-
SCARPH
to
it.
the
stem and through riveted

of
Through
riveting
is
also
adopted at the
is
after-end
the
stem,
if
is
practicable,
otherwise
tap
for
riveting
resorted
to.
The
stem,
to
centre
keelson-plate
carried
intercostally
few frame spaces
for-
ward of the after-end of the stem and attached

as
in
to to
tongue formed on the
the
sketch,
or
in
lieu
of a
tongue
bottom
bars
tap-riveted
the
stem.
well as
As
with
the
structure
by means of the keel connection, the stem is thoroughly bound by the main shell-plating. The strakes at their forward
rivets
(see
length
will
ends are arranged to lap on each side of the stem, and to pass through all three thicknesses are employed be noticed that the shell-plating
;
sufficient
in
It
fig.
166).
is
kept back
1-inch
the stem
this
is
to
protect the caulking.
At
least
from the front two rows of rivets are
of
re-
quired to connect the shell-plating to the stem, and these should have the same
176
spacing as the keel
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
rivets,
viz.,
AND CALCULATIONS.
Below the load
it
diameters, centre to centre.
waterline the stem should be maintained at full thickness, as

to
is
it
there liable
is
severe
strains
by grounding
In practice
its
or
it
collision
is
above
that
point
usually
reduced somewhat.
area
tapered to the top, where the sectional

value.
has
three-quarters
facilitate
maximum
latter
is
To
damage
at
construction and reduce the cost of repairs, in

stem, the
usually
the
event of
to
the
made
in
two parts with a scarph
about the
light waterline.
Mention may here be made of the practice of
Fig.
ELEVATION
collision
164.
8ULK
/LINE OF
FRAME HEELS
SECTION AT CD.
LOOKING
SECTION AT A. B.
LOOKING F0RW
An
NTfR COSTAL
They are fitted to join the parts together and fairing, but they are a drawback when a portion of the stem has to be removed, as plates on both sides of the stem have to be taken off in order to punch them out, for which reason they
using tack
the
rivets
in
stem scarphs.
erection
for
purpose
of
are
frequently
omitted.
sternpost
STERNPOSTS. The
In
it
forms
the
also
after-end
in
of the hull structure.
sailing-ships
and paddle steamers, and

rudder.
some twin-screw steamers,

however, this
to
consists, like the stem,
of a simple bar, with the addition of forged gudgeons
for
hinging the
In
single-screw
for
steamers,
part
of
the
for
ship
becomes
more
complicated,
in
addition
providing
facilities
STEMS AND STERNPOSTS.

carrying the
176a
the
hull
at
this
rudder,
the propeller shaft, which leaves
point,
must
be
supported
by
it.
Moreover,
the
strain
caused
this
by
the
continual
working of the shaft has to be counteracted, and

p
can only be done by
Fig. making the post and its connections to the hull of ample strength. of this 167 shows the stern frame of an ordinary cargo steamer. The stem vessel is 11 inches by 3 inches, and the increase in strength of sternpost necessary, for the reasons given, is represented by the increase of the thickness
Fig.
165.
ELEVATION
tNDOFKCEL PLATE
Fig.
166.
of the propeller post,
which
inches,
is
joined
while
to
the
shell-plating,
to
9
is
inches,
the
breadth
remaining
the
rudder
post,
which
not
called
upon
this,
to withstand such severe stresses,
may be 9^
in
inches x 9 inches.
Besides
as previously mentioned, the after lengths of the shell-plating,
which come
plates,
upon the
round the
the
stern
propeller
post,
are
augmented
while
thickness above adjoining

plates
in
being usually of midship thickness,

shaft
the
way of the bossing

is
are
still
further
thickened.
of
rivets
The
large
shell-plating
attached
to
frame
by two
rows
of
diameter,
increased
below
i>]6b
SHIP CONSTRUCTION boss in

is
AND CALCULATIONS.
the
tachment
The hull atover 350 feet in length to three rows. improved by securely connecting the upper arms marked A and B* in fig. 167 to floorplates, also by extending the arm G well forward, and connecting it to the keel-plate and middle line keelson. The size of the aperture is fixed by the diameter of the propeller, for It is of the efficient working of which ample clearance must be allowed.
vessels
further
Fig.
167.
importance to keep the propeller as low

its
down
as
possible
so
as
to
is
ensure
always being under water, as
when
the
post,
partly immersed, the efficiency

is
much
15
reduced.
in
For
that
this
purpose the lower part in way of the aperture

sectional
as
this
reduced
per
with-
depth and increased in width,

over
is
area being
part
increased
cent,
of
the
propeller
has
frequently
is
to
*Arm B
required by Lloyd's Rules in vessels whose longitudinal
number
16,000 and above.
STERN P9STS.
stand
for
176^
of
severe
grounding
the
rudder,
stresses.
The main purpose

the
the
or
after-post
is
hanging
the
basis
for
which
should
necessary
braces
gudgeons
to
are
provided, as
shown.
rudder.
of the
These
In
be
the
spaced
rudder
to
sufficiently
close
properly
support
Lloyd's
of
Rules
tabulated
stock
;
distances
in
are
provided
of
the
on the
diameter
the
Rules
be spaced 4 feet apart in vessels of 10 feet depth, and 5 feet 6 inches apart in vessels of 40 feet depth and upwards, the spacing in- vessels between 10 feet and 40 feet depth being
British Corporation,
gudgeons are required
found by interpolation.
diameter of the
sidered in
association
Gudgeons should have a depth equal rudder stock. These details of the sternpost
with
to
to
are
j^ of the
best
conit
the
rudder.
When
frame
vessels
in
are
of
piece.
large
size
becomes
as
impracticable
make
the
stern
one
Moreover,
outside the hull proper is most liable to damage, it facilitates and makes them less costly, if this portion can be easily disconnected from the remainder. We, therefore, usually find that stern frames in large modern single-screw steamers are built up, as shown in fig. 168,
the
part
repairs
with
scarphs
the
as
shown.
The upper
joint
can
be
disconnected without
dis-
turbing
length
main
structure, while
the lower one only interferes with the aftershell-plating.
of the
lowermost strake of
These scarphs should have

equal to i| times, the width
a length equal to three times, and a breadth

of the frames,
and be secured by four rows of rivets. It should be said that stern frames are built as just described, ue. in several pieces, only when they are made of cast steel but there seems no good reason, except the extra expense and difficulty of forging the scarphs, why, in ordinary simple cases, forged stern frames should not be so made,
y ;
considering the
advantages accruing
said
in
thereto.
A
bodies
word may here be

for
regard
to the
relative
merits of cast steel
and forgings
permit
standing
stern
frames,
rudders,
steel
etc.
The
such
rules
of
the
to
classification
the
use
of
cast
for
items,
subject
their
with-
certain
tests,
and
as
castings
are
cheaper
owner's
than
forgings
they
there
are
are
populaf with
objections
for
some
in
builders.
But,
are,
from
for
an
standpoint
reliable
to
castings.
They
latter
instance,
not
as
as
forgings,
in
while
flaws
the
are
rare,
inherent weaknesses, acquired
the
processes of manufacture, frequently exist in stern frames and rudder castings,
and
these,
though
not
disclosed
by the
parts
usual
in
tests,
are
sure
to
manifest
themselves
subsequently
when
the
are
place
and doing
effectively,
their
work.
Again, a defect in a forged frame
may
in
frequently be
quickly,
its
and
re-
cheaply repaired, but a serious

newal,
flaw
steel
casting
simply means
cause
loss
which,
in
addition
to
considerable
It
is
expense,
to
state,
may
to
the
owners in delaying the

years there has
ship.
only
fair
however, that in recent

large steel castings.
been improvement in the manufacture of
Of
as
in
where the forms of stern frames and rudder are complicated, the case of some war vessels and large passenger liners, steel castings
course,
to because
are
resorted
forgings
are
quite
impracticable.
ij6d
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
far,
AND CALCULATIONS.
So
screw
mention.
reference has been
made
as
exclusively to the stern frames of single-
steamers,
but
those
of
modern
in
twin-screw
the
vessels
call
for
special
In the simplest form,
case
of
small
vessels,
the
stern
Fig.
168.
RUOOGR ARMS AT ** BETWEEN PINTLES
PLAN OF RUDDER
ARM
frame proper
propeller
is
of
the
familiar
L-shape
fitted
to
saiiing-ships,
the
projecting
shafts
is
being
supported
in
figs.
by
means
170.
of a
A
the
bracket
first
on
each
it
side.
This
form
illustrated
169,
In
figure
will
be
STERNPOSTS.
observed
shell,
176*?
that
is
the
upper
which
doubled in the
palm of the bracket is fitted directly on to the vicinity, and the lower one is through-riveted
Fig.
169.
SECTION
LOOKING AFT
DETAIL AT
UPPER PALM
STRONG BEAM AT PALM
"CHECK FOR SHELL PLATING

CHECK FOR PALM
KEEL INCREASED IN
IN
DEPTH
WAY
OF
PALM
Fig.
170.
DETAIL AT
UPPER PALM
ANCLE COLLAR
i 7
6/
being
fitted
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
across
part.
AND CALCULATIONS.
way of the palms,
fitted
plates,
the
ship
in
to
give
is
the
necesto
it
sary rigidity
at
this
In the second case, the upper palm
riveted
a plate inside the ship, an angle collar being

forged or cast
round the
is
strut
where
passes through the shell-plating, and the lower palm
riveted to a projection
on the lower part of the stern frame.

in
Very
often,
order
to
keep the
as
lines
of
shafts
near
the
middle
latter
line,
and thus minimise vibration

overlapped, a
well
as
protect
the
propellers, the
are
screw
cases,
aperture
thus
becoming necessary.
with
The
is
usual
arrangein
fig.
ment
171.
in
such
when
associated of
brackets,
in
as
shown
The
aperture
must be
sufficient
width
fore-and-aft
direction
Fig.
171.
to
take
both
propellers;
it
need
us,
not,
however, be
so
high as
for
single
line.
screw, the
upper point of the propeller path

the
being clear of the middle

is
In the special instance before

as
to
the stern frame

brackets,
designed in such a way

being
riveted
is
take
palms
of
the
easily
the
whole
together.
Other arrangements might
be devised, although that shown

of each
propeller
is
very neat.
The
the
different
fore-and-aft
positions
arrived at by
making
shaft
bossing
longer
on one side than on the

have
to
other.
The A
is
bracket system of supporting the propeller shafts, though simple,
not
suitable
that
in
where high speeds

such cases
It
be
attained.
Experiments
serious
have
shown
tion
the
projecting
for
brackets
cause a
augmentaof
of resistance.
was found,
instance, in
one
case, that
a twin-
PROPELLER BRACKETS.
176^
screw vessel of fine form, the propeller shafts of which were encased in tubes supported by two sets of struts, that the resistance caused by the tubes
amounted
of the
.
set of struts to about 10J per cent. Various attempts have been made to overcome this objection by giving a suitable shape to the arms, which from a more or less circular section, in early vessels, became of a flattened oval shape in those more recently built. The results obtained in this way were better,
to
4J per
-cent,
and by each
total
hull
resistance.
but the resistance was

to
still
serious.
The
lines,
strut
resistance
being mainly due

latterly
the
disturbance
of
the
stream
an
attempt
was
made
right
to
eliminate this
by bossing the form of the
vessel
round the
shafts,
up
Fig.
172.
to
the
stern
frame, thus
allowing the
costly,
streams
otherwise
fast
an
plan,
is
although
somewhat
as
has
proved
vessels
unbroken run aft.* This most satisfactory, and

of large
the
size.
now As
the
frequently adopted, particularly in

well
reducing
resistance
to
speed,
bossing
it
hull
round twin-
screw shafts has an

at
after
obvious advantage in that

It
end.
adds much to the strength also obviates the possibility of any lateral strain being
as
brought upon the

"
shafts,
might happen where they are exposed.
at Bremerhaven,
model of the liner Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, when tried in the experimental tank was found to have 12 per cent, more resistance with propeller brackets than
with shaft bossing.
when
fitted
Engineering, 9th October, 1908.
176/1
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
an integral part of the
of
When
hull
fin
properly
Fig.
constructed
172
the
in
bossing becomes
section
structure.
it
shows
the
method
from
constructing
ship's
the
to
is
as
line
is
sometimes
shafting
in
is
called
where
way,
the
distance
will
the
side
the
of
considerable.
As
and
it
be seen, each
side
for
main frame
carried
down
is
the
ordinary
to
at
shaped
fitted
and made
overlap
on the reverse the main frame

leaves
a bar suitably
some
distance
above and below the points
which
the normal
frame
line.
The
Fig.
173.
PLAN
S1DL
ELEVATION
STERNPOST
frame-work
bossing
is
strengthened by web-plates,
not
as
shown.
All
the
frames in the
For a considerable distance the eccentricity in form may be met by bossing out the main frame, the object being to obtain the required shape and strength as economically as possible.
need
be
built
in
this
way.
For the purpose

to
of
forming
steel
bearings
for
the
shafts
and a termination
as
the
bossing,
is
special Fig.
casting,
this
sometimes
frame
described
spectacle
frame,
fitted
173
shows
associated
with
an
ordinary
STERNPOSTS.
propeller
figure
7 6/
frame
having an
aperture
fairly
common
is
arrangement.
;
In the
it
the
spectacle
frame forms
rudder
part
of
the propeller post
frequently
is
it.
a distinct casting bolted to the propeller post, which
complete
without
controls
axis
RUDDERS. The
direction of her
is
that
part
of
in
vessel
which
the
movements when
turns
is
-afloat
and
of
motion.
As
and
it
the
as
about
rudder
which
takes of the
vessel
in
the
vicinity
amidships,
the
the * deflecting force, obviously the best position for

vessel.
is
at
either
end
The
it
after-end
is
is
most convenient
there.
for
the purpose,
and, with
a few exceptions,
always placed
the
In most mercantile vessels

forward end
(figs.
rudder
vessels,
is
is
hinged
in
about
an
axis
at
its
168,
174);
area
in
war
and
some few merchant

obvious
ships,
what
is
termed a balanced rudder

the
lies
fitted,
it.
having the a*is so placed
that
about a third of
latter
before
The
it
advantage of
the
star-
type consists in the ease with which

It
can be put over to port or

especially,
board.
has a disadvantage, however, in being somewhat costly, a sufficient

its
reason to debar
to
their
adoption
power.
the
in
ordinary
cargo
type
vessels,
'as
owing
steer-
low speed, a rudder of

of moderate
common
frame of
can be operated
by a
ing gear
Fig.
a modern cargo steamer of large main frame or stock with arms at right angles to it, the latter being spaced close enough to afford sufficient support to a heavy plate which gives the contour of the rudder. The arms, which are forged or cast with the rudder frame, are arranged on alternate sides of the plate, as shown in the sketch. The rivets attaching the arms to the rudder-plate should be of large size, and the arms kept back a little from the outside edge of the plate to protect them from being torn off. The rudder is attached to the stern frame by means of bolts or pintles, which ship into gudgeons on the after-part of the stern frame. These gudgeons are forged or cast solid with the stern frame, and are afterwards
168 shows
is
rudder
size.
It
seen to consist of a vertical
bored out
in
at
the ship the
as
required,
care
being
a
true
taken
axis.
to
keep
their
centres
line
so
that
also
rudder
may have
Formerly,
the
rudder
pintles
were
forged
on the rudder frame, but are now usually portable

style
bolts, as in the illustration given.
Fig.
It
74
shows a
stock
is
of
rudder
that
frequently
are
fitted
in
modern
fitted
vessels.
has
circular
and arms
spaced
separate
forgings
one
case,
at to
each
allow
fitting
pintle.
This
about
wider
double
the
spacing
are
of
the
previous
for
which
the
arms
is
made
relatively
heavier.
In a
the
the parts
on,
is
together the post

fitted
turned in way of the arms, which are

prevent
the
the
shrunk
groove
stresses
key being
to
arms
turning.
to
Usually
fit
cut in
it
the back of the
stock
for
rudder-plate
into,
on
arms
being thus communicated directly to the stock and the rivets

to
in
the
some extent
Fig.
-is
relieved.
is
The weight
of the sternpost.
the
of the rudder, in most cases,
taken by the bottom gudgeon

detail.
175 shows this arrangement in
The
with
socket for
the others-,
bottom
pintle
not continued through the gudgeon as
176;
but
sufficient
SHIP CONSTRUCTION AND CALCULATIONS.

housing
is
allowed
to
prevent
any danger of accidentally
un-
shipping.
To In the present instance, the depth of the socket is 4 inches. minimise friction, the bottom of the pintle is rounded, and a suitable bearing
provided
by
fitting
hemispherical
of
steel
disc
into
the
it
gudgeon
to
socket.
Experience
with
this
style
bearing
has
not
shown
be
completely
Fig.
174.
SINGLE PLATE RUDDER
ARMS AT PINTLES
^^
satisfactory.
The
the
weight of the rudder soon produces wearing, which then becoming greater than
to
if
is
usually
uneven,
the
friction
no disc were used.

the
post
is
The
enable
hole from
bottom of the socket

are
all
the
heel of
to
the disc to be easily removed.
Rudder
what shorter
refer
pintles
alike
except
the
pintle
the
bottom
pintle,
fits
one,
to
which which
is
someshall
is
than
the
others,
and
"lock"'
we
presently.
The
part of each
which
into
the
rudder frame
RUDDERS.
tapered from bottom to top, to prevent
of the pintle
its
176/$
being knocked out.

it
On
driven
the head
a large nut
is
fitted,
which secures
by a
as
steel
in position,
any slackenthrough
ing tendency being guarded the pintle
against
nut,
pin
which
is
immediately over the
shown.
To
prevent accidental
unshipment of the rudder, a locking arrangement

is
must be devised. A simple plan the top one with a bottom collar Another point of importance
to
make one
176).
of the pintles
preferably
rudder
(fig.
for
the
satisfactory
working
of the
is
to provide a
means of
limiting the
turning angle, which, in ordinary cases,
should not exceed 35 to 40 degrees. common design of stopper, it will be
Referring to
seeri
fig.
177,
which shows a
of the rudder
that the
movement
Fig.
175.
beyond a certain inclination is checked by widening out one of the gudgeons on the sternpost and altering the shape of the rudder stock in the vicinity, so that each surface may bear solidly on the other at the required angle. In a very large vessel two such stoppers would be needed, and they should be fitted so as to distribute the pressure equally over the sternpost. Stoppers must also be fitted on deck, the rudder movement being here controlled by stopping the quadrant or tiller arm. Where a good brake is fitted to the tiller, or the quadrant is geared on to the steam steering engine, no deck
stops
are
necessary,
the
control
being sufficient without them.
The
for.
cargo vessel,
is fitted in an ordinary be observed that only bare essentials are provided Where an owner does not object to extra expense in order to obtain is
foregoing
a description of a rudder such as

will
and
it
greater
efficiency,
refinements are introduced.
For instance,
it
is
advantageous
T76/
to to
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
the
line
is
AND CALCULATIONS.
lignum-vilae
(fig.
bush
also
gudgeons with
the
pintles with
brass
or or
178),
brass
gun-metal
(fig.
179).
parts,
the rudder
made The
to
work more smoothly, and as the

to
and more so By these means when worn, can

is
be renewed with
maintained.
little
trouble or expense, a high standard of efficiency
easily
objection
carrying
the
weight
to.
of
rudder
on
the
bottom gudgeon has already been referred overcome by causing the rudder to bear on several or on all the gudgeons, circular discs or washers of white metal being inserted between the rudder lugs
This
has
sometimes
been
and the gudgeons
for
this
purpose.
Another plan
is
to
fit
solid
washers,
cone-shaped at bottom, into each gudgeon, with pintles having tapered points to suit. The weight of the rudder is thus distributed over all the gudgeons,
and there
these
can
be
little
or
no
side
movement
of
the
rudder.
By both
arrangements,
of
it
course,
is
rudder
than
when
more power will be required to turn the supported on a footstep bearing only, but this is
Fig.
176.
Fig.
177.
no drawback where there
is
an
efficient
steam
steering
gear.
Occasionally
rudders are fitted which do not bear on the gudgeons, the weight being taken
floor.
by a thrust block inside the vessel, usually fitted at the level of the transom With balanced rudders this is the invariable plan, the bottom pintle,
where there
is
one, serving
merely as
guide.
The
when
fitting
of an
it
internal
bearing
to
rudder of ordinary type adds to the
cost,
but
has the ad-
vantage of accessibility, an important consideration

parts.
dealing with working
greatly in size and weight, it becomes necessary means of shipping and unshipping them without disturbing the steering gear and inboard stuffing boxes. It is customary, in such cases, to fit a coupling just under the counter, and this is found to answer the purHorizontal couplings, as illustrated by figs. 168, 174 ancj pose admirably. 180, are common, although others of a vertical type are sometimes fitted (figs. With such an arrangement, to unship a rudder it is only 181 and 181a).
When
rudders increase
to
devise a simple
RUDDERS.
necessary to unscrew the pintle nuts,
thus
allowing the pintles
to
t 7
6m
drop
out,
and
to
disconnect the rudder coupling.
By means of block and

its
tackle, the
rudder may then be easily

Fig.
moved
out of
usual
position.
178.
Fig.
179.
i i
Fig.
180.
Nowadays, the rudder proper

as
is
usually formed
by a
single
still
heavy plate
previously
is
described
design
another
followed,
to
the
sometimes frame to the desired contour, as illustrated in fig.
plan,
once
universal,
and
i76
182.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
Each
side of this
frame
filled
is
covered by thin plating, through-riveted, the

solid with
space thus enclosed being
in
wood
or cement.
This
style
is
Fig.
181.
vertical
M'LACHLAN'S
coupling
.-9 0IA'
Fig.
181a.
'WEDGEW0OD5 SCARPHED
coyPLirsci
v-H
BOLTS g lDlA'
not
so
strong
as
that
as
of
the
single
plate;
it
is
also
more
liable
to
decay
through
corrosion,
the
inside
surfaces
of the
rudder-plating
are
obviously
RUDDERS.
inaccessible
for-
1760
chief
cleaning.
vessels
it
These were
in
is
the the
reasons
of
type.
its
abandonIn
special
ment
cases,
its
in
ordinary
favour
of
single-plate
such as yachts,
appearance.
still
retained for
Fig.
finer
182.
The
latter,
sizes
of the various parts of a rudder
are governed
by the area and shape of the and the speed of the vessel. Knowing these particulars, the twisting moment can be determined and the requisite diameter for the head of the rudder stock calculated. The
aggregate sectional area of theârms supporting the
single plate
depends to some extent

to
on the
it
bending moment
be sustained, but
this
should be increased beyond
requirement
to allow for shocks
from the
sea, to
which the
suffi-
rudder in stormy weather may be subjected.
The
cient
for
sizes
of the pintles should also be
to withstand these
tear,
shocks and provide
wear and
considerable at these parts.
The
strength of the
coupling joint must be
equal to that of the stock.
This entails flanges
of considerable thickness and a sufficient
numaxis
ber of coupling bolts, the

aggregate
strength
moment
the
of whose
about
torsional
rudder
of
should be equal to the twisting moment, and,

therefore,
to
the
strength
the
rudder stock.
These are the

course,
if
principles
which must be
followed in making detailed calculations.
Of
of
a ship
at
is
to
be
built
to
Lloyd's
part
Rules, the
as
such
calculations,
all
on
are
the
builder
detailed
events,
unnecessary,
are
pro-
dimensions
of
rudders
tables.
is
vided in carefully compiled

the diameter of rudder stock
In these
given^ for vari-
ous
the
in
speeds
under
of
numbers
which
represent
product
the total area of the rudder centre

in
line
feet
square feet abaft the
of of
the
the
pintles,
and
the
distance
centre of gravity of this area abaft the same

line.
SECTION THROUGH A
fitted
B.
As
in.
previously remarked, rudders

instance, as have to
are
sometimes
to
at
the fore ends of
vessels, such, for
navigate
channels too confined to turn
These
rudders
to
are
usually
designed
of the
come
inside
the
line
of
or
the
less
stem,
and
follow
the
shape
vessel,
being
thus
more
176/
buoyant
purposes,
of a
(fig.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
183).
AND CALCULATIONS.
is
The rudder
in
stock
carried
to
is
the
worked by a simple hand-gear.
As a bow rudder
is
mainly for
when not
bolt.
use
it
locked in a fore-and-aft
and emergency position by means

weather-deck
strong
Fig.
183.
PLAN OF TOP OF RUDDER
CHAPTER
VII.
Equilibrium of Floating: Bodies: Metacentric

Stability.
FROM
the
floating
.
our considerations in Chapters

forces
in
I.
and
II.,
we know something
fig.
of
is
operation
at
when,
still
as
depicted
in
184,
vessel
freely
and
or
rest
in
water.
We
or
know,
for
instance
t
That the i downward forces

2.
total
upward
forces,
buoyancy,
mus
equal
the
total
weight
That the resultant of the downward forces acts through <?, the centre and the resultant of the upward forces through B, the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid, already denned as the centre of buoyancy.
of gravity of the weights,
It
is
now
necessary to note that
these
two equal and opposite resultant
Fig.
184.
IL_
forces
must act
in
the
same
vertical
line,
for,
if
the lines of action did not

disturb the equilibrium!
vessel
coincide, a turning
moment would be
force
in operation to
to
Now, suppose an external heel over, as shown in fig.

the displacement
is
to
act
upon the
weights
185.
No
by
LX
have
and cause her been added, thereout of the water
fore
unchanged, and the volume

counterbalanced
the
are
lifted
on
one
;
side
is,
must
the
be
volume
equal.
immersed
on
the
other
that
wedges
W\S
and
SL
As the immersed body is now altered in form, the centre of buoyancy no longer at B but takes up some new position B and as there has been no change in the disposition of the weights, the centre of gravity G The two equal resultant forces act clown through is not altered in position.
is
x
177
78
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
lines
G,
and up through
distance
acting
respectively,
their
of
in
action
having
a
the
perpenturning
original
dicular
GZ
between
vessel
them,
as
drawn
tends
the
figure.
The
to
moment
on the
obviously
to
restore
her
Fig.
185.
position,
and
the
she
centre
is
therefore
said
to
to
be
in
stable
equilibrium.
position
in
fig.
Next,
suppose
say,
of
gravity
be
raised
from
the
184
cargo
by pumping
out
ballast
tank,
and
by putting
quantity
of
Fig.
186.
into
the
'tween
decks
in
order
let
to
keep
will
the
displacement the same,

coincident
with
or by
some
fig.
other
means.
First,
G become
act
exactly
M
and
(see
186).
As
before,
the
weight
downwards
through
the
Fig.
187.
buoyancy upwards
posite
will
in
the
line
B M.
2
The
line,
forces
will
therefore
act
in
op-
directions
in
the
same
In
vertical
this
and
being
will
equal
in
magnitude
neutralise
each
other.
case
there
be no lever tending to
DEFINITION OF TRANSVERSE METACENTRE.

heel
the
vessel,
79
which
is
will
not
tend
of
to
depart
from
its
inclined
position.
The
raised
vessel
lines,
is,
condition
said
to
be
one
at
fig.
neutral
will
above M.
causing
glance
187
Now, let G be show what will happen if the

equilibrium.
forces
will
be inclined as before.
a heeling
The two moment to be

difference
resultant
in
act
in
different
operation
this
on the
heeling
vessel.
There
to
right
however, a very important

existing
vessel,
between
from
the
moment and
not
that
when G was below M>

to
incline
the
tendency being
the
initial
now,
the
but
her
further
position.
is
With G
unstable
above M, therefore, the

equilibrium.
vessel,
when
in
upright
position,
in
We
floating
thus
vessel
see
that
the
relation
between
or
the
points
G and
M
is
in
entirely
determines the nature of her equilibrium.

its
called
the
metacentre
from
being
rise,
if
;
the
meta
limit
of gravity
It
G must not
defined as
a condition
of
stability
beyond which the centre maintained. is to be
may be
follows
Definition of Transverse Metacentre. If a vessel be floating upright at rest and in equilibrium, at a certaifi draughty and be then inclined through a very small angle\ the point in which the vertical line through the
new
centre
of buoyancy
metacentre
intersects
the
middle
line
of the
ship}
is
called
is,
the in
transverse
at
that
draught.
For
It
it
every
draught
there
also
ordinary vessels, a
different
position
of metacentre.
is
The
for
point
changes
with
every inclination from the

for
upright.
to
usual, however,
and
if
sufficiently
correct
practical
purposes,
assume
as
fixed
inclinations
up to
the
10 or 11
distance
degrees.
This
is
important, as within these limits,
we know
G M, we can Moment of Statical
determine the vessel's righting power, since

Stability in foot-l
tons at any angle 6
,,,
x BZ
Hf x
QM
..
Sm
I,
W, the displacement, being given in tons, and G Z or G M in feet. This is known as metacentric stability, G M being called the metacentric height It must be borne in mind that this method applies only up to the beyond these it is unreliable, as M changes rapidly in angles above given
;
position,
is
and G
has no longer
its
initial
value,
which
is
the
only one that
used by the metacentric method.

curves
of
at
stability,
Further on we shall see, when considering
actual
that
in
many
cases
considerable
error
would be
involved, even
moderate angles, by using the above formula
for calculating
the
moment
of stability.
is,
knowledge of a vessel's metacentric height purposes. It is an excellent guide, for instance,

not a vessel
however, useful for
many
for
determining whether or
tanks
may be
safely shifted
in
harbour, or whether ballast
may
be run up, or, in the case of a vessel carrying oil in bulk, how the loading In conducting the first of these operaof cargo should be proceeded with. tions, there need be no inclination from the upright exceeding that for which
the
moment
of stability
may be
written
W
so that in order to
shift
GM
x Sin
ft
it
the
vessel
with
confidence,
is
only necessary to
l8o
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
the value
great
AND CALCULATIONS.
sufficient.
make sure that G M should be
of
G
to
is
In
the
two
its
last
operations
enough
if
allow for
the
reduction in
value
due to
the presence of free liquid in the vessel.
We
to
shall return to this point again.
Besides the foregoing,

will
the vessel be of
known
type,
the metacentric height
furnish
good
basis
from which
predict
the
probable
nature
of
her stability at large
angles
of inclination.
The
great
importance of the points

to
G and
M
or
will
now be
of
manifest,
his
and
in
a shipmaster ought
available.
know
for
every
sea,
condition of
lading
vessel
which she may have to put to
what
the
GM
metacentric height he has
In considering these two centres,

of each of the
influences
controlling
the
position
should be carefully noted.

weights,
case.
Obviously,
and we
shall
show presently
M,
however,
is
G is fixed by the distribution how it may be determined in

dis-
any given
of
the
The
point
not affected by the weight

vessel,
tribution, but only
by the underwater volume of the

to
and by the shape

written
waterplane.
relatively
This appears from the formula that gives the height of

the centre
of buoyancy, which
"i
the point
may be
Height of transverse metacentre
M
'
I
1
above centre of buoyancy

where
as
I/
is
the
moment
of
of inertia
of
the
waterplane
about
its
middle
line
axis,
and V the volume of displacement.

the
The numerator
to
right-hand
:
member
of
this
equation
may be
ex-
plained in a popular way, as follows
Imagine
the area of the whole waterplane
be divided into an infinite number of parts, and the distances of the centres of these elements from the middle line ascertained; then, if each of these small areas be multiplied by the square of its distance from the axis, and the
sum
of the products be taken, the result will be the
moment
the
of inertia required.
Although
inertia in
it
involves of an
some
calculation
to
obtain
above
moment
for
of
the
case
ordinary-shaped vessel, owing to the varying nature

waterplane,
it
of the
figure
boundary
line
of the
may be
circle,
quickly obtained
as
any
of simple form
such as a square, a
or a triangle,
established
formulas are then available.

vessel.
We
have a case in point in a floating box-shaped

is
Here
this
the outline of the waterplane

figure
a rectangle, and the

L
inertia of
about the major axis
is
R3
moment
length
of
of
where L
is
the
the vessel,
and 8 the breadth.

for
Applying the formula

the centre of buoyancy
the
height
of the
transverse
metacentre above
we have
L x B*
LxBxD
15 feet;
i2
0'
being the mean draught. 150 feet; breadth, 30 feet;
If the actual
dimensions of the vessel be

then
length,
draught,
12 x 15
CALCULATION OF BM.
Almost as simple
that the expression for half the previous value,
a
131
is
case
occurs
when
the vessel
is,
of constant triangular
section with the apex down.
The
waterplane
as
before,
is
a rectangle,
so
/ is unchanged, but the displacement and we now have

L x B*
obviously only
BM
We
therefore
B2
LxBxD
6D
its
note that a floating vessel of this form has
transverse
metacentre at twice the height above the centre of buoyancy of another having
a rectangular section,
the
Moreover, in a vessel of
greater height above
lute height of the
triangular
extreme dimensions in each case being the same. section, the centre of buoyancy is at a
the
base line than in the other case, so that the absois,
metacentre
on
this account,
still
further increased.
lie
Now,
the
the forms of the 'midship sections of ordinary ship-shaped bodies the
between
two extreme cases

of tapered
of
just
considered,
the
and,
effect
neglecting
for
the
moment
influence
position
lines,
general
of
change of design upon the

grasped.
It
is
the
transverse
metacentre
may be
is
important to
note in the
above formula that B
independent of the length, while the

This
breadth appears in the second power.
shows the influence of breadth

vessels
on
stability,
and explains why broad shallow

case
have always
high
meta-
centres.
A
axis
unique
occurs
where the
vessel
is
a floating
as
cylinder
with
its
horizontal.
In
ordinary vessels
the
metacentre,
we have
seen,
may
In this case, however, be considered as a fixed point only for one draught. the vertical through the centre of buoyancy will intersect the middle line
at
the
that,
since
same point at all draughts. the immersed section is

its
This
part
will
be apparent,
the
centre
if
we consider
to
of a circle, a normal
any waterbuoyancy,
line
through
intersect
middle
point
line
will
pass
through
of
and
for
the of
middle
of the
vessel at the centre

is
of section.
for
Thus,
trans-
a vessel
cylindrical
section,
there
only one
position
the
verse
metacentre.
In
applying
the
formula
BM =
-rj
to
ship-shaped
bodies,
/.
the
work,
as
already stated, mainly consists in

tion
it
obtaining the value of
In actual calculaof equal parts,
is
usual to divide the waterplane into an even
number
suitable for the application of Simpson's
First Rule, to treat the
cubes of the
ordinates,
measured
the
at
the
the
points
latter
of
in
division,
as
feet,
ordinates
two-thirds
of a of
new
the
curve,
and
so
line.
find
area
of
square
quantity
obtained being the
moment
of inertia of the waterplane about the middle
obtain the value of the height of the transverse metacentre above the centre of buoyancy, this moment of inertia, as we have seen, must be
To
divided
by the volume
of
the
ship's
displacement
practical
in
cubic
feet
up
to
the
waterplane or draught considered.
As
examples of the foregoing, and
l82
in
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
order
in to
AND CALCULATIONS.
us,
impress
particular
the
method upon
vessels,
full
BM
two
cargo
both
of
we shall modern
inches;
calculate
type.
the value
first is
of
The
small deadweight carrier of

length, 275 feet; 3
co-efficient,
feet,
feet,
having the following dimensions:

6
inches;
tons.
is
the
extreme breadth, 39 load draught is 18

shall
inches,
moulded depth, 20 feet, and the displacement

this
4535 work
have
We
in
deal
table
with
the vessel
when
first
in
condition.
The
given
the
below.
In
the
and
second
columns we
numbers of the half ordinates of the load-waterplane, reckoning from the after end, and their breadths as measured at the points of division in the third column are tabulated the cubes of these half ordinates, and in the fourth and fifth, Simpson's Multipliers and the products of these multithe
;
pliers
with
the
cubes,
respectively.
No. of
J.
Ordinates.
APPROXIMATE CALCULATION OF
No. of Ordinat.es.
1!M.
183
1^4
treated,
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
ship's
is
AND CALCULATIONS.
displacement
as the volume of a V = t x B x D x G 2 where C 2 these approximations, we get

,
may
always
be
written
co-efficient varying with
the form.
Using
bM
may become k may rise to
it
I/' C t
LttD=
even
X
2
D~ H Dwhile
in
fine
For many classes of merchant vessels k

as
'15.
let
'09,
;
in
vessels
of
full
form
low as
us
*o8,
or
less
ships,
such as yachts,
As a
for
test,
apply
the
approximate
calculations.
formula
to
the
two
examples
which we have
full
made
~
^2
detailed
For the small
vessel,
which
has
ends, k
=
=
^ = 7
87
'
*o8o6
and therefore
BM
In the
larger
-0806 x
the
39
5 Q
X
^
'
9 5
6-77
feet.
18-58
vessel,
finer,
ends
ot
the
load
waterplane
and the underwater
body are both
and making due allowance
and
BM
-0818 x ^
*LL =
27-25
of
9 40
feet.
Values of height of metacentre above

therefore
centre
figures
buoyancy thus obtained are

it
seen to approach
the
actual
very closely.
is
In order
to
for
to fix the position of the
metacentre in the vessel,
necessary
know
2o
the height of the centre of buoyancy.
In approximate calculations,
as
vessels of ordinary
form, this value
may be taken
vessels.
varying between
and
line,
of the
latter
mean moulded
figure
draught, measured
for
full
the
being used
downwards from the waterFor detailed calculations,
the position of the centre of buoyancy,

the vessel, must, of course, be employed.
as
obtained from correct drawings oi
While
metacentre
it
is
most important to know the position of a

floating
at
vessel's
transverse
when
her
load
draught,
it
is
frequently
necessary to
know
tion
is
it
for
other draughts.
critical one,
For some classes of vessels the launching condiand the amount of GM available then should be known.
of
vessels
Cases
are
on
record
capsizing
through
deficient
stability,
while
being launched.
Another important condition
for
which the metacentric height should be

is
known
is
that
called
"light-ship,"
which means that the vessel

cargo
or
complete,
including
machinery,
but
is
without
bunker
coal.
This condition
forms an excellent basis from which to calculate the value of

vessel
GM
that
for
the
when laden
with any kind of cargo.

is
Still
another condition calling for special consideration
when
in
ballast.
Modern
cargo
vessels
frequently
perform
voyages
in
ballast
trim,
will
and
calculations
should be made to find the disposition of ballast which
give a value of
GM,
ensuring the good behaviour of the vessel at sea.
DIAGRAM OF METACENTRES.
185
is
essential to
gravity.
Thus we have, including the loaded one, four conditions for which it know the positions of the transverse metacentre and the centre
of
is
To
enable us to find the former quickly at any draught, a diagram
constructed showing the change in the position of
with change in draught.
(The centre of gravity must be dealt with
specially, as
The
curve of metacentres
is
usually plotted
which the curve of centres of buoyancy is the two curves at any point being the value of
draught.
for
we shall show afterwards). on a diagram, such as fig. 188, on also drawn the distance between
at
the
corresponding
is
In plotting the curve of metacentres, the procedure

curve of centres of buoyancy,
the
same
as
the
which we may assume
to
be already
Fig.
188.
plotted.
That
is
is
to
say,
referring
to
off
fig.
188,
B.
the
height
of
for
various points
draughts
calculated
etc., is
and
spotted
on A
Then each
refers,
of these
},
M^
s,
translated out horizontally, a distance equal to that

it
between
is
the load
draught and the draught to which
and a curve
y
drawn
through them.
To
complete the diagram, a

A,
line
AA
at 45
to
the vertical
where the load waterplane intersects A B. To obtain, now, from such a diagram, the value of B M at any draught, BE say, it is only necessary to draw a horizontal line at that draught to intersect the line AA x aX some point Elt and to draw through the latter point a vertical line
A B
is
drawn from the point
to the
after
curves of
little
buoyancy and metacentres
at
B and
BE.
It
will
be
clear,
consideration, that
is
the
height
of metacentre above
the
centre of buoyancy corresponding to the draught
i86
In
structed
fig.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
diagram,
floating
189
this
are
shown,
for
in
one
curves
of
metacentres
cross
con-
in
way
prismatic
bodies
having
of
sections
of
rectangular,
0.
triangular,
and
circular
form,
to
marked
It
is
respectively
R /?,
7",
The
full
curve
marked
This diagram
for
applys
is
cargo vessel
will
ordinary form
with
the
falls
lines.
very instructive.
triangular
locus
as
of
a vessel of
diminishes
as
section
to
straight
be noticed that line which

in
the
of
draught
vessels
characteristic
be
found
the
dia-
grams
fine
they
approach
very
light
draughts,
the
immersed
for
volume being then more or less triangular in form. cular section, as might be expected, is a horizontal
ciding
The
locus
line,
cir-
straight
coin-
with
the
centre
of
the
section
for
all
draughts.
The curve
for
the
Fig.
189.
vessel
of
box form resembles that

that
is
for
the
ordinary ship in
being convex to
as
the
base;
to
say,
the
position
of
M
02
at
first
falls,
the
is
vessel
lightens.
For a box-shaped
of
vessel,
M=
as
-,
so that, since
constant,
the of
value
the
M
of
continually
increases
is,
diminishes.
The convex shape

to
curve of metacentres
centre
therefore,
entirely
due
the
fact
that,
at
infull
first,
the
buoyancy
in
falls
more quickly than the value of

curves
of
BM
of
creases.
This
peculiarity
the
metacentres
if
of
vessels
form should be carefully noted, as we see that

of
gravity
to
the
position
rises
of the centre the
be
draught
although
another
assumed unchanged, somewhat less

or
while
vessel
from
will
load
the
of the
initial
stability
be
reduced,
will
the
" freeboard,"
height
deck
above
the
waterplane,
be increased.
TO FIND POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
187
GRAVITY.
METHODS OF FINDING THE POSITION OF THE CENTRE OF A knowledge of the position of the transverse metacentre at
any draught, as provided by such diagrams as the above, is of itself of no value whatever in predicting a vessel's initial stability. For example, we may
have two similar vessels with identical curves of metacentres, and yet
load
at
the
draught
one
may have
already,
excessive
it
initial
stability,
and
the
the
other
of
be
unstable.
As
to,
stated
is
is
the
relation
between
In
the
positions
vessels
and
G which
the the
of
paramount
as to point.
;
importance.
stability
similar
just
referred
condition
latter
has
stable
been
entirely
influenced
by the
have
position
of
In
the
vessel
the
heavy items
been placed low down in the other, the opposite has been the case. This shows how much the behaviour of a vessel at sea depends on those
who have charge

Fortunately,
of her
stowage.
determined very easily by means of an experiand being thus known for a given condition, the effect of a new As disposition of cargo on the initial stability may be closely estimated. This is well as by experiment, G may be found directly by calculation. the method employed by the naval architect in the preliminary stages of a
ment,
ship's
G may be
design in arranging the positions
of
at
the
fixed
weights.
In warships,
displacements,
yachts,
and
other
for
vessels,
which
sail
practically
constant
the
estimate
the
centre
any defect in the

corrected.
seen,
is
stability
of gravity must be very carefully made, since on completion cannot, without great expense, be
vessels
In
freight-carrying
the
of
stowage
6,
of
its
cargo,
as
we
have
greatly influences
the
final
position
and
its
"light-ship"
position
therefore
not of the same

in
G.
this It
importance.
elaborate
in
all
We
method
ing,
cannot,
of
fact,
work,
is,
details
the
calculation
consistship's
finding
however,
perfectly
simple
in
principle,
in
of a huge
moment
is
calculation, in
which every item of a

its
weight,
including
her
cargo,
multiplied
by
distance
from
two
datum
lines at right angles in the
middle-line plane, the centre of gravity being fixed
by the values obtained when the sum of each of these systems of moments is divided by the total weight of the vessel. The datum lines are taken in the
middle-line
plane,
as
obviously,
lie
since
both sides
in
of
the
ship
are
alike,
the
centre
of gravity
must
to
in
that
briefly
plane.
consists
The experimental method, which

heeling the
effect
we now proceed
a weight
centre across
of gravity, of
explain,
vessel
by moving
ship's
the
deck,
observing
the
consequent
upon the
the
position
M
is
and thence deducing the value of GM. From this, since is known, the height of G may then be determined.
it
In carrying out an experiment

that
is
important to see, in the

/.<?.,
first
place,
the
vessel
floating
quite
freely,
not
aground
at
any
point,
or
by neighbouring vessels, or too tightly moored to the quay. Indeed, it would be better if moorings could be unloosed altogether. The condition of the vessel should next be noted. If she be "light," the holds, ballast tanks, and bunkers, should be empty. If some coal still
remain in the bunkers,
it
unduly
hampered
should
be
trimmed
level
so
that
its
weight
and
IO
position
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
of centre
of gravity
AND CALCULATIONS. The

weights and
positions
vessel,
may be
require
determined.
to
of
all
items which
may
still
go on board to complete the
such as deck machinery, small boats,

is
etc.,
must also be noted.
correction
made
in
afterwards to allow for
the
effect
on the
final
position of centre of
If
gravity
by the removal or addition of

loaded trim, the ballast tanks
these
weights.
the
vessel
should
be
be
will
probably be empty, but they should
carefully
sounded,
or
and
is
any
got
loose
water
pumped
to
out.
ballast
tanks
holds
particularly
detrimental
such
Loose water in an experiment.

fair
The apparatus may now be a plumb line and bob, and

weight should
inclination
ready.
This consists of the heeling weight,

edge.
a straight
For a vessel of
so
as
to
size,
the
not be less than about ten

the
tons,
ensure
definite
when
been
weight
is
moved
with
across
lighter
the
deck.
Successful
experi-
ments
have
carried
out
heeling
weight,
when
the
dis-
Fig.
190.
tance
moved has been
considerable,
as,
of course, the heeling
consists of the product of the weight into the distance
moment, which moved, may be made

vessel.
up of a heavy weight into a short distance, or vice versa. The plumb line is usually hung in the middle-line plane of the
convenient
place,
when
the
holds
are
empty,
is
at
a hatchway,
the
line
being suspended at the upper-deck coaming, and the weight
marked on a straight edge arranged for With a loaded vessel this will, of course, not be possible, but a mast-stay, if screwed up tightly, will do quite well to suspend the bob weight from, and a straight edge on which to record the movements of the latter could be fitted in a suitable position near the deck. The method of conductceiling.
movements of the bob the purpose on top of the
ing the
actual experiment
may now be
on
each
described.
side
In the
first
place, half
at
the
heeling
weight
is
arranged
of
the
upper
deck,
is
place
allowing an unobstructed passage across the ship.
The
vessel
in the upright
TO FIND POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY.

position,
is
89
carefully
and the point marked (fig. The weight on one

as
where
the
plumb bob
crosses
the
straight
edge
190).
the
ship,
side is then moved through a distance a feet across shown, causing the plumb line to move out of the centre and
take
up a position R K.
other
in
Now, moving
the
heeling
weight
from
one
side
of the ship to the

to
causes the centre
of gravity of the whole
structure
move
the
same
direction
is
through a distance given by the equation

heeling
G G\=
moved
clearly
777-,
in
where
the
weight
in
in
tons,
a the distance
it
is
feet,
and
W
the
the
total
displacement
vessel
line
;
tons.
The
point
G\
is
the
is
centre
of gravity
of the
in
the inclined
of
the
the
condition.
resultant
Since
there
force
equilibrium,
in
upward
of
action
buoyant
of this
must be
line
the the the
vertical
GJH
and
it
M
is,
being
intersection
vertical
with
middle
line,
by
l
definition,
the
metacentre.
therefore,
From
inspection,
triangles
N R K and G M G
are
similar,
and
GM
The
inclination
JV_R
distance
get
GG,~N K*
being very small,
line.
the
NR
may be taken
as
the
length
of the
plumb
We
length
therefore
GM =
This
is
ofûmbline
(uncorrected),
x0fly
all
the
metacentric
the
height
and
of
that
remains
the
to
be
line,
done
is
to
obtain
position
of the
centre
of gravity
the
above
base
to
deduct
this
distance
at
this
from
draft,
the
as
height
transverse
metacentre
of
above the same

centres.
line
measured from the

to
diagram
metaof
Corrections
weights,
are
for
afterwards
made
allow
for
the
removal
the
if
inclining
and
the
addition
and deduction of other
weights,
such be necessary to bring the vessel into the desired condition. It is the custom with certain shipbuilders to heel their vessels
position of the centre of gravity
for
the
when
in the
first
two of the four conditions

" light "
previously
mentioned,
the
viz.,
the
" launching "
and
is
conditions.
With
with. to
other
shipbuilders
"light-ship"
for
condition
light
the
is
only
one
dealt
The
the
information
shipmaster, to
centre
or
obtained
the
condition
for
frequently
supplied
be used as a basis
making estimates of the position
of the
in
of gravity
when
in
ballast,
when
a
put
fully
strict
loaded.
any actual service condition, such as when In these estimates it is, of course,
of the
necessary
to
have
account
weights
of
the
various
items
of
on board, with the positions of their centres above the base, or any other datum line, and to combine the whole in a moment For ballast conditions, particularly where the ballast consists calculation. of water in fixed compartments, and for loaded conditions with homofor loaded conditions with geneous cargoes, this method is quite 'reliable
cargo
or
ballast
;
miscellaneous
feared
that
cargoes,
however,
required
it
is
not
so
satisfactory,
as
it
is
to
be
of
the
care
to
ascertain
the
weight
and
the
centre
190
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
would not always be exercised
centre
gravity of every individual item of the cargo,
and without such
care,
the calculated position of the ship's
of gravity of
his
might be very wide of

vessel
the
mark.
stability,
To make
when
a
special
sure
of
the
condition
with
regard
to
initial
fully
loaded with a mixed cargo,

experiment,
shipmaster
can
always
resort
to
heeling
which
we
have seen to be simple in character and absolutely
reliable.
As a
practical
example of such an experiment,

two vessels
(see
let
us
take
the
at
case
the
of the
smaller of the
page
feet
182),
whose nietacentre
load
draught we
have
found to be 675
of a
above the centre of buoyancy, as recorded particulars

fully
heeling
experiment carried out on her when

vessel,
loaded are
available.
At the time of the experiment the

a
including the
line
heeling weights, had
displacement of 4535
feet,
tons.
was 23
five
inches
long.
lot
The plumb The inclining

on each
side
was hung from

in
stay
and
of
weights, arranged
two
lots
tons,
were placed one

line,
of the
deck, at
equal
distances
from the* centre

deflection
the distance between their centres being 33
feet.
The
of
the
NK
of
the
the
plumb
line
caused
to
by moving
one
portion
weight across
deck from port

transferred
starboard, was
found to be 6\ inches.
in
its
As a check, the weight

position,
across
the the
deck was replaced
old
of
and
have
an
observation
to
taken
of
line,
plumb
line.
It
should,
course,
returned
the
middle
but
scarcely
did
so.
The
port,
other
portion
the the
of the
inclining weight
was next shifted
from starboard to
;
and
In
resulting
deflection
of
the
plumb
the
line
noted
it
was
taken,
5!
inches.
calculation,
the
mean
of
observations
was
viz.,
inches.
Now
1
4535
"*
and, therefore,
GM
positions
23*5
x '0363
=171
feet.
Assuming the
to
of
the
:
nietacentre
and the centre
of
buoyancy
be given, we
have the following
base line
Height of nietacentre above centre of buoyancy
Height of centre
of buoyancy above
Height of nietacentre above base
line
Distance of centre of gravity below nietacentre
Height of centre of gravity above base
line
= 675 = 875 = 15-5 = 171 1379

this
feet. feet. feet. feet. feet.
The
correction
inclining weights were
removed from the

was
lower
ship,
and
was the only

centre of
necessary.
effect
These weights being situated above the

their
ship's
gravity, the
of
removal
to
the
latter
point.
Calling
inclin-
the displacement ing
of the vessel the
including
height
of
the
inclining weights
W, the
weights
/;,
W,
uncorrected
of
of
the
of
centre the
of
gravity
above
the
base
the
height
the
centre
gravity
inclining
weights
above
CALCULATION OF GM,
the
191
(the weights being
in
tons,
base /;
and heights
in
and taking moments about the base feet), we have
Corrected height of centre)

of gravity
above base
Wxh-Wx W-w
H*2 = 4535
x
1
/
'
319 2-iZ
21 x 10
2
= 1377
feet.
There was a
the
slight fall
in
the position of the centre of buoyancy
due
to
reduction in draught, but also a slight increase in the value of
M, the
height of
height
above the base remaining as before.
The
corrected metacentric
thus
became
the
15*5
1377 = 173
already
feet.
To
raising
vessel
estimate
or
change in the position of the centre of gravity due to
lowering weights
is
on board,
or
removing
them from the

:
altogether,
now
a very simple matter.
Let us take a specific case
Assuming 250 tons of cargo are to be discharged from the bridge 'tween decks of the above vessel, at a certain port, find to what extent the centre of gravity and metacentric height will be affected. Taking moments about the
base
line,
we have
above base
New
To
get
is
height of centre of gravity^

line
)~
4525 x 1377
45
25
250 x 26*5
2
altered
plane.
G M, we must allow for the fact that the position of by the change in displacement and in the form of the waterAssuming no change of trim to take place
the
corrected
Change
in draught
Weight of cargo removed Tons per inch of immersion
=
The new draught
metacentres
line
is
is,
-5-
1
1
'36 inches, or "95 feet.
therefore,
1875 -0*95 =
17*8
feet.
From
the
curve
of
the
feet,
corresponding height of transverse metacentre above the base
15*8
and thus we have GM = 15-8 - 13-02
= 278
feet.
As a
i.e.,
further example, take the case of the large
cargo steamer previously
dealt with (see page 182).
This vessel's weight, when in the "light" condition,

is
ready for
sea,
but with no coal or cargo aboard,

feet,
of gravity being 20
inches
above the top of

to
keel.
5134 tons, the centre Assuming the dislet
placement scale and diagram of metacentres
be available,
us
find
the
as
GM
when laden with 10,680
tons
in in
of
cargo
and bunker coal

3320
tons
in
distributed
shelter
follows:
6420
tons tons
of
cargo
lower
bunkers.
holds,
'tween
decks, and 940
of coal
Tabulating our data, we have

tons. tons.
Light weight of ship
Deadweight
Total displacement
= 5134 = 10680 15814
tons.
192
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
find
Turning
this
to
the
displacement scale we
the draught
corresponding to
displacement to be 27 feet 6 J inches to bottom of keel. The transverse metacentre above the base line at this draught (from diagram) is 23-5 feet.
To moment
obtain
the
position
as
of
:
the
centre
of
gravity,
we
must
make
calculation,
follows
APPROXIMATE CALCULATION OF INITIAL STABILITY.

the
193
feet;
height of metacentre above base under the assumed conditions
at
this
draught
is
23-25
so
that
GM
The burning
to
23*25 - 22*56
'69
feet.
out of the
coal
would thus reduce the
initial
stability.
As there would be draught to spare, it might be considered desirable run up some water ballast in order to bring G M to about its previous
Let
of
to
sufficient
value.
water
inches.
be
the
supposed
base,
admitted
the
to
lower
of
the
vessel's
centre
ballast
gravity
3
feet
Then,
assuming
centre
gravity
of
the
line,
and taking moments about we have, representing the weight of the ballast by B
be
2
above
that
(14874
from which
, . ,
B) 22'3i '
= 14874
x 22*56
n B =
ballast
14874 x 22-56- 14874 x 22-31 3

20*31
the
=183 J
-
tons.
The added
the
would increase
draught
'04
3J
inches,
and from
therefore-
diagram we find that the metacentre would
rise
half-an-incb,
-98
feet.
New
value
of
GM =
"69
'25
4-
INITIAL STABILITY
centric
height,
APPROXIMATE METHOD OF CALCULATING THE EFFECT IN THE DUE TO ADDING OR REMOVING WEIGHTS OF MODERATE AMOUNT. In order to make estimates of a vessel's metaor
initial
stability,
like
the
foregoing,
considerable
data
must on
of
its
be available.
tion.
In many instances a
rule*
shipmaster
may
not
still
have
find
this
informaeffect
By an approximate
initial
he
may,
however,
the
the
stability
of
raising
or
lowering,
adding or removing,
the the
a
its
moderate
centre
weight,
gravity
provided
he
knows
the
its
amount
If
to
and
be
distance
of
from
in
the
feet
load-waterplane.
weight
rule,
in
tons,
and h
at
distance
from
load-waterplane,
by
to
this
the
stability
an
inclination
tons,
of
degrees will
be from
affected
the
extent
at
it,
x h x Sin 6 foot
the
correction
or
being
decrease
the
waterplane,
removed
the
if w is added some point below
some point above and an increase if

of
the
conditions
tons
be
opposite
of
these.
stability
Thus,
of
the increase
the
effect
running
to
in
183
will,
of
this
ballast
on the
initial
vessel
it
referred
above,
by
approximate
2)
x
method,
be
to
by the amount
(26-04 -
^3 x Sin 6 foot tons
= 4399
x
Sin Q foot tons.
By
is
the the
exact
method,
that
viz.,
Righting
the
Moment =W
after
GM
x Sin
0,
the
increase
that
difference
before,
between
is
stability
adding
the
ballast
and
existing
(15057 x -98 - 14874 x

so
that
'69) Sin
foot tons
= 4492
Sin Q foot tons,
the
approximation
is
a good
one.
* See a paper by Sir Naval Architects.
Wm. Whyte
in
volume XIX. of the Transactions of the
Institution of
194
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
to
As a
board
the
at
at
initial
further
example, suppose
200 tons of deck cargo
be taken on
be to reduce
feet
above
the
load-waterline.
The
effect
will
which foot tons, by the amount (200 x n) Sin If the cargo were re2200 x '1736 = 381-9 foot tons. moved instead, the initial stability would be increased by the same amount. This method only gives reliable results when the addition or removal of
stability
is
10
degrees
the
weights
causes
no appreciable change
question
of
in
the
form of the
load-line.
SAFE MINIMUM 6 A/. The

been
the subject
of a
minimum
of
value of
has
much debate and

been
at
difference
opinion. the
fact
Those who
that
have favoured a large value have

stiffness
confronted
sea,
with
great
conduces
subject
vessel,
to
bad
behaviour
as
will
appear when we come

indicates
to
the
of rolling.
On
the
other
hand, a very small value

necessarily
so,
crank
and
may mean, although not
an
altogether
unsafe
is
to
one. The only secure manner of dealing with vessels in this respect compare them with others whose performances at sea are known, and
to
adopt values of metacentric heights thus
suggested.
In designing the various classes of warships, the value of the metacentric

height
must be
from
carefully
considered
from
the
point
of
is
view
of
what
vessel, If
ma}
the
be expected
'since
each
vessel
on active
after
service.
This
specially necessary,
G M cannot be
consideration
is
readily altered
the
completion of
platform,
the
weights being then fixed and the displacement more or less constant.
only
as
to
the
obtain
steady
at
gun
is
should be small,
If,
minimum
of
to
of
rolling
motion
such
sea
thereby assured.
to
however,
of
the
other
inertia
considerations
the
their
intervene,
as
in
liability
lose
portion
load-waterplane
design,
when
initial
action,
to
which
some war
vessels,
owing
ficed
are
subject,
the
steady
of
and
It
is
sufficiently
large
value
gun platform must be sacriG M provided to meet all
eventualities.
warships,
to
but
beyond our province to fully discuss the subject as affecting coming to the case of trading merchant vessels, there seems
of of
be
consensus
in
opinion
in
favour
of
limiting
to
to
the
foot
minimum
when
of
filled
value
of
GM
steamers
about
medium
size
one
the
with
homogeneous cargo, which just brings them are on record of vessels which have given a with smaller metacentric heights, when loaded
instance,
load-waterline.
Cases
good
as
account
vessel
is
themselves
above.
In one oft-quoted
the
GM
was as
low
as
'6
feet,
yet
the
proved
to
herself
in
every way a good sea-boat.
The
this
natural feeling, however,

is
have a margin
given above.
is
on the side of
For
order
safety,
and
considered
has
the
to
be provided in ocean-going
value value
of
steamers when the metacentric

sailing-ships,
height
minimum
under
of course; a
much
a
higher
requisite,
in
that
they
give
may
3
will
not
3^-
be
unduly heeled when

as
canvas.
The
a
best
authorities
to
feet
minimum
ballast
value,
and
where
homo-
geneous cargo
not admit
of
this,
should
be carried.
VII.
195
VII.
changes
in
1.
vessel
as
is
floating
at
rest of
in
still
is
water;
raised.
discuss
the
the
character
of
the
equilibrium
2.
the centre
transverse
gravity
Define
the
metacentre
centre
feet
write
down
the
formula
state
its
for
the
height
of
in
the
transverse
metacentre
above the
38
of
buoyancy,
and
numerical value
the
case
of a
rectangular vessel
broad, floating on
even keel
at
a draught of 20 feet.
Ans.
3.
'Oi
feet.
What
is metacentric stability?
vessel of
foot
height of 18 inches;
calculate
the stability in
4000 tons displacement has a metacentric tons at an inclination of 10 degrees. 1041*6 foot tons. Ans.
4.
The
equidistant ordinates of a vessel's load-waterplane, measured on one side of the
middle-line at intervals of 16 feet, are
*2,
6-8,
9-6,
ico, I0'2
io*o,
feet,
9*9,
%%,
and
8 feet,
and
tons.
half ordinates
introduced
at
the
ends
are
'8,
and
7 '3
respectively.
Find
the
height of the transverse metacentre above the centre of buoyancy, the displacement being 530
Ans.
5.
'46
feet.
prism of circular section

is
floats
in
still
water with
all
its
axis horizontal.
Show
that
the metacentre
6.
at
the centre
of
of the
section
for
draughts.
and triangular section, respectively, float on even keel same breadth at the waterline. Show that the height If of metacentre above the centre of buoyancy in the first case is half that in the second. the breadth be 35 feet and the draught iS feet, what are the values in the two cases?
prisms
rectangular
at the
Two
same draught; they
are also the
Ans.
7.
5-67
feet;
11*34
feet -
A
to
feet
raft
is
supported
by,
and
rigidly
attached
to,
two
rectangular
pontoons
is
placed
wide and floats half immersed when the raft is laden. Calculate the metacentric height, assuming the centre of gravity of raft and lading to be 3 feet above the
parallel
each other and 6 feet apart from centre to centre.

deep,
Each pontoon
feet
and 2
waterline.
8.
Ans,
6*83
feet.
Explain an approximate
method of calculating the height of transverse metacentre

in
above the centre of buoyancy, and work out the numerical value cargo steamer of 48 feet beam and 25 feet draught.
9.
the case of & full-formed
Ans.
its
7*36
it
feet.
How
is
a.
metacentric diagram constructed,
and what are

in
still
uses
Construct such
to
a diagram for a homogeneous rectangular prism afloat

feet
water,
assuming
be 30
broad and 20
10.
feet
deep.
of ^ vessel
the
is
The displacement
moved 8
feet
400 tons
find
the transverse metacentre

feet
the centre of buoyancy, and

12
centre
the
of gravity 3
the
is 5f feet above above the centre of buoyancy. If
tons be
across
deck,
inclination
of the
vessel.
Ans.
degrees.
n.
Explain
how you would
find
the position of the centre of gravity of a

(1).
ship
(2).
By By
calculation.
experiment.
12.
The
centre
of gravity
of a certain
the
cargo vessel of 4500 tons displacement

viz.,
is
found
at
to
be
16 feet above
at
viz.,
the base;
feet,
following weights are then added,
600 tons
10
feet,
are
400 tons removed,

the
15
and 500 tons at 11 feet above the base; the following weights 600 tons from 2 feet, and 100 tons from 14 feet above the base.
Ans.
Calculate
new
height of centre of gravity.
16'39
feet
above the base.
19^
13.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
in
initial
How
would you estimate the change

a
stability of a
vessel
due
to
raising
or
lowering,
adding or removing,
weight of moderate amount?

(1). (2).
Accurately.
Approximately.
14.
Estimate approximately the change in stability at an inclination of 10 degrees, due

150 tons
feet
to
running in
from
of ballast
at
feet
above
the
to
base,
and discharging 100 tons

with being 22
foot
feet.
of
cargo
30
above the base; the load draught

Ans.
begin
Stability
increased
660
tons approximately.
CHAPTER
Trim.
the
VIII.
IN through
of trim.
previous
small
chapter
angles
we examined
in
the condition of
direction
;
vessels
transverse
in
the
is,
present
with
when heeled one we

the
subject
propose to
deal
with
longitudinal
inclinations
that
W
The
in
vessel in
fig.
191
is
supposed to be heeled to a very small angle

tons from forward to aft
respectively, the
lines of
a fore-and-aft direction, by transferring a weight

feet.
through a distance a
W^
and
WL
represent,
flotation
stern
before and and decreased

is
after
the transference.
stem, as shown.
at
the
The draught is increased at the The sum of the distances L

Z. : ,
and
W Wv
books
In
fig.
called
the
of
change
of
trim,
and
the
the
finding
of
this
for
any
enin
proposed
condition
explain
\
lading
constitutes
trim
problem.
that
We
shall
deavour to
text
two
methods
so
well
of
solution
one
It
ordinarily
given
the
191,
other not
the
known.
point
of intersection
the
of the
new and
most
cases,
the
old
water-
lines
is
at
about the middle of

of
length.
Y
actually
coincides
is
with
little
the
aft
centre of gravity of the
waterplane
length
;
W L^
197
which, in
it
a
to
of the
middle
the
however,
is
sufficiently
correct
assume
I9S
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND
CALCULATIONS*.
the
SLj and S
ferring
to
to
be
equal,
and
this
simplifies
work
somewhat.
Re-
the
figure,
obviously
Change of trim =
WW
the
L L
= (W.S + S = length of
tan Q.
(i).
load line x tan Q

centre
Now
the
vessel
the
to
movement of
be
weight a
causes
the
x
of
gravity
of
drawn
aft
through
distance
GG
given
by the
equation of the
GG
=
r,
(W
being the displacement in
tons),
and the
is
resultants
vertical
forces
of weight
and buoyancy, when the ship
once more in equifig.
librium,
act
through the point
Gv
This
is
indicated in
191, as also
the
previous line of vertical forces

the
shifting
through G, corresponding to the condition before
of
IV.
Their point of intersection

distance
is
called
the
longitudinal
height,
shall
metacentre,
latter
and the
of
Gm
the
the
longitudinal
in
metacentric
as
Q,
the see
being
considerable
importance
trim
is
problems,
clearly
we
the
presently.
The
angle
between
two
lines
inclination
between the water
lines,
and therefore
GG = Gm
X
tan
0,
or
Gm
tan
= = =
^w
so that
tan
W x Gm
Change of trim
Length of load-line
Q,
From
(1)
tan Q
/.,
Calling the length of load-line ing
and equating these two values of tan
we
obtain
the
relation
Change
I
of trim
-.
WxGm
of trim
{2h
which
weights
is
the
ordinary formula for change
due
to
any given
shift
of
already
on
200
board.
formula.
One
Take a
or two simple examples will illustrate the application of this

feet
vessel
long of 2000 tons displacement, in which the quantity

find
Gm
aft
is
190
feet,
and
feet.
the
effect
on the
a
little,
flotation
due
to
shifting
50 tons
through
80
Transposing
and
introducing
the
quantities
given,
we have
Change b
of trim
50 x So x 200
2000 x 190
therefore
^'1
feet,
'
say 2^ inches. J D 12 Jinches,
The
draught
forward
aft
will
be
reduced,
approximately,
and the draught

Again,
ing 9
if
it
increased
by the same amount.

the
propeller
in
tips
were found
the
to
that
in
this
vessel were show-
inches above
water
when
the
original
feet
aft,
condition,
the
to
minimum
immerse
weight
the
required
be
shifted,
say,
120
so
as
just
screw,
would be
W =
i'ij
x 2000 x 190 200 x 120
23*715 ' J
tons.
TRIM.
199
In dealing with
questions
like
the
foregoing,
and indeed,
the
in
working out
the
any trim problem,

to
it
frequently saves
time to find at
it
outset
moment
in
alter
1
trim
one
inch.
foot,
To do
since
this
is
only
in
necessary to
feet)
substitute
(2)
inch
(or
T\
the units the
are
for
"change of
trim,"
and
after
transposing,
Avrite
down
equation giving the
moment
c
L
required.
Thus,
Moment
to alter trim
i-i
1
inch
x a
= r
L x 12
Gm ~
foot tons.
In the preceding example
W
and using
for
x a
2000 x 190 200 x 12

the
158"? foot
tons,
'
this
figure
we
get
same
aft
results
as
before
feet
the
-,
effect
of shifting
50
tons
through
80
:
more simply. we have

50 r = -
Thus,
Change b
In
the
the
of trim in inches
....
is
Trimming moment
tt
Moment
as

change
of
x 80
s
~rf to alter trim
inch
158*3
to
2*:.
second
tips
question,
the
there
trim
total
necessary
submerge
propeller
18
inches,
must be a
trimming moment of
the weight,
18 x 158*3
2849*4 foot tons, and as we

aft,
know
that
/,
may be
moved 120
feet
obviously
W =
The moment
in
it
2849*4
1
20
= 2V7S
is
tons
to
it
alter
trim
one
inch
thus seen
to
be very
values
useful,
and
order to have
is
ready to hand for
all
possible conditions as to draught,
frequently
in
{see
found
convenient
to
plot
it
curve
to
of
its
with
varia-
tion
draught.
fig.
In the calculations
as,
is
usual
employ B
instead
of
Gm
and
the
191)
of course, the exact position of the centre of gravity at

is
the various
draughts
unknown, and B m,
readily found.
for
The
difference between
practical
purposes the trim
as we shall see presently, may be G m and B m, however, is usually small, moments thus found are sufficiently acis
curate.
The
plotting of the diagram

for
a simple matter, and

for
as
an exercise,
data.
call-
reader
should draw one
any case
which he may have the

only term
in
LONGITUDINAL METACENTRE. The

ing
for
equation
the
(2)
special
explanation
is
17),
already
described
metacentre.
as
longitudinal
metacentric
height
m
the
being
the
longitudinal
The
179
will
point
is
obviously analogous to
familiar.
the transverse metacentre, with which

of
we are already
also
In
if
fact,
definition
given
on
be
page
apply
points
to
m,
for
transverse
the
word longitudinal
substituted.
;
The
M and m have similar functions in respect to stability but vessels have enormous righting power in a longitudinal direction^ and detailed calculations
of longitudinal
is
stability
are
therefore
in
unnecessary.
with
The
principal
use
of
found,
as
illustrated
above,
dealing
1 .
questions
in
of trim.
CALCULATION OF B m
(fig
191). As
the case of the transverse
200
metacentre,
the
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
height
of the
AND CALCULATIONS.
metacentre
is is
longitudinal
first
:
found
above
the centre of buoyancy.
The same formula
used,
viz.
Bm =
but here
-n-i
is
the
moment
its
of
inertia
of
the
waterplane with
shall
respect
to
transverse axis
through
the
centre of gravity. of
We
see presently, that for
ordinary
vessels
;
calculation
is
rather
more laborious
form, this
length
is,
/,
than
is,
in
the
previous case
for
box-shaped or other vessels of simple

for
however,
6,
not
so.
Take,
d.
example,
192
at
box-shaped
the
to
vessel
of
breadth
course,
and
draught
Fig.
shows
waterplane,
which
line,
is
of
rectangle; xx, drawn
right
angles
the
middle
12
the
axis
of the
moment
of inertia-
l about x x
= Pb
Fig.
192.
Since the volume of displacement
is
Ibd
3
_P_
i2d'
feet,
Bm
If
it
b
b
12
d~
be given that
150
feet,
and d = 15
then
If
in
this
Bm
vessel
-j2
ICO X
12 x
of
KO
15
7-
125 J
feet.
were
of
constant
circular
section,
with
its
longitudinal
axis
the waterplane, the
numerator
the
expression giving
less.
changed, but the volume of displacement would be

should
would be unIn such a case, we
Bm
have
Bm
Simplifying and
substituting
12
values
Bm
CALCULATION OF Bm.
201
nature
of
the
outline
Coming
of the
plexity into
to
ship
forms,
we
find
that
the
varying
waterplane and
the
of the
form of the underwater body introduces com-
calculation.
No
To
simple
find
formula
is
available
it
for
the
moment
of inertia of the waterplane.
this
quantity
is
usual to divide the

of
waterplane by ordinates in number suitable for

Rule, to calculate the
the
application
Simpson's
moment
calculate
to
of inertia of elementary strips of area at each

axis,
of these ordinates about of a

to
some chosen
the
to treat these
moments
This
the
as ordinates
area,
new
curve,
and
area
of
the
latter.
subject of
further
correction
be In
is
explained
presently,
gives
better
moment
inertia
required.
The
foregoing
may,
fig.
perhaps,
be
understood
a
by a
a load
simple
graphic
explanation.
193,
axis
ABO
in
represents
half of
waterplane of a vessel.
is
xX
is
the
about which the moment of inertia

the
vicinity
to
be calculated,
and
usually
taken
of
the
mid-length.
Fig,
193.
The
ordinates
interval
6 b 62 63 between them is
,
etc.,
are
numbered
the
from
aft,
and
the
common
a,
h.
Calling
breadth of each
little
strip
we
may write Moment of
inertia of elementary strip at b\
about x X
62 b3 b4
b5
strips
= = = =
x (4A) 2 a
62 x
(3//)*
63 x
64 x b5 x
0. = gb 2 h 2 a. (2hfa = 4b h a, {hfa = 6 4 A 3 a. 0. a = 0.
a
2 3
In the same way, moments of inertia of

of
the
of area
on the other
line
side
XX may
moments
2
be found.
of
inertia
At the points of division on the middle

of
AC, the
base in
0,
the
strips
a,
are
erected as
rectangles,
the
each case being
the
small
Fair
breadth
and the
ordinates,
the
quantities
963 h% 4& 3 /?
etc.
enclose areas as
drawn through the tops of these rectangles shown, which, added together, represent the moment of inertia
curves
of the plane about the chosen axis.
202
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
inertia
is
Now,
gravity
the
axis
of
the
moment
area.
of
must
so
contain
placed,
the
centre
of
of
the the
waterplane
case,
If
XX
not
which
generally
would
of the
be
correction
must
be
viz.,
made.
This
is
done by means
formula explained on page 63,

/,
= / + Ak2
of the
where
is
the
moment
of
its
inertia
plane
about
area
of
an
axis
through
axis
the centre
of gravity,
moment
of inertia
about any parallel

the
XX
h the distance between these axes, and Applying this formula to the above case,
tance k
t
A
it
the
waterplane.
is
necessary to
centre
this
find
the
of
dis-
which
is
obtained
if
the
position
of
the
ot
gravity
the
plane
is
known.
obtained
We
7h
have already seen how to find

the
latter
point,
and,
having
written
value
of
the
required
quantity
may
be
at
once
down.
the
transverse
for
As a numerical example, take

calculated
B M.
to
scarcely calls
explanation.
the 470 feet vessel for which we have The table below exhibits the full work, and It may be mentioned, however, that columns
and
are
its
introduced
centre of
determine the
the
area
of
the
axis
waterplane, and
at
the
5
in-
position
also
of
as
gravity from
assumed
ordinate
(fig.
No.
193)
that,
each ordinate of the

the
interval
moment
interval
of inertia
diagrams
volves
areas
the
square of
the
between the ordinates, the finding of the

in
introduces
as
cube of the
the
expression for the
moment
of inertia,
shown below.
No.
of
Ordinates.
CALCULATION OF
Bin,
3 4S40'S X (46 "Q^) X
203
M.I.
about
axis
through
No.
C.G.
ordinate
312890090.
M.I. about axis through
of
L.W.P. = 312890090- (22388 x (3'o6) 2 )
=
The displacement
so
that,
312680458.
of the
vessel
is
15814 tons;
Bm =
I
-77
^126804^8
Q 15814x35
565 3 *
feet-
culated for various

draught,
trim
For easy reference, values of B m, such as the above, are usually caldraughts and plotted in a diagram from which, given a
the corresponding
B ffi may be
read
off.
;
Of
course,
for
accurate
G m and not B m is required the distance between B and G should therefore be deducted from the calculated distance B m, G In the above case, for instance, the centre of being usually above B. gravity is 6 feet above the centre of buoyancy, and, consequently
calculations,
Gm
= 565 Fig.
559
feet.
194.
A
i=u_
r-
The
ing trim
foregoing principles
calculations
1.
will
be
more
cases
clearly
:
understood by the followcentre
for
a few actual
Example
the centre
of
;
Suppose
of
will
150 tons of cargo, having

the
load-waterplane,
is
its
80
feet before
gravity
above vessel
what
be discharged from the be the new draughts forward and aft, it being given
to
that the vessel to begin with
In questions such as
is
usual
its
to
assume, in
in
on even keel at 27 feet 6 inches? and in those involving additions of cargo, it the first place, that the removed or added weight
is
this,
has
layer
centre
the vertical
rises
plane,
containing the
or
sinks
into
centre
of gravity
of the
this
of
volume which
condition,
For, in
out
will
of
the
sink
water.
Under
a
assumed
distance.
vessel
obviously rise
or
through
parallel
fig.
194,
if
b be the centre of gravity of the layer through
which a vessel
of b
vessel,
from
then
by the removal of a weight w/, and a be the distance the vertical through fl, the original centre of buoyancy of the
rises
W
the
effect
x a
Moment
the
tending to depress bow,

layer
of
the removal of
of
displacement being to cause

:
the
and if, as assumed, the buoyancy of the vessel to move aft centre weight before removal had its centre in the vertical containing 6, another moment due to removing w will also be in operation, in this case tending
of
204
to
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
the
AND CALCULATIONS.
These two moments are equal and neutralise each other, W1L1 without changing trim. rises to the waterplane floating at the waterplane L b and the On the other hand, if the vessel be weight w be added with its centre of gravity in the same vertical as 6, the
raise
bow.
and
thus
the
vessel
moment due
raise
to
the
increased
that
will
the
of
bow, while
due
to
buoyancy will be w x a, and will tend to the added weight, being of equal amount
;
but
will
opposite
sense,
tend to depress the bow

line
so that the final effect
be to sink the vessel to the

It
without change of trim.
should be noted
waterplane.
these
that,
where the weights to be added or removed are

in
moderate, 6
of
may be taken
as
the vertical containing the centre of gravity
the
Applying
of
the
principles
to
the
is
working
out
of
our
question,
it
is
assumed that the 150 tons of cargo

waterplane,
to
rise
immediately over the centre of gravity
the
effect
of
its
removal
therefore
being
to
cause
the
vessel
through a parallel
distance
=
,-
150 r t~Ions per inch of immersion
150
53-3
2f inches, nearly. 4 J
per
The
reader already knows
how
to
find
the
tons
inch at a given water-
plane.
We
the
next
take
account of the
fact
that
the
cargo
is
80
that
feet
forward of
assumed
has
feet
position.
A
80
little
consideration
before
effect
will
show
of
the
removal of
the
water-
150 tons from a

plane,
at
point
feet
the
as
centre
gravity
of
the
same
that
trimming
point.
the
addition
of
the
same weight
its
80
abaft
By removing
by stern
,
the weight
from
true
posi-
tion,
we
therefore
get
vessel
Moment trimming
Now,
150 x 80
x
12,000 foot tons.
Moment
to alter trim
W men =
.
-.
Gm
foot tons,
L x 12 i5 8l 4 x 559 470 x 12 so that,
=
.
1570 foot tons,
Trim by
draughts will
stern
12000 2000 =
i57o
7-f
inches, nearly.
The
final
be
27'
Forward,
Aft,
6"
27' 6"
- 2|" - 2f +
of
J"
=26'
n-|"
7
3 f"
27'
We
and
that
have
assumed the
is
stern.
This
fig.
(see
trim to be divided equally at stem Allowance should be made for the fact 191), the point in which the water-lines intersect, which coin-
change
not quite correct.
cides
with
the
centre of gravity of the
load-waterplane,
is
not usually at the
mid-length,
and the
change
of
trim,
forward
and
aft,
should
be
allotted
according to the
proportion
LL
WW
S
X
8W
TRIM EXAMPLES.
In small changes of
finement,
as
trim,
205
to
however,
is
it
is
not usual
;
proceed to
case,
it
this
is
re-
the
difference
inappreciable
in
the
present
less
than a quarter-of-an-inch.
Example 2. A
feet
aft
vessel
360
feet
long,
and 20
of
feet
forward,
has has
the
to
cross
48 feet broad, and drawing 26 a bar which will only admit of

tank
of
draught
25
feet.
She
to
fore-peak
160
will
tons trim
capacity.
Show by
sufficiently
calculation
to
whether
filling
of
the
this
tank
the
vessel
enable her
is
pass
over
bar.
The
of
centre
gravity
of gravity of
the
to
of
the
water ballast
166 feet forward of the

per
foot
centre
33,
loadalter
waterplane,
trim
the tons
inch
tons.
of immersion
is
and the moment
one inch,
700
From
the
the
information given,
ballast
we may
write
Sinkage, assuming
centre
immediately over^
j J
of gravity ffravitv
to
of load-waternlane load-waterplane
actual
77 = 33
700
160
4 84
'
'
^
^8
inches.
Trim by head due
position
oi\
166x160
ballast
}/
cross
at
inches.
Assuming waterplanes
to
mid-length
o''
New New
we thus
small
in
draught forward
draught
vessel
aft
=20' 26'
o"
+ +
5"
5"
+
-
1' 7''
1
7''
22'
o"
>
24/ 10";
see
the
may,
the
to
with
care,
be
safely
navigated across
of
the
trim
bar.
In the two previous cases, the weights causing the change
are
it
comparison with
total
displacements
the
had
they
layer
been
to
large,
would have been incorrect

vertical
assume b of
in
parallel
be
of
in
Its
the
true
containing the centre

is
of gravity of the
the
line
original
waterplane.
centres
in
fig.
position
obviously somewhere
joining
is
the
gravity
If the
of the
areas
two planes enclosing the layer;
do
this
line
194.
A,
Ah
of the
planes
WL
and W\L h be known, the position of b may
be determined from the relation
be
Very
in
little
A;
taken
as the
error
is
involved
is
if
be
mid-point
of
tfe,
and
large
most cases this Another point

of trim,
so
done.
to
be
borne
shape
in
mind
after
is,
that
in
dealing
with
changes
the plane
altered
in
of flotation,
as
movement
metacentric
of the weights,
may
the
have become
to
materially
affect
the
value
of
moment
of
inertia,
it
and,
therefore,
first
;
of
the
height.
In
actual
calculations,
is
customary to
approximate the trim by using the

for
Gm
given by the original waterplane
and,
final
result,
to
employ a mean
G m between
planes.
those
corresponding to the approximate and the original waterlet

2,
it
trim
in
Taking an actual case, the vessel of Example

tons
of
be required to find the draught and

discharging
ballast.
after
1000 tons
reduction
of
in
coal
and
cargo
and loading 300
water
The
displace-
206
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
is
AND CALCULATIONS.
to
ment
700
plane
tons,
and,
assuming the weights

b,
have
their
centres
in
the
vertical
containing
the
centre
of buoyancy
of the
layer
Thickness of parallel layer

b
is
700
=21
inches.
original
b.
:
found to be one foot forward of the centre of gravity of the
waterplane,
and the
leverages
of
the
weights
are
measured from
The
work of calculating the trimming moment may be tabulated as follows
MR. LONG'S METHOD.

points
207
in
of
the
advantage,
is
described
by
of
Mr.
Long
paper
read
recently
before
North-East Coast
system, use
is
Institution
of Engineers and
Shipbuilders.
lines
In
find
this
made
what are called trim

obtained as follows:
the
is
or
curves
to
the
trim corresponding to any
mean draught and

is
longitudinal position of
the centre of gravity.

is
A
fig.
trim line
195,
to
First,
a level line
drawn, as
line
is
WL
in
represent
a
mean draught
taken as
the
for
which the
of the
trim
required.
On
to
this
point
level
B
keel,
position
longitudinal centre of buoyancy at ing

its
and a datum
2
line
drawn show-
relation,
say,
amidships.
the vessel
The
also
horizontal
distance
from
of
is
the
centre
of buoyancy,
with
trimming
the
feet
by the
stern,
then
calculated
and marked
are
erected,
off at
B2
distance abaft
is
of the centre of
.
Z? 4 At B 2 and and the corresponding trims marked off, the same scale being used throughout. Through the points thus found and the point B a line is drawn this is the trim line required.
buoyancy, with the vessel trimming 4 feet
aft,
plotted as at
verticals
Fig.
195.
Obviously,
trim
we have here
feet,
all
the
up
to
due
of
to
the
movement
information necessary to determine any of weights on board ; for, if the
distance
the
centre
gravity
the
say,
weights
be
ascertained
travels aft on account of the movement of and plotted from B along the level line to G,
and a
trim
vertical
be raised to intercept the trim line at

as
GO
must be
the
by the
stern,
the
centre
of buoyancy and
centre
of gravity are
again in
the same vertical line. For forward trims the trim

the
line
should be continued below

of buoyancy in
that
its
level
line
It
to
indicate
movement
of the
centre
direction.
should be noted that the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy are here assumed to travel the same distance when a change of trim takes place.
This
is not quite true, as a glance at fig. 191 will show; B being below and therefore more remote from M, moves a greater distance. For quite
accurate
work,
therefore,
the
distance
plotted the
from
of
B towards
gravity
(fig.
19c)
should
be
the
calculated
travel
of
centre
plus
B G
tan
203
(see
fig.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
191).
It
is
AND CALCULATIONS.
to
this
not necessary to proceed

is
refinement in ordinary
cases,
as
the
error
thus involved
inappreciable.
is
One advantage
calculations are
gravity consequent
of the trim line system
the
absence of formulae.
of the
will
No
of
required except a
simple one for the travel
centre
on the movement of the weights.

able the
to
This
1
be
seen
by
the
an example.
It
will
be interesting to work out Example
(page 203) by this

trim
line
method
load
we
are
do
this,
as
to.
fig.
195
is
the
at
draught
of
vessel
referred
Employing
the
figures
given,
we
get
Fig.
196.
Travel
of centre
ot
gravity
"i
on removal of weight
Plotting
this line
/
F,
80x150 " 15814-150 =

erecting
distance
at
is
from
to
and
perpendicular
as
to
meet
the
trim
G,
required.
This
we obtain FG, or 7I the same result as before.

the
inches,
the
trim
by stern
example is small in comparison we know the ordinary metacentric Where the weights and moments are great, method is as accurate as any. however, only approximate results are obtainable by the ordinary method due to the fluctuating nature of the metacentric height. In this respect the
weight in
foregoing
cases
The trimming
the
with
displacement, and
for
such
BILGING.
trim line
209
practically accurate
for
all
method
excels
the other, as
large.
it
is
changes
only
is
of trim and draught,

It
is
however
perhaps scarcely
its
necessary
to
point
out
that
trim
line
is
reliable
at
considerable,
own draught, and that where the change of displacement Experience goes to show that a new curve is required.
the
in
ordinary
cases
in
tendency
of
this
trim
lines
is
to
become
be
light
less
steep
for
with
usethis
reduction
ful
draught.
as
For
of
reason
they
should
drawn
draughts,
those
the
in
load,
ballast,
and
conditions,
and
would probably be
of
trim,
sufficient
most
for
cases.
By
a
at
constructing
line
cross
curves
however,
limits
as
is
done
cross
full
stability,
trim
for
any
draught
within
the
of
the
curves
trim
can
once
for
1.
be
a
obtained.
vessel.
Such a
Fig.
diagram
represents
are
obviously
the
provides
of
information
of
196
lines
in
case
the
steamer
trim
Example
have
The
drawn.
horizontal
the
waterplanes for which

latter intersect their
2
feet,
lines
been
The
points
which the
corresponding level waterplanes, and where they
indicate trims of
feet,
and 8
head, are enclosed by small circles.
feet by the stern, and 2 feet by the Curves through these points give the cross
curves
feet,
required.
desired,
If,
now, a trim line at an intermediate draught, say of 26

is
be
at
it
only
necessary
feet,
etc.,
to
draw a
line
level
line
at
this
point,
and
ing the
heights
of
feet,
parallel
lines
to
cut
the
correspond-
cross
curves
line
at
A,
5,
and
0,
through
these
points
being
trim
required.
BILGING.
Given
a diagram
like
that just
is
described,
any trim question
drawn can be readily and quickly dealt with. Consider, for instance, the important trim problem of finding the floating condition of a vessel consequent on one or more of her compartments being bilged and in free communication with the sea. Such a case is depicted in fig. 197, in which a vessel is shown bilged in the after compartment of the
relating to the ship for
which the diagram
hold.
W\L\
at
rest
X
is
;
the
line
of
flotation
after
the accident,
with
is
the
to
ship
once
more
WL
the
original
waterline.
The problem
determine
the line
W LV
the
Now
weight,
change of trim
of
is
here
caused, not by an added

it
or
but by a loss of buoyancy, and

loss
is
usual
to
treat
the
deducted problem as
the the bilged
one
of
buoyancy.
easily
By an
dealt
exercise
of
if
imagination,
the
however,
question
may be more
be be
the
with
for,
hole
into
compartment
trim
in
will
assumed
affected,
closed
the
lost
vessel
being
once
will
more
have
at
rest
the
place
not
but
as
an
important
change
will
taken
her floating condition,

water
in
the
the
compartment
thus,
it
buoyancy become, for

necessary
of
this
have been restored and

purposes, the
practical
weight
the
of
carried.
Viewed
of
is
only
to
obtain
for
weight
and
position
the
centre
of
gravity
water
is
complete
in
solution
the
problem.
as
The
:
process
the
of calculation
tentative
in
be
follows
character and
may
the
First,
weight
of water
the
compartment
up
to
original waterplane
WL
should be found, and the parallel sinkage determined

to
assuming compartment open
the
sea and
the admitted water
placed with
2T0
its
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
centre
AND CALCULATIONS.
of gravity in
the vertical
plane containing the centre of gravity of
This distance, measured in the trim diaadded layer of displacement. gram above the height of the original waterplane, will give the point from
the
which the level' line and corresponding trim line should be drawn. can then be obtained, as already described, by finding the travel
centre
The
aft
trim
of the
of
is,
gravity,
assuming the weight to

a
of
the
first
be translated to
It
its
true
position.
This
of
the the
course,
approximation.
in
will
next
be
the
necessary
to
to
calculate
rise
weight
level
water
the
compartment, assuming the surface
to
of
new
If
draughts, the
and
to
use
it
in
same way
differ
in
another
trim
estimate.
second
approximation
should
much
Fig
197.
w--
from the
first, it may be necessary to proceed to a ence of the calculator must guide him here.
third.
But the
feet
experi-
As a
feet
numerical
example,
take
box-shaped
vessel,
210
aft;
long,
30
broad, and
20 feet
deep, drawing
10 feet forward and
and suppose
compartment at the extreme after-end, 10 feet long, to communication with the sea. It will be necessary first to draw out the trim diagram. This is a simple matter owing to the regular nature of the vessel's shape. We begin by obtaining the trim line at 10 feet
watertight
an empty
be in free
Fig.
198.
draught.
level
stern,
A B
D,
fig.
198,
shows
the
4
vessel
in
side
2
elevation,
WL
feet
salt
is
the
keel
water-line,
WÛ
and
L4
those
when
to
feet
and 4
in
by the
water,
respectively.
is-
Now, assuming the

210 x 30 x 10
vessel
be
floating
her
displacement
^55
and in passing from the water-line
= 1800
tons.
WL
to water-line
L% the wedge of
dis-
BILGING.
211
2-
placement
length,
LSL 2
moves
i
to
the
position
WSW
,
As S L
is
is
half the vessel's
and L L 2
foot,
the
volume of the wedge

1
105 x
x 30
of
-.
1575 cubic
travels'
feet,
and
in
moving
aft,
its
centre
or,
gravity
2
horizontal
distance
g g
l
2l
210 x
140
feet.
The
B
to
Z?2>
corresponding
movement of
the
vessel's
centre of buoyancy
is
from
and from what we know of moments, obviously
BB
1575 x 140
2
3-5 feet.
1800 x 35
fig.
199.
The
stern,
horizontal travel of the centre of buoyancy, with the vessel 4 feet by the
is
clearly
just
double
this
amount, or
feet.
This
is
all
the infortrim lines
mation needed to construct the trim

Fig.
line at the initial draught.
The
corresponding to other displacements would be obtained in the same manner.
199
is
the
complete
7
diagram
6
for
this
vessel,
and
shows
cross
curves
in
with a range
position
to
from
feet
inches
to
15
feet
draught.
We
are
now
deal
with
our bilging question.

initial
Beginning with the

.
and,
condition,
1
we have
10 x 10 x
-jo
Weight of water
-,
in bilged
compartment =
85*71 tons,
2T2
Parallel
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
sinkage
1
AND CALCULATIONS.
^
assuming water
situated
amidships
the sea
also,
and compartment
open
to,I
JO
=
x 3
6 inches,
Horizontal travel*
gravity,
aft
of vessel's centre of
j
assuming the water
at
the inits
creased draught to
position
move
into
to
true
~~
90 x 100 1890
and the
fig.
ship's
bottom
be intact
at
Referring to
a level line at
line
199,
we can draw
once the trim

4*76
line
feet
corresponding to
along this level
2 feet
10 feet 6 inches, and by measuring
from the
trim
vertical
AB, and erecting a perpendicular, we get

stern.
10 J inches
as
the
by the
The draughts
of the
vessel
will
thus be
;
forward,
Aft,
100+0 15^=9
10' o"
6"
1'
si"
11'
"FThe
In the second approximation, we

weight
of water
in
start
with the vessel in this trim.

will
the
bilged
compartment
1
1
now be
101*66 tons.
"86 x
10 x ô
35
The
Parallel sinkage
= ior66
x 2C x 12
= 64
the
,o., inches
nearly,
210 x 30
and taking the centre of gravity of the water of the compartment, Ave get as before
Travel of vessel's centre of gravity duel
,
. .
at
middle of
the
length
to admission 01 water
ioi"66 x 100
iroT'66
=
6|
S'^S feet
"
aft.
From
3 feet
the
2 J
trim
inches.
diagram we find the corresponding trim by the stern to be

equally
Dividing
parallel
this
forward
sinkage,
the
draughts
and become
o''
aft,
and
adding
inches
as
the
Forward,
Aft,
10' 10'
o"
+ +
6J 61
(1'
7^")
+
8'
(i'
7f")
= =
8'
n";
J".
12'
By a
third
approximation we obtain the draughts

Forward,
Aft,
n"
2f,
equilibrium whether the after compart-
12'
in
which condition the vessel

to
will
float in
ment be now open

obtained
the
sea
or
by the ordinary method,
i.e.,
tudinal metacentre, the
moment
to
Of course, the same result could be by calculating the height of the longialter trim, and the heeling moment due to
not.
The trimming
of the vessel causes die water in the compartment to change level,
and a
small quantity of the water to
move
aft
this affects the position of the ship's centre of gravity,
and therefore the
trim, but to
no appreciable extent, except
in the case of large
compartments.
APPROXIMATE CALCULATIONS.
the
to
2*
admission
alter
of
the
water,
and
finally
dividing deal
the
the
latter
by
the
in
moment
this
trim.
We
do not propose
it
to
with
fully
problem
way,
as
the
principles
involved have
already
been
an
explained.
The
student,
however, should work
out himself as
exercise.
APPROXIMATE CALCULATIONS. Although

know nothing
he
is
still
commanding
officer
may
regarding
his
able to
estimate,
beyond her dimensions and displacement, roughly, at least, the trimming effect due to the
vessel
addition,
removal, or
movement
of weights.
In the formula
Moment
if
to alter trim
inch
W
is
Gm
,
loot tons,
12 x L
we assume G
to
be equal
at
to
L,
which
roughly true
in
the
case
ot
ordinary cargo vessels
their
load
displacements, the
trimming moment per
inch
becomes
I
foot tons.
2
Applying
this
simple formula to
to
alter
the
example on page
198,
we
get
Moment
and
trim
inch
2000
-
-
12
166*6 foot tons,
Change
which compares with
25
of trim
So x 80
"
rr
24 inches,
inches
1,
obtained
by the exact method.
In the case of Example
page
1
203,
Moment
For the
the centre
effect
to
alter
trim
inch
15814 =
12
1318 foot
a
position
tons.
of
discharging
of the
150
tons
from
80
feet
before
of gravity
load
waterplane,
we thus have
.
Trim by
stern
150 x 80
q
~
9 inches, nearly.
The
not
ordinary
for
formula
gives
7J
inches
the
approximation
either way, in
is
thus
near
enough
practical
purposes, an
inch
or two
ordinary cases,
rapidly
being
of
great
importance.
As
is
the
value
of
for
Bm
of
rises
with
reduction in draught, the
formula
is
inapplicable
in
draughts other than the

vessels
load
draught.
Also,
it
unsuitable
the
case
abnormally shallow draught in relation to length, as

from being even approximately equal.
which are and L are then

the
foregoing,
of
far
An
approximate
formula,
giving
closer
results
than
has
By this rule, for the height of the longibeen devised by M. Normand.* tudinal metacentre above the centre of buoyancy in ordinary cargo steamers,
we have
Bm
*
-0735
A- x L ~
b
~xT
feet
'
See a paper
in the Transactions of the Institution of
Naval Architects
for
18S2.
214
where
Srilt>
CONSTRUCTION AND CALCULATIONS.

in square
feet.
A
L
area of load waterplane
= length on the load waterline in feet. b = breadth of ship amidships in feet. V = volume of displacement in cubic feet. Assuming Bm = G m, A x L V ~n Moment to alter trim i inch = - x '0735
1
,
L x 12
=
This
-000175
A2
t- foot tons.
is Normand's formula. Now, if T be the tons per inch of immersion,
420
A = 420 T A 2 = 176400 P.
Substituting
this
value
to
of A 2
alter
the formula takes
the convenient
7~ 2
shape
Moment
trim
inch
1,
-
30 'o x
r
203,
foot tons.
Applying the Rule to Example
page
,
we
get
Moment
the
to
alter
trim
inch
= =
30*9 ^^ x
SV3 x ^^ SVS ^-f
1567 foot tons;
previous
value
being
1570 foot tons.

2
In the case of Example
Moment
Besides
of the
to
alter
trim
inch
the
= ^
exact
in
y
value.
trim-line
It
701 foot tons,
which compares with
700
tons,
foregoing,
we have
the
method a ready means

lines
making approximate estimates of

lines,
trim.
happens that the trim

different
It
in
ordinary cases are practically straight, and
make
certain definite angles with the

vessels
corresponding level
type,
also that
at
these
angles, in
of similar
are about the

that
in
same
as
corresponding draughts.
has been suggested,
therefore,
type vessels a note should
be made of the trim angles at
useful
draughts,
such
the
those
of
The
with
trim line in
sufficient
case
of any
ballast, and light conditions. new design could then be plotted at once
the
load,
accuracy for
preliminary calculations.
If
only one
is
trim
it
should
be required and the angle of the corresponding trim line
known,
can be
found quickly by means of the formula
Change of trim
where
in inches
x C x
12,
W =
d
weight shifted,
distance shifted,
= Q =
whole displacement,
tangent of the trim line angle.
APPROXIMATE CALCULATIONS.
2t$
varies considerably with type of vessel.

lines
Ships of very light draught relatively
to their length, have flatter trim
than those of ordinary proportions, but
an average value at the load draught of cargo steamers 300 to 500 feet in length, and of the usual fullness, is "9163, corresponding to a trim line angle of 42 J. Assuming this trim line angle in the case of Example 1, page 203
Change of trim = to
which
other
is
_.
15814it
150 x 80 5 150
x 016-? x 12 J
=8 '4 t
inches,
i
a
;
cases
good approximation. an officer might try
The
on
student
his
should
ship.
apply
the
rule
in
own
TRIM INFORMATION FOR COMMANDING OFFICERS. An

use to which the trim
line
important
of inballast-
method may be
to
applied,
is
the
supplying
formation to masters
ing
operations.
and others who have
deal with
loading and
With a good-sized diagram, showing the trim curves of his a master should be able to decide in a few minutes any question of trim, provided the weights to be shipped and unshipped, and their movements, be known. We have already fully explained the procedure. If builders would supply such trim diagrams to new vessels, with instructions as to their use, we are confident they would come to be
vessel,
and a
scale,
highly
appreciated.
1.
VIII.
feet
Define the longitudinal

feet
metacentre.
A
of
prism of rectangular section 200

feet
long,
and 33
the
broad,
floats
at
a draught of 11
forward and
aft,
calculate
the
height of
longitudinal metacentre
above the centre
buoyancy.
Ans.
303
feet.
2.
The
line
equidistant
are
middle
at
ordinates
I0'6,
of
vessel's
waterplane
10*9,
9/6,
measured
on
one
side
of
the
"2,
7"2,
I2"0,
12*0,
feet,
I2'0,
and
the
feet,
and
half-oi'dinates
the
ends have values 3*8 and
77
respectively;
find
height
of the longitudinal
metacentre
feet,
above the centre of buoyancy, the volume of displacement

interval
being 20,000 cubic
and longitudinal
between the ordinates 15
feet.
Ans.
Obtain
the
102-26
feet
feet.
3.
expression
giving
the
a
change
distance
of
trim
feet.
consequent
on
300
moving a small
in
weight
floats
w
at
tons
longitudinally
through
A
is
vessel
length
feet,
a level
draught of 17 feet; she has a longitudinal metacentric height of 400

;
and a displacement of 4500 tons find the new draught forward and
a weight
aft.
of
50
tons
f
moved
aft
through
feet,
100
inches.
feet
Ans. -Draught
Forward,
16
J?
^ ^^
7
4.
Deduce the moment

per
to
change trim
of
one
inch
in
the
case
of
the
vessel
of
the
last
example.
Given that the tons

and
aft
inch
immersion
have
is
30,
calculate
the
in
new draught forward

the
positions
when
the
following weights
been placed
on
board
named.
216
SHI**
CONSTRUCTION AND CALCULaI'IONS.

Distance from Centre of Gravity of Waterplane.
Weights Tons).
20 45
15
lool
80 -before.
40)
50] 80
1
60 40
30 Ans.
J-
abaft.
10
Moment
to
change trim one inch,
500 foot tons. 3f inches.

lQi inches<
(Forward,
17 I7
feet, feetj
Draught
| Aftj
it
Suppose a weight of moderate amount to be put on board a vessel, where must 5. be placed so that the ship shall be bodily deeper in the water without change of trim? Describe, clearly, why it is that vessels in passing from salt water to fresh water
trim
slightly
usually change
6.
as
well as change
their
draught of water.
in
It
is
desired
that
in
the
draught
of
water
aft
steamship
shall
be
constant,
whether the coals are

centre of gravity of
fulfilled.
7.
8.
or
out of the ship.
Show how
in
the
the
coals
may be
Describe
found,
order
that
approximate position of the the desired condition may be
What
is
a trim line?
vessel,
how
long,
such a line
is
obtained, and explain
its
uses.
at
box-shaped
centre
260
feet
40
line
feet
for
broad,
this
and 25
feet
deep,
floats
an
even draught of 20
aft,
feet,
construct
the
trim
draught.
If
100 tons be shipped

aft,
with
its
100 feet from
amidships,
find
the
new draught forward and

f
using
the trim
line.
Forward,
_
19 2[
feet,
Ans. -Draught
9.
| Aft
^
feet
,
6f inches. ^ches.
Referring
at
to
the
vessel
of
the
previous
in
question
free
if
watertight
situated
will
the extreme
after-end
be bilged and
the
its
communication with
10
the
compartment sea, what

the
full
be
the
new
floating
condition,
half
bilged
compartment being
occupied by cargo?
long,
breadth of the vessel,
and with
space
Ans.
10. It
is
Draught
fa
(Forward,
\ IÂft,
.
19 feet,
21
r feet,
2|
..
inches.
.
desired
that
a certain
vessel
shall
float
with
any two
7i inches. compartments in open
communication with the

11.
sea.
Describe in detail
the calculations involved.

feet
to cross a bar
steamer 330 feet long, 48 feet broad, drawing 24 feet aft, and 20 over which there is a depth of water of 23 feet, 6 inches.
forward, has
vessel has a
this
The
fore-peak
tank with a capacity of 100 tons.

the tank will
Given that the centre of gravity of

sufficiently to
is
tank
space
is
150 feet forward of the centre of gravity of the load-water plane, find, by an approximate
if
method,
filling
modify the draught

in tons to begin with
if
it
admit of the vessel cross-
ing the bar.

12.
The displacement
to
78CK).
Referring
is
the
previous question,
be given
that
the
longitudinal
metacentric
height
345
feet,
and the tons per inch of immersion
33, estimate correctly the effect
on the
draught of
filling
the fore-peak tank.
Ans.
Draught &
/'Forward,
-.
21
feet,
.
2 inches.
.
lÂft,
23
feet,
4 inches.
CHAPTER
IX.
Stability of Ships at Large Angles of Inclination.
IN for
centre
Chapter VII.
a
vessel
we saw how when inclined
to
obtain
the
righting
or
upsetting
moment
upright
through
to
initial
angles
about
the
position.
We
learned that up
angles
of
10
or
n
Q.
degrees, the
meta-
may be
considered as fixed in position, and that inside these limits the
Heeling
Thus,
tained,
Moment *
vessels
x Sin.
taking
the
two
cargo
for
which the values
of
were
ob-
we have
Righting
moment
at
10 degrees (small vessel)
Do.
do.
(large vessel)
= 4525 = 1359 = 15814 2 333
x 1-73 x '1736
foot tons.
x "85 x '1736
f ot tons.
Fig.
200.
For
inclinations
much exceeding
type
10
to
12
degrees,
however,
except
in
the instance
of a
single
of vessel,
the
righting
to,
moment cannot be
is
obso
tained by this
method.
all
The exception
immersed
cross
line.
referred
where a vessel
is
designed that
the
sections
are
circular
segments with a
common
bodies of
point
the
centre
this for
all
in
the middle the

line
form
of
We have already shown that for floating upward pressure passes through the same
that,
if
transverse inclinations, so
there
is
no disturbance
in
weights, the distance

Fig.
GM
t
will
remain unchanged as the vessel heels from

in-
angle to angle.
clined
to
200 represents a vessel of constant circular section

if
some angle Q G M is the metacentric height, and displacement, we have, by applying the metacentric method
217
be the
!l8
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Righting
AND CALCULATIONS.
moment
in foot tons
= =
W x 6M W xGZ,
sine of
case,
it
x Sin.
GZ
to
being the arm
of the
righting
couple.
is
The
only variable in
this
expression
for
this
it,
the
the angle
is
therefore,
construct
stability
line,
curve
set
simple
only necessary to
the various angles
draw a horizontal
at
z 5j
off
on
the
to a
convenient
at
scale,
3> 45) etc., degrees, erect
perpendiculars
various
the points of division, on
these
perpendiculars
scale
off
fair
values
of righting
moment
as
ob-
tained above, and
draw a
curve
through the points so found.

20
feet in
As a
with
ing
the
its
specific in
case take a
cylindrical vessel,
diameter, floating
axis
the waterplane. the

to
We
of
feet
shall
deal only with

is
the levers or rightIf
arms,
centre
so
that
length
the
vessel
immaterial.
of gravity of
be
at
below the centre of the
figure,
using a table
for
sines,
once write
the
at
down
the value
of
the
we assume we may, righting arm
any
inclination.
to
Obviously,
value
righting
degrees
maximum
90 degrees,
arm increases from zero at o and thence gradually decreases
Fig.
201.
5
to
'
w3
t5
GIQPK.J OF INCLINATION
zero
again
at
1S0
lever
degrees
at
obviously,
Q,
too,
is
by
the
drawing
a
as
diagram,
at
the
righting
arm
Q.
or
is,
an
angle
say,
same
is
:
the
angle
180
to
It
therefore,
only necessary
to
calculate
values
close
from o degree
90 degrees; and at intervals of 15 degrees, which purpose of constructing a curve, these are as follows
Inclination, in Degrees.
enough
for
the
Sine of Angie.
Righting" Arms, in Feet.
258S
5
3 45 60
75
7071
S66
"9 6
59
90
STABILITY OF SUBMARINES.
219
by the displacement,
a
if
the
also represent the righting
scales be always altered to suit, this curve will moments of all vessels of all circular section having
metacentric height of
feet
cylindrical
SUBMARINE VESSELS. The

assumed
to
float
vessel
just
referred
to
is
with
part
of
its
bulk
above
the
surface
the
case
of
Fig.
202.
WATER SURFACE.
Fig.
203.
WATER SURFACE.
ordinary
vessels
but
even when totally submerged. A are examples in point.

easily
case.
when properly designed, a vessel may have The submarines, now so much in
stability
evidence,
obtained
Figs.
stability curve of a submerged vessel may be by a method analogous to that employed in the previous 202 and 203 show a submarine floating upright and heeled,
respectively.
B,
the
centre
of
buoyancy,
is
also
B,
the
centre
of
bulk
is
is
the
as
centre
in
fig.
of
gravity.
Here,
being
below
when
the vessel
heeled
203, the
tendency of the resultant forces of weight and buoyancy
220
is
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
restore
AND CALCULATIONS.
in
fig.
to
the
vessel
to
the
position
202.
If
G were above
heel
still
B,
and the
until
vessel
then
inclined,
the
tendency would
be
to
further
G became
vertically
below B
the
in
position
of stable
equilibrium.
Applying the formula
BM=-.j,
Thus,
as
since
this
/=
o,
BM
is
zero,
and
therefore,
B and M are much the same

case of the
sines
coincident.
special
case,
B
so
and
one,
that,
BG
for at
have
functions
M
at
and
the
GM
has
in
the
preceding
Sin
lever
at
;
any
the
angle 6 the righting or

cylinder
upsetting
moment = B G
surface,
as
in
floating
the
varies
directly
as
the
of
the
angles
of
inclination,
at
zero
values
degrees
if
and
is
180
feet,
degrees,
fig.
and a maximum value

the
stability
90
degrees.
Clearly,
BG
on
for
20 1,
also
curve
for
cylindrical
vessel
floating
the
surface
may
be
taken
to
represent
the
curve
of
righting
arms
the
sub-
merged
vessel.
Fig.
204.
Fig.
205.
A
vessels either
noteworthy
is
point
in
curves
the
of
righting
arms
from
of
totally
submerged
the
line
that
they
or
represent
stability
when
inclined
in
fact
any direction,
that
transverse
longitudinal,
which
follows
the
viz.,
of buoyancy must always pass through the same point,
the centre of bulk.
This is, of course, by no means the case in vessels floating at the surface, which have enormous righting power when inclined longitudinally. VESSELS OF NORMAL FORMS. The case of an ordinary vessel, it need hardly be said, admits of no such simple treatment as those just
dealt
Fig.
with,
owing
to
the
increased
section, G,
difficulty
of
obtaining
values
of
G Z.
at
204
shows, in
cross
is
an
ordinary
the
vessel
floating
is
upright
waterplane
equilibrium.
W L. M
Fig.
above
therefore
condition
to
one
of
stable
205
shows the same vessel heeled

the
a large
to
travel
inclination.
The movement
supposed
gravity
line
has
caused
resultant
centre
of
buoyancy B
out to
weights
centre
Bh
are
of
through which the

to
is
buoyant
position.
pressure
the
now
the
passes.
No
the
at
have
been unchanged
shifted in
during
heeling,
so
that
the
Unlike
the
case
of
cylinder,
the
of
upward force does
not
intersect
middle
line
the
metacenire,
VOLUMES AND MOMENTS OF WEDGES.
221
values.
GM
then,
in
fig.
204
and
GA
in
fig.
205
having
different
Obviously,
the
equation
Righting
is
Moment =
in
W x GM
obtain
x Sin Q
the
values
to
no longer applicable, and
order
to
of righting arms
or righting
moments
case,
at
large
inclinations
we must
resort
another method.
In
this
to
is
find the lever
GZ
to
between the
out,
it
verticals
through
G and
:
B when
Referring
the
to
vessel
fig.
inclined
as
to
any angle, we must proceed as follows

pointed
the
transference
the
is
205,
previously
of
the
wedge of displacement from

ancy to travel from B
line to
WSW
x
.
LSL
compels
these
centre
of buoyto
line
joining
points
parallel
the
joining $$<& the
centres
of gravity of the wedges,
and
^
^ Volume
1
of wedge x
g g2
1
Volume
of displacement*
Now, through B draw a horizontal line to cut the verticals through G and in N and/?; and from g and g.2 drop perpendiculars g h b g 2 h 2 on W\ L
1%
x Y
x
then
clearly,
"~
Volume Volume
of wedge x h x
/z 2
of displacement"
Also,
and
so that,
BR - BN = NR = GZ; BN = BG sin 0;
Volume GZ - ^r^ Volume
r.
-,
of wedge x h
,
,.
01
displacement
lever
n -f - BG
y
h.->
sin.
0;
this
as
and the equation is known expression which cannot be quite easily obtained, is U x h\h^ the horizontal moment due to the transverse movement of the wedge of displacement, and we now propose to show how this is calculated, and the stability lever or moment arrived at. VOLUMES AND MOMENTS OF WEDGES. A body plan of the ship
is
the
value
of the
stability
required,
Atwood's formula.
The
only portion
of this
is
prepared with
transverse
sections,
to
spaced as for a displacement calculation,

inclinations
and with
radial planes
drawn
the
represent the floating condition of the vessel

at all the
when
for
upright,
and when inclined

of
required to give data
the
full
construction
stability
curve.
The
sections
should
represent
volume available for buoyancy, and be drawn to the top watertight With regard to the radial deck and to the outside of the shell-plating. it is found convenient to draw them so as to intersect in the middleplanes,
the
line in
plane
{see
0,
fig.
206),
although
this
does
not
usually
ensure
that
the
be of equal volumes, as, of course, they must be; but it allows all the inclined planes up to any maximum inclination to be drawn at once, while the correction due to the inequality of the wedges can
and out wedges
shall
easily
be made afterwards.
furnish spots close
radial
To
curve,
enough
the
to
obtain the correct form of the stability

at
the
planes
should
in
be drawn
vessel
intervals
of
about
to
15
degrees.
Discontinuities
should
be
carefully
dealt with.
The
222
entrance
into
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
the water
AND CALCULATIONS.
of the deck edge, for instance, causes a sudden form of the immersed wedge, and to ensure accuracy in finding the volumes and moments of wedges by Simpson's Rules, a radial plane should occur at this point, with a suitable number of radial planes on each
change
in
the
side
of
it.
These
ordinates, or
particulars
attended
of
to,
the
at
breadths
0,
is
sections
of
the point
proceeded with,
emerged, and
measurement and tabulation of the various radial planes on each side those of the immersed side being kept
the
separate
from
the
those
Fig.
of
the
various
planes
separate
from
206.
each other.
its
At each
moment about To show how
radial plane, the volume of an elementary wedge and a fore-and-aft horizontal axis through is next calculated. this is done, let b be the length in feet of an ordinate
of a radial plane, say, on the immersed side; then the sectional area at this ordinate of a very small wedge of the immersed volume, treating it as a
segment of a
of
circle,
will
be
if
b t
9 square
feet,
Q being the
in
feet
circular
measure
the
wedge angle; and

volume
in
be the thickness
a
will
of a thin transverse
slice,
its
cubic feet
be - b 2
223
of the
Having obtained such values for slices at various sections in the length wedge, to find the volume of the latter becomes simply a matter of
the
area
of
finding
of a plane
the
vessel
surface, for, if
a base line representing to scale

at
the
length of
be
taken,
and
points
corresponding
t
to
the
rect-
positions
angles,
the
various
little
sections
the
quantities
base,
be
set
off
as
each on the
quantity
t as
and a curve be drawn through
the tops of the
rectangles, an area will be

all
enclosed representing the
sum
of
the volumes of
the slices into which the
wedge may be supposed divided,
and, therefore, the volume
of the whole elementary wedge.
The moment
instance, taking
of an
elementary wedge
radial
may be
similarly dealt with.
For
0,
the
same
plane and
Fig.
ordinate, the distance
from
of
207.
224
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
scale
at
AND CALCULATIONS.
the
on some
off
the
circular
measure
angles
at
of
maximum wedge
the
angle.
Mark
points
the
various
which
volumes
of
the
elementary
wedges have been calculated, and plot rectangles, each on a base 9 (9 = the circular measure of the elementary wedge angle), representing the volumes of the corresponding elementary wedges. A curve through the tops of these rectangles will enclose an area A C D B, representing the sum of the volumes
of
all
the
elementary wedges, that

the
is
to say,
the
volume of the whole wedge.

the
limits
To
find
volume
to
of
any wedge within

ordinate
area
at
of
A CD
angle,
B,
it
is
simply necessary
plot
an
the
cut
correct
off.
wedge
Separate
and
by
are
Simpson's
necessary
Rules
for
calculate
the
thus
diagrams
Coming to the moments immersed and emerged wedges. of the full wedges, it must be noted that while the moments of the elementary wedges are, in the first instance, calculated about a longitudinal
the
Fig.
208.
15
3o
DECREES OF INCLINATION
through
for
axis
(the
statical
point
of
intersection of are
the radial a
in
planes) the
moments
plane
required
stability
fig.
taken
about
longitudinal
vertical
through
(see
y,
209),
and,
the
therefore,
combining
immersion
cosine
the
elementary
emersion,
moments
to
obtain
those
of
full
wedges
with the
of
and
each of the
the particular
former has to be multiplied by the

elementary wedge makes
of the
angle which
in
horizontal.
For instance,
calculating the
moment
of wedges of 30 degrees, the
moment
of the elementary
wedges
cosine
of
at
o degrees about a longitudinal axis through

at,
has to be multiplied
by the cosine of 30 degrees, and those
say,
15
and 30 degrees, by the
Fig. 208 is the complete diagram of 15 and o degrees, respectively. moments, the abcissse being in circular measure, A B representing 30 deSince the sum of the moments is required, the diagram takes grees. account of the wedges on both sides of the axis y y. Thus the little rect-
angle
at
at
AC
o
is
the
sum
of
the
moments
of
the
in
and out elementary

the
rectangle
at
wedges
degrees
multiplied
by cosine 30 degrees;
EF

the
225
sum
of the
moments
degrees
of the in and out elementary wedges at 15 degrees
multiplied
quantity
and the rectangle at DB the corresponding by cosine o degrees. Clearly, from our preceding remarks, the whole area A G D B represents the sum of the moments of the immersed and emerged wedges at 30 degrees about the axis y y. It will be seen that, in the case of the moments, a new diagram is required for each inclination at which the righting arm or moment is calculated, as the elementary wedge at the limiting inclination must always be multiplied by cosine o degrees, and the others by the cosine of the angle which each of them makes with the limiting radial plane. Such are the principles to be followed in finding the volumes and moments of the various in and out wedges, and they are seen to present
by cosine
30
15 degrees;
at
multiplied
Fig. 209.
no greater
to
difficulty
than
is
involved in
areas.
the
application
of
Simpson's
Rules
the
calculation
of plane
must not be forgotten that the moments to be corrected on account of the immersed and emerged wedges, as drawn in the body plan, being unThis may be done as follows equal in volume. Suppose the immersed
of the
CORRECTION OF WEDGES. It
various wedges,
found as above, have
wedge
in the water than she should be, and the vertical distance between the true and the assumed wateris
is
in
excess,
then the vessel
shown deeper
planes,
or
Thickness of layer J
-7
?.
Area of inclined waterplane

of
the
in

~.
where
V and
x
V2
are
the
volumes
and
out
wedges,
as
drawn.
226
Let
fig.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
with;
let
209 represent
Since
the
the
case
dealt
WL
be
the
the
upright
water-
plane,
plane.
W\Lx> the
uncorrected inclined plane, and

correct
is
W
x
L2
corrected
inclined
wedges are
WS W
Call
and L 2 SL, the moment of the
volume W\
Lx
to
be added, and that of L

calculated.
S L2
x
deducted,
2
from
the
moments of wedges
as
x
volume
W 0SW
Vh
and volume
S L2
u2
and
t
let
od and od2
u
be the distances of their centres of gravity

is
from axis y y
then the correction

x x
xod -v xod
2
(1).
If
the centre
of gravity
of the
whole
layer
W\ L L2
x
be
at
distance
on the immersed side of the

ul
axis
2
xodi-u xod2 ^ (Vi + u 2 ) x

Fig. 210.
and equation (1) will be negative, and the correction a deduction. If x be on the emerged side, (1) will be positive, and the correction an addition. Now, suppose the emerged wedge to be in excess (see fig. 210). In this case, the moment of the volume S 2 will be deducted from, and that of volume L S 2 added to, the calculated moment of the wedges. Using the same symbols, we have
W
x
t/ 2
Correction
od2 -v
od
(2)
and
this
is
also
equal
to
(u x
+ U 2) X, where x
is
the
distance
of
centre
whole layer from the axis y y. If x be on the emerged side, equation (2) will be negative, and the correction a deduction if on the immersed side, positive, and the correction an addition. A little consideration will make this quite clear. Rules for the correction of the moments of wedges may now be stated as follows
of gravity
of the
1.
If
the
immersed wedge be
in
excess,
and the centre of
gravity
of
CORRECTION OF WEDGES.
the
layer
227
of
on the immersed side

be a deduction;
but
of the axis
if
it
moments, the
side,
cor-
rection will
addition.
2.
be on the emerged
an
emerged wedge be in excess, and the centre of gravity of on the emerged side, the correction will be a deduction, but if it be on the immersed side, an addition. In most cases the layer is small, and the centre of gravity of the inIf
the
the
layer
clined
plane
may be used
large,
for
its
that
of
the
layer.
This simplifies the work,
but
if
the layer be
distance
centre
of
gravity
must be calculated,
arrive
at
and
its
correct
from
lever
the
axis
employed.
written
Thus we
the value
of
the quantity u x h\ h 2 at
any
inclination,
and by Atwood's formula the length

the
stability
of the
stability
may be
as
down.
curve
for
As a
vessel,
practical
for
example,
let
us
obtain
an
actual
such,
instance,
the
large
cargo
steamer whose dimensions and

a
other particulars
are
given on
to
page
full
182.
This
of cargo,
feet
vessel,
laden
her
draught,
feet.
has,
with
certain
distribution
is
metacentric height of '85

line,
The
centre
of
gravity
22*65
and the centre of buoyancy 14*4 feet above the same line, so that B G, the distance between the centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity, is 22*65 -14*4, or ^' 2 5 feet Let this be the basis of
above the base
-
our calculation.
Fig.
206 shows the body plan drawn out as already directed, with trans-
verse
sections
and
radial
planes,
the
former
showing
the
vessel's
shape
at
each tenth part of the length, and also at intermediate positions towards the
and the latter being drawn at intervals of 14J degrees so as to ensure a radial plane striking the deck edge, which becomes immersed at 29 degrees. Before starting to measure the ordinates, sheets must be prepared (see
ends,
Table
of
the
I.)
with
suitable
number
of
columns
sheets
as
to
take
the
calculations
for
the areas of the radial planes and the functions for the volumes and
moments
radial
elementary wedges.
Two
give
such
sides,
are
required
for
each
plane, the
separate.
immersed and emerged

In
previously mentioned, being

for
kept
Table
I.
we
the
calculations
the
elementary wedges
on each side of the axis at 29 degrees inclination. As the work is the same for each elementary wedge, the method followed is amply illustrated in this table, which is drawn up in accordance with explanations given for the
general
case.
Having
wedges,
inclined
it
obtained
is
the
to
requisite
information
the
values
for
the the
various
righting
elementary
utilised
determine
of
14-J-
arms when
to
angles
deal
increasing
by increments of
degrees.
to
Let
us
with
the
vessel
when
is
inclined,
say,
29
degrees.
The
deis
elementary wedges required are those at o degrees,

grees, respectively.
14^-
degrees
and 29
II.,
The
of
the
information
combined, as
entailed
in
in
Table
which
areas
seen
to
consist
numerical
work
deducing
the
of
the volume
and moment diagrams previously described.
22>
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
TABLE
Elementary
I.
SPECIMEN STABILITY CALCULATION.
229
TABLE
Immersed Wedge.
II.
Calculation for Stability (Statical) at 29 Degrees Inclination.
230
ordinate
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
given by
fig.
AND CALCULATIONS.
211
is
and
this
information
must be multiplied by the displacement in tons, also included in Table III.
TABLE
Righting
III.
Arms and
TANGENT TO STABILITY CURVE AT ORIGIN.
23I
By
the
metacentric
method
and
GZ = GZ
the
Gt
Gi
measure
Now
for
denominators of these fractions are

in
in
5
circular
let
them
be expressed
i,
degrees, Q becoming a\ and

that
7 '3
degrees
the
being substituted
there
is
1
;
being
the
measure
number of degrees in equation may now be written
angle
whose
circular
GZ
GM
57'3'
Referring to
the
origin
fig.
212,
if
G Z be
a
the
stability
lever
at
point
close
to
of
the
curve,
and
the
distance
in
degrees
measured along
Fig.
212.
fr<f*i
573
line
the base
in
up
line,
to
this
lever,
the
small
portion
of
the
curve
will
lie
a straight
tangent to the
curve at this place.
The tangent of the angle which this line, and therefore the stability curve near
the origin,
GZ
a
makes with the base

or
GM
57'3
which
at
is
the
value
employed above
in
setting
off
the
tangent
to
the
curve
the
origin.
CROSS CURVES. The

seen
to
foregoing method of obtaining curves of stability

calculation.
It
is
involve
considerable
stability
has
also
another
drawback.
For most vessels several

indeed,
ing
diagrams are required.

the
viz.,
Such curves should,

to
be available
the
for
at
least
four
conditions launching,
referred
when
ballast,
deal-
with
metacentric
height,
the
light-ship,
and
four
fully-loaded
conditions.
By
the
above
method we
should
thus
have
And, moreover, if the vessel happened to be loaded troublesome calculations. or ballasted to draughts other than those originally allowed for, it would
not be possible to ascertain her condition as
calculations.
regards
stability
without
fresh
232
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
This defect in Barnes' method, as that by means of the wedges is called, was quickly seen when, a good many years ago, scientific attention was turned Many ingenious schemes were proin earnest to this important subject. pounded for arriving quickly at the knowledge of a vessel's stability under
all
conditions
of
draught
and
is
lading,
of
most generally employed,

the
abscissae
that
known
is
which the best and simplest, and Here as the cross-curve method.
terms
of displacement,
of the
stability
diagram
in
instead
of
Fig.
213.
Too
>
egrees
there
is
of
inclination,
as
in
the
ordinary
case.
for
a series of
curves,
each exhibiting
In the complete diagram one inclination variations in

in
the the
righting
arms or righting moments, as the case may be, with change
displacement.
In
15,
it
fig.
30,
45,
213 a cross-curve stability diagram is depicted, with curves at 60 degrees, and so on. The great value of this diagram is that
us
at
supplies
once with
the
stability
at
every
displacement or draught,
and every inclination from the upright within the limits of the calculation. For example, suppose we require to know the vessel's stability when floating at a draught corresponding to a displacement of, say, 4000 tons ; it is only necessary to draw a line at this point in the scale of tons perpendicular to the base of the diagram, to measure the distances A B, AC, AD, etc., cut
off
ordinates
by the curves at 15, 30, 45 degrees, etc., to set off these distances as in a diagram having degrees of inclination as abscissae, and draw a
so
curve through the points
obtained.
an ordinary curve of
stability
such as
The result, subject to a correction, is might be obtained by Barnes' method
CROSS CURVES.
(see
233
the
cross
it
curve
A,
fig.
214).
We
of
thus
see
that
curves
is
lie
in
planes
perpendicular to those
stance
the
the
their
ordinary curves, and
from
this
circum-
former derive
name.
sets
The
relation
between these two

Fig.
of curves
may be simply
illustrated
214.
DEGREES OF INCLINATION
as to
follows
: Take
these
a model representing half a
solid
cylinder,
parallel
and assume
to
it
be cut by planes perpendicular to the base

will
and
the
longitu-
dinal axis;
lines.
intersect
it
Next, suppose
to
the curved surface of the model in straight be cut by planes perpendicular to the base and
Fig.
215.
w/
234
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Fig.
AND CALCULATIONS.
216.
CORRECTION FOR CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
235
is
CORRECTION FOR POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY.-It

to
be
noted
that
an
ordinary
curve
of
stability
obtained
by simply
will
trans-
ferring
distances
from the cross-curve diagram, as described above,

if
truly
represent the stability condition only
the centre of gravity, at the particular
displacement,
is
coincident
of
course,
with
that
used
in
constructing
the
case,
the and,
cross-curve as
would not usually be indicated, a correction must be made.

diagram.
This,
If the
?!
already
true position of the centre of gravity
G be below
as
if
the assumed one
(see
fig.
215),
the
ordinary
curve of
stability,
sin. ft
if
transferred,
must be
in-
creased
throughout
by the amount G
the
curve
shows righting
Should the assumed one, the process of correction would be the same, except that it would now, in each case, be a deduction. Assuming, for illustration, 6\ to be 6 inches above G, in the case represented by fig. 215, the stability curve would take the
arms, and
true
by
G G\
sin.
Q foot
tons,
righting
moments.
position
of the centre of gravity
be above the
amended form B
very simple
with
as
in
(fig.
214).
CALCULATIONS FOR CROSS CURVES OF STABILITY. These

and may be
sections
briefly described
:
are
First,
the
body plan
at
is
prepared
intervals,
transverse
showing the form of the vessel

calculations.
side,
It
is
regular
to
ordinary
displacement
an
advantage
have
the
fore-and-after bodies
drawn on each
is
and
for
this is
sometimes done, although
separate
drawing
frequently used
each
is
tangent to the midship section, a base line

the
body (see fig. 216). Next, drawn inclined as required to
middle line of the vessel, and above the base, waterplanes are introduced at sufficiently close intervals to take account of the vessel's form, and to suit Simpson's Rule, these waterplanes intersecting the middle-line
plane in parallel lines
;
usually
an intermediate waterplane
first
is
is
introduced benot
tween
fig.
the
base
line
and the
is
waterplane,
but
this
shown
in
216.
As
line
the
deck edge
a point of discontinuity, a waterplane should

is
occur there.
vertical
Lastly,
a position of the centre of gravity

it
assumed, and a
drawn through
to
form
the
axis
of
the
stability
moments.
all
This position of the centre

cross-curve
stability
of
gravity
remains
constant throughout
the
calculations.
is
The
position
that
off
next step
of
its
to find the area of
each waterplane and the transverse

chosen
axis.
It
centre
of gravity from
the
plane
its
which does
area and
not
cut
the
middle
line
has
to
should be noted be specially laid
and
centre
of gravity determined. of the centre of gravity of a

the
water-
To
plane,
case,
it
calculate the
is
transverse position
which
is
not
symmetrical
about
gravity
at
middle
a
line
for
as
in
the
present
trans29),
convenient to follow the

of
method
of
described
finding
(see
the
verse
that
position
is,
the
centre
of
half waterplane
page
taking
one side of the plane
a time, put the
ordinates
and the
ordinates
in
squared separately through

case.
each
Simpson's Rule, and add the products Deal in the same way with the ordinates on the other side.
divide by
2,
Subtract one total of functions of squares from the other;
and
236
again by
respective
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
the
AND CALCULATIONS.
products
distance
sum
of
the
totals
of
is
the the
of
of
the
ordinates centre
by
their
multipliers.
line
The
result
the
of
gravity
in
from
verse
the
of intersection of the
middle-line plane with the waterplane

in
this
question.
All
the
of
planes
the
are
treated
way, and
positions
in
centres
to
of
gravity
:
thus
and transobtained, are combined as

the
areas
shown
(i)
(2)
the
subjoined table
obtain
The displacement below each of the waterplanes. The horizontal distance of the vertical through the
the vertical through the centre of gravity.
centre
of buoy-
ancy corresponding to the displacement below each waterplane from

Referring
to
the
table,
if
is
the
sum
of the
products
of the water-
plane areas with their respective multipliers up to any waterplane, and
the
sum
of these
products multiplied in each case by the distance of the centre
Areas of Waterplanes.
THE MECHANICAL INTEGRATOR.

in reference
237
to the drawing in such a way that the movement of the pointer round the various sections of the body plan causes readings to be indicated on dials associated with the little wheels, from which, when affected by certain multipliers, the displacement and the moment of the displacement about a
chosen axis may be derived.

ancy from the axis
it
To
find
the distance
divide
of the
the
centre
of buoythe
dis-
is
only
necessary to
moment by
placement. Full descriptions of the work of calculating the stability in this way are provided in Reed's Stability of Ships, and Attwood's Theoretical
Naval
mation.
Architecture,
and
to
these
the
student
is
referred
for
further
infor-
CAUSES WHICH INFLUENCE THE FORMS OF STABILITY CURVESBEAM. We saw in a previous chapter that beam is the element in design
most powerfully
centre
affecting
that,
It
the
in
is,
height
fact,
of
the
transverse
in
metacentre above the

as
of buoyancy;
the
height
clear
similar vessels varies
the
square
affect
of
the
the beams.
therefore,
that
at
beam
initial
will
also
intimately
forms of
stability
curves,
particularly
angles.
This
may
be shown very simply, as
follows.
By
the
metacentric
method we have
Righting arm at inclination Q
= GM
x Sin. 9,
Fig.
217.
O*0*XS Q9 INCLINATION
6t
*0
from which
height,
it
is
seen that the lever of stability varies directly as the metacentric

therefore, a
and
of
that,
broad vessel with a high metacentre and a large

curve
for
initially
value
GM
the
will
have a
effect
stability
steeper
than a narrow one,
and
fig.
vice
versa.
Using the box form
purposes
stability
of illustration,
we show
to
in
217
the
actual
is
on
at
the
whole
curve
of
at
adding
the
beam.
with
vessel
Curve A
centre
for
a vessel
9
100' x 20' x 20',

feet
floating
15 feet draught,
of
gravity
above
as
the
base.
Curve
is
for
100' x 30' x 20', the
particulars
to
draught
and position of centre
of gravity remaining
steeper
tages
and
to
As expected, the latter curve is seen to be as before. have enhanced values of righting arms, although these advanwith a shortening of
as
are
associated
range.
This
in
shortening
of
range
G, for
becomes
more
pronounced
to
the
vessel
feet
increases
beam
curve
instance, corresponds
a vessel of 35
cases.
beam, with other particulars the
same as the preceding

stability
is
INFLUENCE OF FREEBOARD. Another

freeboard,
i.e.,
clear
height
important element affecting between load-waterplane and top-deck.
238
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
vessels depicted in
fig.
AND CALCULATIONS.
218 and 219 are of the same breadth
The box-shaped
figs.
and draughts, but

at
219 has greater freeboard.
The
it
stability curves
for these
vessels are depicted at
and D
in
in
fig.
220,
and
which the deck edge
the
one with
up to the angle low freeboard becomes immersed,

is
seen
that,
Fig.
218.
they
are
identical.
At
the
this
point
the
curve
for
the
shallow vessel
receives
a check,
begins
rapidly
to
and
fall.
as
deck enters the water, quickly reaches a

curve
of
maximum and
to
rise
if
The
the
other
vessel,
however,
is
continues
with
further
inclination.
The
Fig.
explanation
simple,
indeed
not
219.
quite
obvious.
just
In
the
figures
the
vessels
are
shown inclined
deck awash.
water.
to
the
angle
which
of
brings
the
is,
high
freeboard
vessel's
the
other
one
of
course,
considerably under
The deck edge The points g^ g.2

in
mark the
centres
of buoyancy
of the
wedges of immersion and emersion
INFLUENCE OF FREEBOARD.
the
239
centres
the
in
shallow vessel,
and
the
points
ga g4
less
the
corresponding
,
the
other.
Clearly, the distance

in
g gi
1
is
than g 3 g 4
fig.
and,
as
volumes of
the
wedges are greater
fig.
219 than in
x
218,
Oi
g g2
1
<u
x g 3 g,
where
the
v1
and
at
u 2 are
this
the volumes
of
the
wedges
in
each
case.
As
the
quantities in this
equation are measures of the

inclination
stability,
the relation
between
is apparent. Beyond this angle both deck and the centres g 3 g 4 begin to approach each other, but much more slowly than the centres gig 2 the actual differences in It the values of the righting arms of the two vessels are shown in fig. 220. should be stated that the centre of gravity is assumed at the same height in each case; in each case also the breadth is 35 feet, and draught 15 feet, while one has 5 feet freeboard (curve C)* and the other 10 feet
curves
edges are
under
the
surface
(curve
D)
Fig.
220.
240
extent.
5
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
If
AND CALCULATIONS.
gravity
to
we assume
to
the
centre
of
be
raised
feet
will
by the
be
that
feet
addition
the
depth,
the
corresponding
stability
is
curve
marked
in
E
still
(fig.
220).
considerable reduction
levers.
seen to have taken place
the
lengths
of the
righting
These
is
are,
however,
except at
initial
angles,
considerably greater
than those of the low freeboard vessel with

range
also
greater.
the
lower centre of gravity.
The
CHANGE
influence
tion.
IN
great
HEIGHT OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY. The

the extent centre
powerful
illustra-
of a
raising
of gravity
position
is
manifest
point
is
from the
last
To
the
of
this
dependent upon the
nature of the
stowage.
shipmaster
If
may
therefore
often
is
make
the
in
the stability
in
stability,
of his vessel what he pleases.
he finds that she

weights
thus
deficient
he cannot correct the he

the
can,
light
it
defect
by increasing the
heavy
and,
may
ones
be,
stow
up,
the
beam or low down

the
freeboard,
but
the
hold,
of
and
higher
by
lowering
centre
gravity,
attain
the
same end.
221.
Fig,
,_
.
*x
1
CURVES FOR VESSELS OF NORMAL FORM,

position
241
of
centre
of
gravity,
we
are,
have
cited
cases
of
box-shaped
In
vessels
fig.
only;
for
vessels
of ordinary form
effect
however, affected
freeboard
is
similarly.
222,
example, the
stability
;
due
a
;
to
beam and
shown.*
This
A represents
the
feet
curve
32*1
of
cargo
steamer whose
dimensions are
feet.
length,
vessel
289*5
as-
breadth,
feet
depth,
moulded,
Fig,
23*1
was
222,
sumed
geneous
to
cargo
have 300 tons of coal in bunkers, and to be laden with a homowhich completely filled the holds and 'tween decks and
brought her down to her load-waterline.
She had a regulation freeboard of

effect
4
2
feet
feet,
inches.
Curve
of
B shows
lading
the
of
reducing
the
breadth
power,
by
as
the
conditions
being
as
before,
The
righting
Fig.
223.
OEUl OF INCLINATION
~5o
So
Co
in
the
case
of the
box
vessel,
is
seen
to
be
much reduced by
the
this
altera-
tion.
Curve
crease
of
G
6
illustrates
the
the
stability
curve
the
of
same
of the
vessel
after
an
in-
inches
in
freeboard,
104.
density
cargo
being
kept
See Reed's
"Stability
of Ships," p.
242
as
before,
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
to
and the surplus space assumed
be
at
the
ends of the 'tween
decks.
Further illustrations of stability curves of actual ships are depicted in

223,
fig.
the particulars of the vessels

variation
4.
being given in the table below.
Consider1
able
in
stability
is
here
shown.
Compare,
for
example, curves
excessive
stability
and
the
The
of
first
may be
in
considered
this
an
example
This
of
other
deficiency
respect.
vessels
were
on
service.
During
table,*
the
voyages
1
was borne out when made by each when in
the
the
conditions
stated
in
the
No.
vessel
met
severe
weather
and
Description.
to
Three-deck vessel Raised quarter-deck

vessel
Spar-deck vessel
Three-deck
flush,
vessel,
for
except
small forecastle
Quarter-deck vessel Quarter-deck type,

erections length Shelter-deck vessel modern type
Shelter,
deck
vessel,
modern type
EXAMPLES OF STABILITY CURVES.

She
first
243
for
listed
to
one
side,
remained in that position

to
some
the
time,
then
returned to the upright, but almost immediately lolled over to the other side.
She continued
manner,
further
until
for
some time
heel
from
could
one
not
side
to
other
in
this
eventually she
was struck by a sea which caused her to heel

she
right
herself.
over,
from which
into
position
The
water
then poured
and the vessel went down by the stern.* The curve of No. 6 is not so bad as that of No. 5. The maximum lever is '51 feet, and the range is seen to be 78 degrees. But the vessel was always considered very tender and had to be
the
engine-room
through
the
casing
door,
handled with
Curves
that,
care.
7
Nos.
and 8
exhibit two
stability conditions
is
of a
large
as
it
modern
shows
cargo vessel of good

with
so
freeboard.
No. 8
to
particularly interesting,
'2
small a
metacentric height as
satisfactory as
feet,
there
may be
of
associated
stability
curve quite
instances,
range
and lengths of righting arms.

of
stability
In some
indeed,
vessels
having
curves
heights.
large
area
and range have had negative metacentric

Fig.
Such
vessels are
unstable
224.
ntr
20
30
40
50
60
ro
DEGREE*
in
OF
to
INCLINATION
the
upright
position
and
loll
over
one
vessel
side
or
the
other.
In
the
case of vessel
centric height
No.
angle
8,
if
the centre of gravity were raised 6 inches, the meta-
would be
of
13
'3
feet,
and the
upright to an
line.
degrees, her
stability
would be unstable from the curve lying below the base
She would thus loll over to this angle for her position of equilibrium. Beyond 13 degrees the curve would rise above the base line, the maximum lever reaching 1*95 feet at an angle of 53 degrees, and the range 81
degrees.
The
curve
-is
depicted in
stability.
fig.
224, which
considerable reserve of
safety obviously does
(see p.
In such a case as
shows the vessel to have this, a vessel's ultimate
194).
The
latter,
not depend on there being a positive metacentric height however, is necessary in order that she shall float
easily inclined
upright
the
and not be too

instance,
to
by the action of external
forces.
In
quiet
present
the
gain
positive
G M,
if
the
vessel
were
in
water,
centre
of
gravity
it
might
cases
be
lowered
by
filling
it
the
to
double bottom, but
may be pointed
out that
the
a compartment of would not be proper

condition.
It
do such a thing
*
in
all
of instability in
upright
See an interesting paper by Mr. Pescod on "Stability of Small Steamers," read before the North-East Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders, in 1903,
244
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
in
AND CALCULATIONS.
when
in
would have been improper
the case of vessel No. 5 for instance,
and would probably have hastened the disaster which eventually came upon her (see also chapter on Loading and Ballasting). SAFE CURVE OF STABILITY. The curves of vessels Nos. 4, 5 and
the condition described above,
6,
which show unsafe conditions of

arise,
stability,
also cause the question naturally
to
"What
does
constitute
safe
minimum
curve
of
stability
"
In
attempting an answer for any given case, two things are to be chiefly borne
in
mind
the
size
of the
vessel
and the nature of her

Fig.
cargo.
225.
u
b.
(.0
DYNAMICAL STABILITY.
curves,
feet at
245
righting
5
using
fig.
225
as a basis.
To
the
in
obtain a
centre
minimum
foot,
arm of
would
*8
30 degrees in these cases,

1*04
feet,
of gravity in No.
-5
re-
quire to be lowered
heights
and
No.
6,
making the metacentric
and 1*42 feet, respectively. It will be noticed that the righting and the range in each case, exceed those of the standard curve (see fig. 225). These curves are for small vessels, and, for reasons already given, we do not say that even the modified curves leave nothing to be desired the stability conditions, however, exhibited by them are a
179
feet
arm
at
45 degrees,
great
improvement on those of the

is
original
curves.
stability
DYNAMICAL STABILITY. The

angle
It
dynamical
her
of a vessel
to
that
at
any
the
work
done
in
inclining
from
the
upright
angle.
should be carefully distinguished from
statical stability,
supporting the vessel at the given inclination

the original position.
(1)
In heeling a
vessel,
which is the moment and tending to return her to work is done as follows
:
In raising the centre of
gravity.
(2)
(3)
(4)
In depressing the centre of buoyancy.

In creating waves and eddies. In surface
friction.
Fig.
227.
Fig.
228.
Comparing figs. 227 and 228, which show a vessel upright and inclined, we note the movement of the centres of gravity and buoyancy, the former point being obviously nearer the load-waterplane, and the latter Items (1) and (2) constitute further from it, in fig. 228 than in fig. 227, items (3) and (4) cannot, from the dynamical stability as usually calculated the nature of the case, be correctly estimated, and in practice are therefore The result, however, is on the safe side. ignored. The quickest way of obtaining the dynamical stability is by means of
respectively,
;
a curve of
the
moments
such a
of
statical
stability
for,
as
to
shall
be shown presently,
truly
area
of
diagram
from
in
the
origin
any angle
to
represents
the work
course, the
done
effect
on
the vessel
inclining
her
that
angle,
omitting,
of
of surface
friction,
wave and eddy-making

following
:
resistances.
As a
preliminary,
consider
the
If
force
lbs.
acting
on
246 a body causes

it
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
to
AND CALCULATIONS.
feet,
move
tell
in
any direction through a distance h

the
then,
works on mechanics
us
that
For example,
if
Work done on the body F x h foot lbs. F be 10 lbs. and h 5 feet Work done = 10 x 5 50 foot lbs.
If the force
is
employed
parallel
in
equal
moves along a curved path, the length of the path traversed calculating the work done. Consider now a case of two forces acting on a body free to turn. The body will revolve
its
about an axis passing through

plication
centre
of
gravity.
If
the
points
of
ap-
of the
it
forces
be
fixed,
the
(see
latter will
fig.
move
if
with
the
body, and in
in
lbs.
turning
the
through any angle

feet.
229)
the
forces
be
and
distances in
Work done =
Since A
angle,
(P x A B) + (P x = P{AB + CD) foot x

Q,
D)
lbs.
B = A we may
Q,
and C D =
being the circular measure of the
write
Fig.
229.
Work done = P(A0 + = P x A

that
is,
0) 6 x
foot lbs.,
the work
done up
to
any angle
is
given by the product of the turna vessel be assumed

heeling
vessel
ing
couple and the circular
measure of the angle.

let
Applying these principles to the case of a ship,

floating
at rest
in
stable
equilibrium,
If,
then
let
an
external
couple
upright,
be supposed to act upon her. this heeling couple be assumed

righting
starting
at
zero
with
the
to
to
grow so
couple
also
at
as
at
always
be
will
equal to the
represent the
couple, the
righting
moment diagram
will
any point
value
the
of
the
of
heeling
righting
or
upsetting
the
same
the
point,
and, generally,
of upsetting
curve
moments
214,
represent
curve
moments.
Reverting
to
fig.
curve
shows
an
ordinary
say.
curve
the
of
righting
moments.
Consider an ordinate at 30 degrees,
On
above assump-
DYNAMICAL STABILITY.
tion,
it
247
at
gives
the
value
of
the
upsetting
couple
that
If
angle.
Let
now
by
it
the
vessel
be further inclined through one degree.

this
the
upsetting couple
be
will
assumed constant through
small
inclination,
the
work
done
of
be equal to the ordinate at 30 degrees multiplied by the circular measure one degree. If the base line of the righting moment diagram be in
parallel
terms of circular measure, and a line

the
to
the
base be drawn through
top
of
the
ordinate
at
30
degrees,
the
work
little
done
by the
upsetting
couple
will
be represented by the area of the

if
rectangle
thus enclosed.
so as
to
At 31
equal
the
degrees,
the
upsetting
at
moment be assumed augmented

that
angle,
the
righting
is
vessel
by the
line
little
and to remain constant while heeled through one degree, the work done will be represented rectangle between 31 and 32 degrees, the base line, and a
the
moment
parallel
to
base
through the ordinate at 31

the
origin
degrees.
Proceeding thus by intervals of one degree,

setting
moment from
the
to
any angle
little
H
in
the area
OHK
of the
less
the
sum
of
the
triangles
work done by the upwill be represented by between the curve and

fig.
the tops
black).
little
rectangles
(those
indicated
214
are
shown
is
in
But by making the
intervals
infinitely
small,
the
difference
between
the
area
OHK, and
small.
the
work
done
the
by
the
upsetting
say,
couple,
made
the
is
infinitely
We
the
may,
angle
the
therefore,
ultimately
that
on
inclining
stability,
vessel
truly
through
represented
OH,
area
work
done,
of
or
dynamical
stability
by
of
the
curve
statical
from
the
a
up to that angle. An ordinary curve of stability new importance, since, besides showing the variation in the
origin
thus
assumes
statical
righting
moment from
also
point to point, as the vessel is inclined from the upright, it measures the amount of energy that must be expended to incline her. Practical Example. Assuming the values of the righting moments in
curve
A,
fig.
214,
at
intervals
of
15
degrees,
is
to
be
o,
1200,
4900,
9500,
at
and
origin
8000
to
foot
tons,
is
respectively,
what
the
dynamical
stability
60
degrees?
This
merely a case of obtaining the area of curve A from the

at
an
ordinate
60
degrees
by means of Simpson's Rules.

:
It
is
convenient to arrange the figures as follows

Degrees of Inclination.
248
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
stability*
is
A
case
sails.
knowledge
In
of
as
the
dynamical
guide
the
act in
sails
particularly
useful
in
the the
of
sailing-ships
fixing
the
area
and
braced
distribution
to
of
such
estimates,
are
assumed
heeled
fore-and-aft
plane and the
pressure
to
dead upon them.

sailing-vessel
Let
fig.
229
represent
an angle That is,
Q.
Here the upsetting and
righting
to, and held steadily at, moments are obviously equal.
Pxh =
P
WxGM xSin
Fig.
ft 0,
being the total wind pressure in tons at the angle
h the
vertical distance
229.
*The dynamical
formula.
stability
may
also
be
obtained
by an equation known
as
Moseley's
Simply
stated, this consists in multiplying the vertical
movement between
the centre of
to figs. 227
buoyancy and centre of gravity during the inclination by the weight of the vessel. Reverting and 22S, B G is the distance between the centres when the vessel is upright B Z
;
the distance
when she
is
inclined.
Therefore
in inclining"!
Work done
Now, B V Z
(f)
vessel to given
angle/
^^ ~BG)W
foot tons.
R + RZ, and = BG cos d. To find B 1 R we must multiply the volume X of the -wedge of displacement transferred across the ship by the vertical travel of its centre of gravity i.e., g l h l + g 2 h 2 and divide by the volume of displacement (V). Thus,
,
-B
RZ
Substituting in
first
equation,
in
B R = y(g h + g z h 2 we get
1 1 l
).
Work done
foot tons
= W\^y{g
hl
g2 h2
+ BG
cos 6 -
B g)
*))
= ^(yteA +
MJ- A 6(i -cos.
DYNAMICAL STABILITY OF SAILING

in feet at the
SHIPS.
249
of the
the
sail
area,
resultant
same inclination between the centre of effort, or centre of gravity and the centre of lateral resistance, the point through which fluid pressure is taken to act, W the displacement in tons^ and
feet.
GM
the
metacentric height in
is
It
may be mentioned
be
area
at
that the centre of
lateral
resistance
usually
assumed
given
as
it
to
mid draught.
sail-
From
ing-ship
the
above formula, the

under
a
as
magnitude of the angle to which a

sail
is
will
heel
and wind
to
this
pressure
is
seen
level
to
vary inversely
possible,
GM, and
desirable
have the deck as

class
as
the
importance of a large
it
GM
in
of
vessel
3 to
is
apparent.
In medium-sized sailing-ships
should not be
less
than
any special
case,
is
the
to
best
way of showing the

as
First,
effect
of the
3J feet. In wind pressure

to
on the
pressure
stability
draw a curve of upsetting moments due

diagram
follows
:
the
wind
same This may be done as

the
position
sails
is
on
the the
to
corresponding
upsetting the
total
curve
in
of
the
stability.
moment
upright
calculated,
this
being
equal
in
tons
multiplied
by the
to
vertical
distance
in
wind pressure on the feet between the centre
of effort and
centre of lateral resistance.

is
Then
is
the upsetting
moment
this
acting
when
duced,
the
vessel
sail
inclined
the
upright
obtained.
total
In
case,
the
re-
effective
area,
and
to
therefore,
the
effective
wind
the
pressure,
are
being
equal
the
the
values
the
corresponding
angle
in
to
upright
also
position
effective
multiplied
leverage
is
by
the
cosine
to
of
of
inclination;
the
equal
the
leverage
the
cosine
of
angle
of
inclination.
Thus,
The
upsetting
moment =
{
let
^>
in
at
feet.
previous
case
multiplied
any angle Q
in
by the
x cos. 6 foot tons.
Employing symbols,
A = Total sail area H Distance in feet

resistance
/)
square
between centre of
upright).
effort
and centre of
lateral
(vessel
= Wind
pressure per square foot in
lbs.
Then, with vessel inclined

Effective Effective
sail
some angle 0, area = A cos. Q.

at
lever
= H
cos. cos.
6.
Upsetting
Moment = A
steady angle
x
cos.
2
H
Q.
cos.
Q x p
full
is
= A Hp
In calculating
is
the
of
i
heel
lb.
for
a vessel under
sail,
it
usual to assume a wind-pressure of
per square foot, which
taken to
be the force of the wind in a fresh breeze.

squall,
however, a
much
the
larger wind-pressure
is
In estimating the effect of a assumed.

this
Values of upsetting moments obtained in
way are
set
off at
corres-
ponding
curve "
points
on
base
line
of
the
stability
diagram,
and a
"wind
drawn.
curve,
EFFECT OF A SQUALL. In fig. 230, OBD is and A BG F a curve of upsetting moments due
curve
constructed in
the
an
to
ordinary stability
the wind pressure
or wind
way described.
Referring to this
diagram
25
it
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
will
be
observed that
equal.
in
at
an
inclination
P
for
the the
upsetting
and
righting
moments
held
at
are
This
tells
us
that
but
energy which
the vessel
has stored up
the
virtue
of the unresisted
P.
moment
area
B A,
she would be
to
inclination
As
P,
it is
is,
she passes
beyond P
some angle
OH, when
the
energy
of
motion
is
approximately
twice
overcome by the stability reserve thus a sudden squall striking the

Fig.
BOD.
vessel
230.
FT
DYNAMICAL STABILITY OF SAILING

Fig.
refers
23
1
SHIPS.
251
illustrates
this
condition.
The
stability
;
curve
above
the
the
line
line
to inclinations on one side of the upright that below on the other side. represented by The inclination to windward is A. At this point there is a righting lever A B tending to return the vessel to the upright position; and as the energy which heeled her thus has been expended, the influence of the righting moment is about to be felt. At this instant the squall is supposed to strike the vessel. AC D EG F is the wind to
those
curve,
and the returning moment becomes suddenly increased from A B
to
C,
causing the vessel to return rapidly to the upright, her angular velocity continuing to increase until the angle corresponding to the point
of the
E on
the other side
upright
is
is
reached,
when
it
is
a maximum.
Beyond
this,
the righting
moment, and as the vessel becomes further inclined to leeward, her kinetic energy and angular velocity gradually decrease, the vessel coming finally to rest at some angle the excess //, when of upsetting moment, represented by the area B , is absorbed by the excess of dynamical stability EKME. Her energy of motion being now expended, the vessel begins to return by virtue of her excess of righting moment and, if the wind curve be assumed to remain as before, she will oscillate for a
in excess of the upsetting
little
moment
about the angle corresponding to the point

angle.
E and
finally
come
to rest
at
that
We
the hull
have neglected the retarding

surface,
effect
of the as
friction
of the water and
and of such head

the
inclinations
to
resistances
bilge
keels.
These convessel,
siderably reduce
which the wind heels the

assistance
and
air
if
wind were suddenly to fall, would, with the sistance on the sails, gradually bring her to rest.
the
of the
re-
1.
IX.
<%
What
is
a curve of statical stability?
How
is
such
curve usually
drawn?
2.
Distinguish between the terms "righting
arm" and
is
"righting moment."
;
vessel has
a displacement of 4000 tons and a metacentric height of 2 feet

righting
what are the values of the

?
arm and
righting
moment when
the vessel
heeled to an inclination of 10 degrees
Arts. R.A.
3.
-348 foot;
R.M.=
1392 foot tons.

righting
In the case of vessels of ordinary form, correct values

at
moment cannot be obtained

why.
4.
large
inclinations
is
For what
Construct
special form of vessel

<x
of righting arm and by using the metacentric height the metacentric height method correct ?
for
explain
curve
its
of
righting
arms
a vessel
of
cylindrical
section,
15
feet
in
diameter, floating with
axis in the waterplane, the centre of gravity being
iS inches below
the middle of the section.

5.
A
in
vessel's
to
metacentric
height
is
feet
6 inches
origin,
show
how you would

that
construct
is
the tangent
correct
6.
the
curve
of
righting arms
at
the
and prove
your
method
principle.
Show
that in a submarine vessel floating
below the
surface, the centre of
buoyancy and
metacentre coincide with the centre of bulk, and explain what in

ditions of equilibrium.
this special case are the con-
252
7.
if
If,
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
in the previous case, the centre
AND CALCULATIONS.
show
that
of gravity be below the centre of bulk,
the vessel be turned about a horizontal axis passing through the centre of bulk, the curve of
stability will
be the same whatever be the direction of the

for
axis.
8.
Prove Atwood's formula

a.
the
is
statical
stability
of a
vessel
its
at
uses.
any angle of
heel.
Show how
9.
statical
stability
diagram
constructed,
and explain
Explain the terms "angle of
maximum
feet
stability, "
and "range," as applied

at
feet,
to curves
of stability.
of 17 feet
of righting
box-shaped vessel 35
broad, and 35 feet deep, floats
a level draught
the
6 inches.
The
metacentric height of the vessel being 2
construct
curve
arms, indicating the "angle of
maximum
stability," the value
of the
"maximum
righting lever," and the " range."

10.
Describe in detail
angles of inclination of a vessel of

11.
how you would proceed known form.
to obtain
the statical stability at large
vessel
having a deep forward well ships a heavy sea.

discuss
safety is
Assuming the water ports

filling
to
be
set
vessel's
up with rust and inoperative, stability, and state whether her

In Barnes'
the
effect
of the
of
the well on
the
likely
to
be thus endangered.
vessel, show clearly how moments of the wedges of 263,00x3, and the vessel's dis-
12.
Method
is
of calculating the statical
stability of a
the
"wedge
is
correction"
made.
for
The uncorrected sum
of the
immersion and of emersion

placement
2000
tons.
The volume
an inclination of 30 degrees is of the layer is 600 cubic feet, and the horizontal distance
of the centre of gravity of the radial plane at 30 degrees from the intersection with the middle1*5 feet. Find the value of the righting arm (1) assuming the immersed wedge and the centre of gravity of the radial plane on the immersed side; (2) assuming the immersed wedge in excess and the centre of gravity of the radial plane on the emerged side (3) assuming the emerged wedge in excess and the centre of gravity of the radial plane on the immersed side (4) assuming the emerged wedge in excess and the centre of gravity of the radial plane on the emerged side.
line plane is
in excess
Note.
The
centre of gravity of the layer
may be assumed
to be in the
same
vertical with
the centre of gravity of the radial plane,
and B 6
5 feet.
Ans.f^
13.
and
M'
(3),
Ri S htin S
,,
Arms
*\(2) and
= =
1*24 feet.
1-27
,,
vessel
.
clination
of 30
1
depth of
the
whose displacement is 3000 tons, has a righting-arm of 1 foot at an inCargo weighing 300 tons, whose centre of gravity is in the middle line at foot below the common centre of gravity, is discharged; and the vertical
of
is
through
centre
buoyancy of the
layer
through which
side
the
vessel
rises
when
at
an
of
inclination
of
30
6 inches on the
immersed
of
the
vertical
through the centre
buoyancy of the vessel corresponding with the load draught at that inclination. length of the righting arm after the removal of the cargo.
Arts.
Find the
fths
of a foot.
14.
What
are
cross curves of stability?
How
are these related to the ordinary stability
curves
15.
vessel of constant circular

1
section,
;
120 feet long and 14 feet in diameter, has
its
centre of gravity
'5
feet
,
below the axis
construct to scale cross curves of stability for trans-
verse inclinations of 30
16.
60% and 90
Referring to the previous question, deduce an ordinary curve of stability for the vessel
If
when
made
floating with its axis in the waterline.
the centre of gravity be 9 inches below the
position
assumed
in
making the
cross
curves,
show how the necessary
correction
would be
at the various inclinations,
and plot the new curve.
QUESTIONS.
17.
253 how you would

prepare the body plan
The
plans of a vessel being given, state hilly
for the calculation of a cross curve of stability. 18.
vessel
inclined
transversely
is
cut
by a
series
of horizontal equidistant
planes at
intervals
of 3 feet, the
intersection of the middle-line plane being parallel to the top of keel.
The
o,
first
plane touches the vessel's bottom tangentially.
The
areas of the successive planes are
and 1 150 square feet, and the horizontal distances in feet of their respective centres of gravity from the vertical through the vessel's centre of gravity, omitting the tangent plane, are 1 "4, *9, '4, and *l, on the immersed side. Construct the cross curve of stability.
30 590) 880,
19.
What
are the causes which influence the forms of curves of stability?
Give an example
of such curves for

(1)
a flush-deck vessel of low freeboard;
(2) the
same
vessel fitted with a continuous watertight shelter deck.
20.
Discuss the comparative effect on curves of stability of increase of breadth and in-
crease of freeboard.
at a level
Taking
ft,,
rectangular vessel 100
ft.
long, 20
ft.
ft.
broad, 15
ft.
deep, floating
effect
draught of 12
with the centre of gravity at 7
above the base; show the
on the
stability curve of
(1)
(2)
an increase of 4 an increase of 4
ft. ft.
in
beam,
in freeboard,
the draught and position of centre of gravity remaining the same in each case.
21.
What
is
meant by the dynamical
stability of
a vessel?
is
In inclining a vessel from the
upright position explain the several ways in which work

22.
done.
floats in
is
I
A
at
rectangular pontoon 100 feet long, 25 feet broad and 25 feet deep,
salt-
water
half
depth with
one
of
its
sides
horizontal
.
the
metacentric
height
foot.
Calculate the dynamical
stability at
an angle of 45
Ans.
23.
487
foot tons.
is
Prove that the work done in inclining a vessel from the upright to any angle,
equal
to the area of the curve of righting

24.
moments up
to that angle.
The
ordinates of n curve of righting arms measured at equal angular intervals of io,
starting
from the upright, are
o,
*4,
7,
-9,
and i*o
feet.
Find the dynamical

Ans.
stability at
40
inclination,
the displacement being 2500 tons.
102 foot tons.
CHAPTER
Rolling.
X.
THE
fluid,
time
plete
that
a vessel, rolling freely in
undisturbed water, takes to comis
an
oscillation
from port
roll.
to
starboard, or vice versa,

investigations
is
called her
period of a
single
Theoretical
in
this
subject are
based on the assumption that the rolling

so
that in
medium
of
roll,
a perfect or frictionless
fact
is
calculating
to
the
period
the
that
water
offers
substantial
resistance
is
the
movement
be
nearly
greatly
of the
true,
vessel
ignored.
actual
The
result
thus
obtained
fluid
little
found to
since,
from
arc
rolling
experi-
ments,
to
resistance,
while
limiting
the
of
oscillation,
appears
have
influence
on the period.
were wont to think that
if a vessel had great initial and was, therefore, difficult to move, she would also be steady in a They were struck with the apparent analogy between a rolling ship seaway. and an oscillating pendulum, and thought that a ship might be looked upon as a simple pendulum suspended at the metacentre of length equal to G M, the distance between the metacentre and the centre of gravity. Now, the period in seconds of a single swing of a simple pendulum,
Early
investigators
stability,
from
left
to
right,
or
vice versa, is
3-1416
J L,
and
where
gravity.
is
the
length
of
the
pendulum,
the
acceleration
due
to
If
the
above analogy between the pendulum and the ship were

for
/
correct,
ship's
G
to
might be substituted
period would
in
this
formula, and, consequently, the
rolling
lengthen with increase in

case,
all
G M.
We
is,
find,
however, such
be by no means the
those
is
experience
going to show that vessels of
small
metacentric heights are of longer periods, that
make
fewer rolls
per
minute, than
that
having
large
metacentric
its
heights.
Thus, the assumption

at the
at
ship
a simple pendulum, with
whole weight concentrated

of
oscillation
centre
clearly
of
gravity,
and with a
fact,
fixed
axis
the
point
M,
is
an erroneous one.
a ship has
vessels
As a matter of
stantaneous
centre
axis
is
no
not
fixed
at
it
axis
of
in
oscillation.
The
of
in-
for
it
most
is
M,
as
it
but
the
vicinity
the
of gravity,
and
this
usual to assume
fair
passing through that
point,
While accepting
as
approximation,
gravity
itself,
be forgotten
that
the
centre
of
must not at the same time though fixed relatively to the
254
INSTANTANEOUS ROLLING
ship,
AXIS.
vessel
rolls.
255
really
describes
path
in
space
as
as
the
:
To
the
obtain
the
instantaneous axis
Referring
flotation,
i.e.,
we may proceed
fig.
follows
to
232,
let
WL
be
the
waterplane,
to
FF
curve
of
section
of
the
surface
tangent
the
various
waterplanes
which cut
flotation
of gravity.
a constant displacement as the vessel rolls, and G the centre Now, neglecting the presence of the ship, assume the surface of and the level water surface to become solid, and the former to roll
off
or slip
without friction along the latter as

of the
surfaces
the vessel oscillates.

is
F,
the
point
of contact
FF
and
W L,
a point in the
oscillating vessel,
and will move, at any instant, about a centre somewhere Another determinable point in the vessel is the centre of
vertical
in
the
line
It
F 0,
has
freely
gravity.
is
motion only, since the forces acting when the vessel
rolling
Fig.
232.
are
purely vertical
therefore, the
centre
the
lines
about which
turns
is
is
in
the line
0,
0.
The
is
axis
of
the
vessel
at
instant
considered
obviously at
point
in
the point
of
intersection
G,
of
the
FO
error
and GO.
is
The
most
cases
that
near
axis
so
that
very
little
introduced
by the
ship
assumption
rolling
the
passes
through G.
Let
resistedly
offers
us
in
consider
still
what actually takes

This
case
is
place
when a
is
unit
water.
purely
hypothetical
one,
but
a convenient starting-point.
floating
roll
Suppose a vessel
force
is
freely
and
at
rest
is
acted upon by an external

to
port. at
causing her to
through some angle,

stability of
say,
The work done

the angle at which
represented
by the dynamical
rest.
the vessel
to
she comes to
of
the
She has then energy due

takes
effect
position, which,
on removal
the
upright.
external
force,
in
returning
her
towards
256
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
the
vertical
is
AND CALCULATIONS.
of
position
When
into
reached
the
the
vessel
carries
energy
becomes
to
transformed
velocity.
energy
of of
motion,
attaining
maximum
to
angular
The energy
angle as
of
that
position,
motion
in
now
turn,
the
vessel
starboard,
the
same
so
reached on the port

sends
side,
where she once more regains energy
which,
her
back
to
the
upright.
And
the
rolling
goes on, since,

for
The formula
by our assumption, there is no external resistance. a single roll in the above hypothetical circumstances is
vg
where T
is
m
m
the metacentric height in
feet
feet,
the time
seconds of a single
gravity
as
roll,
and g the acceleration due to The symbol k is known

this
(=
32*2
per
second per second).

of
the
gyration.
the
transverse
radius
if
What
of
quantity
oscillating
is
may be
vessel
explained
by stating
that
whole weight
be concentrated at a point distant k from the axis of oscillation, the effect would be the same as with the vessel as she To find the same. is, that is, the period of oscillation would be the value of k in any case, it is necessary to assume the vessel's weight
the
could
divided into very small elements w, say, and to obtain the distance between the
centre
to
of each
of these
elements and
distances,
the
rolling
axis
then,
total
if
r be
taken
of the
represent
any of these
and
the
be
the
weight
vessel
Sum
of
all
products
x r2
'
W
expression
;
The numerator
vessel
of
this
for
k2
this
is
the
moment
of
inertia
of
the
about the chosen axis
calling
Using the value given
for
g,
the
formula for
the
period
may be
written
r=
We now
motion,
i.e.,
k
'554
r:
see
why
vessels having large metacentric heights
are
for
of quicker
evidently
shorter
period, than
those
/??,
with
smaller
vice
values,
T
is
becomes reduced with increase of

increased
or
and
versa.
Also, the
period
of
gyration,
which
decreased with corresponding changes in the value of the radius varies according to the distribution of the weights on
board the
gravity,
ship, being increased by spreading them out from the centre of and decreased by crowding them about that point.
As a
gyration
practical
example,
let
us
obtain
the
rolling
is
period for a vessel of

2*5
feet,
3000 tons displacement, whose metacentric height

17*16
feet.
and radius of
By
substitution
'554
=
17-16
2-5
we
get
6 seconds.
STILL
Vertical
WATER ROLLING
PERIOD,
257
movements of weights have

i.e.,
greater influence
on the period than

if
horizontal
raised
feet
this
movements.
feet,
it,
For instance, in the above

7
vessel,
120 tons were
14
above
well
as
below the centre of gravity to one 7 the period would be increased to 6*8 seconds, while winging out
from a position
feet
still-water
weight 14 feet from the centre would only lengthen the period to 6'i seconds.
As
by calculation, the
this
it
rolling period
may be found
rolls
experi-
mentally.
artificial
To do
means,
is
only necessary to set the vessel rolling by she
some
in
and
to
note the number of complete

a single
roll
makes
certain
time.
time by the
per
roll,
The period of number of rollsall
may
then be got by dividing the

fact
This follows from the
that the time taken

statical
for
inclinations
is,
up
12
to
which the curves of

15
stability
are
straight
lines
that
about
to
degrees is the same, a

it
characteristic
known
It
as
Isochronism.
well
to
state
may be
here
that
in to
is
important
to
to
know
her
still
the
value
bebut,
of a vessel's
still-water
rolling
period
roll
order
predict
probable
water,
haviour at sea.
as
Vessels
seldom
dangerous angles in
we
shall
see
to
presently,
may do
with
so
among
waves,
unless precautions have

periods.
been taken
will
provide them
suitable
still-water
SEA WAVES, Before

it
dealing with the rolling of a vessel
among
waves,
in
of
be necessary to give some attention to the structure of the
latter
the light of
water on a
modern theory, in order vessel when the surface of

are
to obtain
a clear idea of the action

is
the former
undulated into wave shape.
principal
to
by the action of wind on the sea, and are the roll. There have been various theories as the action of wave water, the most satisfactory of which, and the one now
generated
agents
Waves
causing ships to
generally
accepted
as
representing
the
case
best,
being
that
known
wave
orbits
as
the
trochoidal theory.
The groundwork
and
that
of this theory
of
is,
that only the form of the
travels,
the
particles
water affected
move
in
small
circular
about
That some such action does take place will be obvious to anyone who observes the movements of a piece of driftwood afloat among waves. It will be noted that the wood does not travel with the wave, but merely moves backwards and forwards, showing clearly that the water particles supporting it move only a short distance as the wave passes. According to this theory, a section of a wave in the plane of the line
horizontal
axes.
of advance,
has
for
its
outline
a trochoid,
i.e.,
line
described by a point
having uniform circular and linear motion.

ing
rough, but simple way of drawthe
a trochoid,
is
as
follows
Take
;
any point between
centre
rolled
is
and the
without
circumference in a circular paper disc,

slipping along a horizontal line
and
let
the
latter
be
the path described by the point
a trochoid.
originally
The
reader should try this for himself.
horizontal layers below the surface become,

into trochoidal forms
face,
crest.
The theory also states that when under wave motion,

as
distorted
of the
same general character
that of the upper sur-
and that columns of water originally vertical curve towards the wave The hollows and crests of the various trochoids are immediately under
258
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
all
each other, and, therefore, the trochoids are
of the
same
length.
But they
particles
become
moving
Fig.
flatter
as
the
depth below the upper surface increases,

orbits,
the
in
smaller
and smaller
in
to.
until
finally
the
wave, form disappears.
233, which
exhibits
section part
of a trochoidal wave, illustrates
some
of the points referred

in
in
still
In this figure the original surfaces and subsurfaces
water
are
shown
full
by dotted horizontal
lines.
lines,
the
same
surfaces
when
these
wave form
are
by
also
full)
curved
seen
The
lines
at
orbits
of
surface
and subsurface
of
particles orbits
indicated.
The
to
in
containing
levels
the
centres
(shown
are
be
higher
than the corresponding

energy of position.
that
still-water lines,
showing that
the wave, as well as kinetic energy, or energy
of motion, the particles have also potential
energy or
is,
Another
particle
fundamental
point
affected
in
this
theory
the
pressure
of
a
its
in
the
wave and
as
is
by
the
centrifugal
force
generated
in
by
orbital
ticle
motion,
;
acts
normally to the particular surface

slope
varies
at
which the pardirections
lies
so
that,
the
each subsurface,
the
of
Fig.
233.
the
normals
also
continually
vary.
All
this
has
to
be
act
considering
the
resultant
of
the
wave
forces
which
remembered on a vessel
crest
when
afloat
among waves. The length

the
of a
wave
is
is
the
is
horizontal distance from

vertical
to
crest,
or
hollow to hollow; the height

period
length.
:
the
it
distance
to
from
hollow
to
crest;
its
of a
wave
the
time
takes
move a
distance equal to
own
From
calculations
based on the trochoidal theory, we have the
following
t,
r Period of wave in seconds

,
V1416 ^
9
x lensrth 5
v
Speed of wave second
in feet per)
length
-
,
v 5-124
-.
/length x a
x 3-1416
of observations of actual waves.
Results obtained from these formulae are found to agree closely with those Atlantic storm waves 600 feet in length, for
SEA WAVES.
instance,
this
259
have observed periods of 11

of wave,
seconds, and from the formulas, using
length
we
get
Period
v
Speed
/
5* I2 4
io'8 seconds.
5*124 x 600
55*4 feet per second.
The
tude
the
heights of waves have an important influence
on
rolling.
The magniratio
of the height
maximum
to
angle
of slope
it
of a wave
depends upon the
of
the
length,
and
will
be
found that the extent of the arc

governed by the value of
this slope
through which a vessel

angle.
"sir
oscillates, is largely
The
heights of well-defined ocean waves are usually found to vary from

in
to
tV f tne ^ngths,
long and in short waves, respectively, the steepness

length.
of waves
decreasing with increase in
ROLLING AMONG WAVES. We

internal
have
seen
that
the
effect
of
the
wave forces
is
to
cause the resultant buoyant pressure

it
water particle to act
normally to the wave slope, and

act
on a surface must now be added

floating
particle
same forces body, and cause the

that
the
upon the weight of any small

force
also
to act
or
resultant
normally to the wave slope,

truth
:
but in a line opposite to that of buoyancy.

experimentally by Dr.
of
The
of this
was
proved
Froude
in
the following
manner
Taking
a small float
cork he fitted it with an inclined mast, from the top of which he susHe then placed the float on waves, when it pended a simple pendulum. was observed that the pendulum did not hang vertically but took up a position perpendicular to the wave slope. Now, a ship displaces a considerable amount of wave water, and cannot, It intersects many properly speaking, be looked upon as a surface particle. subsurfaces, the pressures on the particles of which act normally to the curves of these subsurfaces, and the resultant pressure, on the whole body,
is
normal to a mean subsurface

the vessel
as
but
in
actual
to
calculations
it
is
usual
it
to
for
consider
all
very
small
relatively
particle,
the
wave, and
to
treat
practical purposes as a surface
the resultant lines of pressure
and
of
weight
the
being assumed
to
act
normally to the slope of the upper surface
wave.
On
parallel
this
assumption, a vessel
among waves
illustrated
will
tend to place her masts
to
the normal to the wave slope, which virtually becomes her upright
position of equilibrium.
that
is,
This
is
in
fig.
234, where the centre line,

to
the
line
of
the
in
masts,
is
shown inclined
tending
with
to to
the
wave normal, with

into
parallel
moment
of
GZ
operation
parallel
bring
them
lines
and thus place the deck

angle
inclination
the
wave
is
slope.
at
In
calculating the
of the vessel
righting
the vertical
any instant when among
waves, this
to
modified
moment, which
of the
ship's
the
.
angle
between the
is
line
assumed to be proportional masts and the wave normal at

of
that
instant,
It
is
employed.
our
intention
to
not
attempt
description
these
calculations,
260
as
SHIP CONSTRUCTION AND CALCULATIONS.

they are
It
is
difficult
and would be quite out of place

in
in
a work of
this
kind.
vessel
easy,
however,
general
terms,
to
predict
the
behaviour of a
among waves when the periods of ship and waves are known. Where the still water period of a vessel is very short in comparison
the
with
period
of
the
waves she
to
is
among, caused by her being

masts
close
to
specially
broad and shallow, or having a cargo of great density placed low

her holds, she
will
down
in
tend
keep
decks
her
depicted in
she
will
fig.
235.
Her motions
her
will
generally
keep
clear
wave normal, as be quick and jerky, and although of water, she cannot otherwise be
the
Fig.
234.
considered
especially
satisfactory.
Her
rapid
motions
will
are
likely
to
strain
the
hull,
during rough weather, and she
obviously be
an uncomfortable
reversed,
period.
boat
in
which to traveL
results
still
Different
i.e.,
are
obtained when
period
will
is
the
ratio
of the
periods
is
when
vessel
the so
water
very long
compared with the wave

roller,
circumstanced
be
an
easy
plained.
approaches her.
ately
Assume such a vessel, for example, to Under the influence of the wave
to
will
may be readily exbe upright when a wave

as
begin
heel,
but her period
being
wave,
she
not
have
gone
far
when
forces, she will immedicompared with that of the the wave normal, having passed
long
Fig.
235.
through
wave,
its
maximum
passes,
angle
to
the
vertical,
at
about
a
the
crest
mid-height
of
the
will
have returned to the

the
arrest
upright,
bringing
under the
vessel.
As the
will
crest
tendency of the wave pressures in the back
slope
be to
so
the inclination of the vessel,
and return her

inclined
to
to the upright.
And
This
the
the
next
hollow
in
will
find
her
little
the
other
side.
inclination
will,
turn,
be arrested
of such
deck.
by the
following
wave,
and thus
departure
from
the
upright
level
maintain
desirable
a
in
it
comparatively
warships
also to
ensure
reasons
is
sought after in
small, and she will Such a state, of things is highly a steady gun platform, and for obvious merchant vessels.
a vessel will be
ROLLING AMONG WAVES.
261
From
the
formula
v
m
rolling
it
is
seen
that
in
order
to
obtain
long
period,
/f,
the
radius
of
must be increased, and aw, the metacentric height, must be reduced, as much as possible. This would mean concentrating the weights away from the middle line, narrowing the beam, or raising the position of the
gyration,
centre of gravity.
More important
considerations than those of rolling limit the
extent to which the foregoing modifications

able, for instance, in
may be carried out. It is impracticmerchant vessels to bank the weights against the sides,
cargoes
although
while
to
with general
something may be done by judicious stowage,

of
bring
down
the value
by reducing the beam or stowing the

affect
weights
designer
high in the vessel
might seriously
that.
the
stability,
and no
guide
careful
would recklessly do
that,
Experience
speaking,
must
be the
of
great
here,
it
being
remembered
smaller
case
critical
generally
of
vessels
displacements
may have
values
arises
than those of small displacement.

the
half
is
when
as
period
of the
waves
is
the
same
as the ship's
still-water
period,
and she
this
rolling broadside
on
to
the former,
a state of things
known
synchronism.
of
In
fig.
236 the
effect
coincidence of the
effective
time
of
the
Fig.
236.
two periods on a
without resistance,
vessel's
is
behaviour when rolling in a frictionless

Referring to this
figure,
fluid,
i.e.,
A the vessel is in the hollow, and is supposed to be upright when the wave reaches her. As she rises on the latter, the internal wave forces cause her to heel from the upright, and her period agreeing with the half period of the wave, she On the back slope the reaches the end of a roll at the first wave crest.
depicted.
at
wave
forces
will
assist
the
ordinary
statical
moment
other
will
to
return
her
to
the
upright,
and to a
will
maximum
at
which she
reach
the
on the hollow, and which

inclination
side
of the
vertical,
if
be greater than
of motion,
she
had
the
tion
oscillated
under her
statical
will will
moment
alone.
The wave
direction
roll,
forces in concert
with her statical next

will
crest,
moment
where she
again change the
and
at
complete another
her
maximum
to
roll,
inclina-
be
further
increased.
inclination
Thus
at
she
will
continue
reaching
greater
maximum
each
crest
and hollow,
of
until
she finally
upsets.
Theoretical
investigations
show
that
the
increment
roll
due to the
wave impulse
if
is
equal to
this
were
Thus, f, or about if times the maximum wave slope. degrees, the maximum inclination would be increased each
262
Lime
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
effect
by 9 degrees, and her arc of oscillation by 18 degrees; so that the of a few such waves would be to put the vessel on her beam ends. Dr. Froude proved the truth of the foregoing theory by experimenting
little
with
that
models
after
in
a tank.
in
still
of
the
models
the see
water,
Waves were generated having a period double and the latter when placed in the tank
is
were upset
passage of a few waves.

a
vessel
We
on
to
thus
that
most
is
seriously
situated
when broadside
still-water
waves whose period of advance
double that of her own

the
wave impulse as above described, resembles an oscillating pendulum which has additional force applied to it periodically at the end of an oscillation in one direction, and just when it is about to return, the effect of which is to increase the angle of swing each time. Another illustration is given by a body of soldiers
period.
In
some
respects
the
ship,
in
receiving
crossing
a bridge, when the period of march keeps

of the
bridge,
time with the period of
vibration
state
of
things
which,
continued
long
enough,
would greatly increase the amplitude of the

bring
the
structure
vibrations,
and might eventually

obvious
inferences
down.
foregoing
Summarising
there
the
:
remarks
are
and
very
deducing
short
in
from,
(1)
we note That vessels whose periods

waves, will
that
comparison with the

stormy
weather,
transverse
tend
angular
to
place
their
masts parallel to the wave normals
the
velocity
of
such vessels
rolling
may, in
that
become very
straining
great
and the
heavy;
excessive
may
thus be developed, with a particular tendency to throw
out
(2)
the
masts.
That
vessels
of long
periods
less,
(single
roll),
if
among waves
and
is
with half
to
periods considerably
are likely to be slow rollers,

;
incline
through moderate angles from the upright

sirable
state
that this
a most de-
of things
in
both
mercantile
and war
time
;
vessels,
and
of
after
sufficiently
(3)
allowing for
stability,
should be aimed at in new designs.
That
as
vessels
having
if
periods
which
keep
with
those
the
waves are badly,

has
is
not dangerously, situated
that such
synchronism,
able,
been borne out in actual cases of which records are availlikely to conduce to heavy rolling and severe transverse
straining.
A
pected
herself
vessels,
practical
of H.M.S.
to to
example of the effect of synchronism is afforded in the case Royal Sovereign, a large warship which from her design was exbe
very
steady
among waves
occasion,
swell
at
sea,
and
in
in
general
of
proved
other
be so
her
but on one
a slight
arc
when
sailing
company
she
degrees,
slightly
there
being
on the sea
periods,
at
the
to
time,
rolled
conthe
siderably,
maximum
which
the
of oscillation
of
reaching
32
while
other
vessels,,
were
the
quicker
to
were
but
affected.
Observation
showed
waves
have
period
roll
which
synchronised
seconds.
ap-
proximately with
Royal Sovereign's
single
to
period
of 8
On
she
another occasion,
when broadside on
a series
of synchronising waves,
ROLLING AMONG WAVES.

rolled
263
Excessive rolling
is
through
maximum
arcs
of
50 to 60 degrees.
class,
also
reported of another vessel of this
H.M.S. Resolution, the circumstances pointing to sychronism between the ship and apparent wave periods. These examples show how difficult it is to altogether avoid the effects
of
synchronism.
Actual
feet
observation
in
has
shown
of
ordinary
10
to
storm
waves
to
average
in
500 to 600
cases
still-water
length, with
periods
seconds,
only
exceptional
longer
waves
escape
being
met
with.
Consequently,
class
vessels
having
periods
of 8
seconds like the

synchronism.
Royal Sovereign
Experience,
should
has
to
is
be
expected
that
to
practically
however,
shown
happen.
better
circumstances
may
there of
arise
is
which
shall
cause
the of
unexpected
long
case,
But
situated
even where
than
are
synchronism, a vessel
period.
period
the
one
latter.
short
less
In
the
former
smaller
waves
sloperoll
keeping
angles
at
time
longer
and
is
steep
and have
vessel
maximum
than in
the
Thus, the increment added to the angle of

less
each hollow and
crest
in
the
of
long period
than in the
other.
Of
matters
course, a master with his vessel well
in
hand
is
usually able
to
help
of
considerably
when
he
his
vessel
is
rolling
excessively
on
is
account
lying
synchronism.
side
Should the
the
rolling
become
disturb
heaviest
when she
of
the
broad-
on
to to
waves,
may
the
coincidence
lengthen
the
periods
by
changing
the
an
oblique
course,
which would
a
cure
in
effective
time of
wave.
Should,
course,
into
however, the
synchronism be developed when

'
sailing
on
turn
an
his
oblique
vessel
he
may
affect
various
ways.
He may
wave trough, or direct her head to the line of crests, keep the original course, he may change the effective Thus, time of the waves by increasing or reducing the speed of the vessel. by skilful navigation, much can be done even with a vessel of bad design. RESISTANCE TO ROLLING. Although synchronism will always tend to make rolling heavy, as in the case of the Royal Sovereign, the resistance due to the friction of the water with the surface of an oscillating vessel,
the
or
if
he wishes
to
with
all
that
spent
in
the
for
creation
of waves,
etc.,
is
will
minimise
in
the
still
rolling
at
times.
at
Suppose,
instance,
a vessel
force
set
rolling
water,
is
that,
a given
instant,
the
external
causing
her
motion
of
and removed,
will
thus
allowing
her
to
to
roll
freely.
Her maximum range

In
to
oscillations
immediately
begin
diminish.
angle,
any
single
oscillation,
the
difference
between
port,
will
the
maximum
a
say
starboard,
from
the
following
one
to
be
measure
of
the
resistance
overcome.
But when
among
waves whose period keeps time with that of her own motion, the periodical impulse given by the wave will cause the maximum inclination to be increased with
each oscillation, so long as the resistance of the water

of
force
is
less
than
angle,
the
increment
the
in
due
to
the
wave
as
impulse.
With
And,
increase
of
however,
arcs
speed
nearly
of
the
oscillation
will
increase,
since
vessels
describe
since
the
largest
same time
which
the
smallest.
the
resistance
tions
is
of
the
water increases rapidly with the speed,

to
a range
of oscillato
soon
reached,
sustain
the
repeated
impulse
due
syn-
264
chronism
oscillation
is
Ship construction
necessary.
large
and calculations.
the
Moreover,
only
disturb
critical
are
is
are
to
slightly
difference
sufficient
not
occur
at
the
same
thus
when the arcs of when they are small, the The wave impulse does the synchronism. time, and a fraction of the moment each
although
period
greater
than
resistance
velocity,
being
the
unbalanced,
less
it
takes
effect
in
reducing
the
angular
the
rolling
becoming
heavy.
This reduction
may
increase
and again cause synchronism, with consequent increase in the rolling, which, as before, will in turn be arrested. We thus see that oscillations sufficient to place a vessel on her be:im ends, or to overturn her, are
period,
unlikely
to
occur in a resisting
medium such
as
water.
ANALYSIS OF RESISTANCE. Many

out experiments on
parts,
viz.,
years ago, Dr.
Froude
it
carrying
three
the
(1)
resistance
to
of vessels to rolling,
divided
into
that
due
the
hull
surface;
(2)
;
to
keel,
bilge-keels,
dead-
wood, and the
flat
parts of the vessel at either

results
He
obtained
of the
quantitative
vessels,
plans
and
end (3) to surface disturbance. by calculating items (1) and (2) from the placing the difference between the sum of these
obtained from
hull
items and
the actual
resistance
experiments
to
the
credit
of
2
item
(3).
The
of
results
showed the
leaving
surface
flat
resistance to be less than

resistance
per cent., and the keel, bilge-keel,
and
surface
from
to
18
to
20
dis-
per
cent,
the
total,
about
80 per cent,
ot
as
due
small
surface
turbance and the creation of waves.
While
sufficient
it
is
known
for
that
this
the
creation
very
to
account
residual
resistance,
(2)
subsequent
of
experiments
wave would be and

under-estimated.
Dr.
investigations
have
shown
that
for
item
the
has
probably been
flat
In
took
making
i*6
his
calculations
resistance
surfaces,
Froude
of
flat
lbs.
as
co-efficient
of resistance per
square foot at a velocity of
one foot per second, and assumed the resistance to vary as the square This co-efficient he had obtained previously by oscillating a the velocity.
board
lished
in
deep water.
this
figure,
In the case of bilge-keels,

taken with the
value
ot
it
is
now
pretty well estabbilge

keels,
that
surface
area
of the
does
not
that
represent
the
the
extinctive
these
to
appendages.
the
fitting
On
of
the assumption
keels,
whole work of extinction,

to
due
the
bilge
might
square
be
foot
Sir
credited
a virtual increase in
co-efficient
of
resistance
per
of bilge area,
Philip
and
of
that the
resistance varied as the square of the velocity,

in
Watts pointed out

instead
i'6
that,
the
case
of
at
the
warships
Volage
and
Inconstant^
foot
lbs.,
the
co-efficients
7*2
lbs.,
mean
velocity
of one
per
second should be 87 and

rolling
respectively.
In
ship
experiments
displacement,
11
lbs.
carried
similar
out
of
large
1895 on H.M.S. Revenge^ a warresults were obtained, the corresponding

in
co-efficient
for
being
for
a swing of 10
Sir
degrees,
rising to
about 16
lbs.
a swing of 4 degrees.
Commenting on
*
these
results,
Wm. Whyte*
pointed out
that,
as well
See a paper by Sir

1895.
Wm. Whyte
in the
Transactions of the Institution of Naval Archi-
tects for
RESISTANCE TO ROLLING.
as offering direct
resistance,
265
resistance
oscillating
bilge keels
create
further
by
indirectly
influencing
the
stream-line motions that exist about

fully
an
ship.
Investigation* has
borne
this
out.
if
Professor
Bryan has shown that
the
motion of a
gives
rise
rolling
vessel,
particularly
in
bilge,
to
counter
currents
be of sharp form at the the water which strike the surface

she
;
of the bilge-keels and increase their extinctive value

of
the
bilge-keels
also,
that the presence
cause
discontinuous
is
motions
in
the
surrounding
stream
lines,
the result of which
a gradual reduction in the speed of the streams

tending
to to
as
they approach the keels and an increase of pressure on the hull surface,
rise
giving
to
turning
moments
the
arrest
the
angular
motion
of
the ship.
estimates
Crediting these
the
effect
*
resistances
the
bilge-keel area,
Professor
to
Bryan
Dr.
of
counter
currents
as
equivalent
doubling
Froude's co-efficient, and the effect of the discontinuous

ling
it.
motion to quadrup-
It
should be stated that the foregoing analysis

has no forward
is
based on the assumption that
the vessel
motion,
but rolling motion only.

it
From
the results
of rolling experiments! with a destroyer,
is
shown
that the effect of discon-
tinuous motion
increasing
is
much
the
create
reduced,
when a
for
ship has motion ahead, the diminution
with
the
speed
ahead
the
same angle of
the water
at
roll
the apparent
reason
being
that
keel
surfaces
strike
an oblique angle,
and thus do not

forward
such masses of dead water as when rolling without
motion.
But however the work done by bilge-keels be analysed, the point of most concerning them is that they are invaluable as a means of Experience has amply shown this in a general way, but reducing rolling. deduced from actual experiments are perhaps more convincing. figures H.M.S. Repulse, a large battleship, was, as an experiment, fitted with bilgekeels 200 feet long and 3 feet deep, and when amongst synchronous waves at sea, was found to reach only half the maximum angles of oscillation atIn tained by her accompanying sister vessels, which were without bilge-keels. the years 1894-5, rolling experiments, with and without bilge-keels, were conducted on the Revenge, a vessel of the same class as the Repulse. In still water it was found that, starting with an inclination of 6 degrees, without
importance
bilge-keels
it
took 45
that,
to
50 swings to
those
6
at
reduce
the angle
8
to
degrees,
and
it
with
bilge-keels,
similar
starting
to
on the Repulse, only
swings.
Again,
was noticed
degrees inclination, after
18
swings the vessel
without bilge-keels reached an angle of 3! degrees, and with bilge-keels, In the case of the destroyer above referred to, an angle of 1 degree. the decrement of roll for 4 degrees mean angle of roll was, without bilge Most important of all keels, '24 degrees, and with bilge-keels, '5 degrees. perhaps the effect of bilge-keels on rolling when vessels have motion is *See a paper
in
the
Transactions of the
Institution
of Naval Architects for
1900.
fSee an
of Naval
interesting
paper by Mr. A.
W. Johns
in the
Transactions of the Institution
Architects for
1905.
266
ahead.
the
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
5
In the case of the Revenge^ starting at an angle of

in
degrees from
vertical
each
case,
after
ahead was
swings
the
2-95
degrees,
and
at
4 a speed of 12 were
resistance
swings
the
inclination
with
no motion
after
knots, 2*2
degrees;
16
corresponding
the
17
inclinations
1*15
to
degrees
and
'25
degrees.
In the case of
angle of
roll,
destroyer
knots, was
the
at
3 J times greater
extinctive
rolling for 4 degrees mean than when not under weigh.
The reason
under weigh
set in
is
of
the
to
greater
value
of
bilge-keels
in
vessels to
due motion, and

lost
their
having at each instant

so
new masses
continually
of water
left
the
energy
imparted
being
behind
that
and thus
to
the
ship.
The experiments
keels.
with
the
destroyer brought
out another point,
viz.,
forward motion tends to reduce the rolling period both with and without bilge
no motion ahead was found to be At about 17 knots speed the corresponding figures were 5*4 and 5*46 respectively. At higher speeds the reduction was still more marked. Another point to be noted in respect to bilge-keels is that they are more effective in small quick-rolling vessels than in large vessels of slow angular motions. This follows because the resistance bilge-keels meet with from the water increases with their speed of motion through it, and because the power of this resistance in arresting angular motion is greatest when the oscillating body to which the bilge-keels are attached is of relatively small weight and inertia. The importance of having these appendages
in seconds with
5 '61.
The double period
with keels, 5 '5 9; without keels,
on small vessels of quick-rolling period

bilge-keels
is
thus apparent.
The advantages
to
of
are
now
generally recognised,
vessels.
and they
they
are
are regularly fitted
both
war and merchant depth;

in
In warships
frequently
of
considerable
and
merchant vessels they are seldom more than 12 to 15 inches deep, are often less but even when so limited in size, their effect on the
;
behaviour of vessels at sea has been most beneficial.
WATER CHAMBERS. Besides

successful
bilge-keels,
for
various
other
more
or
less
methods have been advanced
minimising the rolling of

filled
ships.
The
best
known
of these the
consists
in
having a chamber partially
with
water fitted
across
ship,
so
that
when
to
the vessel
rolls,
say,
from port to
acts
position.
starboard, the water, having a free surface, rushes in the
same direction and

upright
against
the
righting
moment
This was
operating
return
her to the
The
in
efficiency of the
method has been found

borne
out
the
of
chamber.
sea
H.M.S.
reduced
the
in best
Inflexible^
to depend on the depth of water by observations of the behaviour at which had such a chamber, her mean angle of roll
being being
tested
20
to
25
per
cent,
with
the
result
obtained.
still
The
the
value
of a water
chamber about half full, this chamber was further

with
the
in
series
of
water
as
rolling
experiments
Edinburgh^ a
this
warship of the
16
feet
same
7
class
Inflexible.
full
The chamber
width
at
long,
feet
deep,
and had a
also
of
67
feet;
bulkheads
51 \
feet,
the
chamber
could
be
tried
breadths
case was by means of of 43 feet and
respectively.
Increasing
at
effect,
the extinctive value
67
breadth was found to have a powerful feet being three times that at 43 feet. It
the
THE GYROSCOPE.
was also found that the most
the natural
effective
267
depth of water was that which made

the
period
of
the of the
wave
ship.
traversing
chamber, the same

chamber,
ship,
fitted on showed the
as
the
natural
rolling
period
with
Experiments
of the
a
at
model
the
of
the
water
as
frame
designed to oscillate
same period
the
efficiency
system to be greatest at small angles of inclination. For various reasons the water chamber method has not become popular.
In the case of warships, changes in design have led to longer natural rolling
and a reduced necessity for special means of extinguishing rolling. for instance, had a G M of 8 feet, while modern battleships have seldom greater metacentric heights than about 3 feet. In the case of merchant vessels, the expense of fitting up a water chamber, and the loss of valuable space which would be entailed by its presence in the hold, has stood in the way of its general adoption, particularly as the inexpensive method of fitting bilge-keels has produced satisfactory results. THE GYROSCOPE. A proposal for extinguishing rolling motion, which some authorities think is likely to be widely adopted in the future, has been brought forward in recent years by Dr. Otto Schlick. In Dr. Schlick's words, "the method depends in principle on the gyroscopic action of a flywheel, which is set up in a particular manner on board a steamer, and made to rotate rapidly. " The principle of the apparatus, and the method of
periods,
The
Inflexible^
application,
is
fully
explained
of
by
Dr.
Schlick
in
in
an
interesting
paper
the
read
before
is
the
Institution
for
details.
Naval Architects
has,
1904,
and
to
this
reader
referred
So
the
case
far
the
apparatus
vessels,
we
from
believe,
only
been
results
first
practically
applied
trials,
in
of two
but
the
reported
one.
of
these
the
is
system appears to be a highly
efficient
The
of
of these vessels
tons
German
In
of
this
torpedo-boat,
116
feet
long,
and
about
56
displacement.
case* the gyroscope, which was fitted for purely experimental purposes,
has a flywheel one

ship
of
1
metre in diameter, with a proportionate weight to weight

114.
It
is
to
steam
driven,
the
periphery
of
in
the
wheel
steam-
being
tight
provided with
casing,
rings
of as
blades,
and
is
the
wheel
enclosed
and worked
a turbine.
The
the
at
casing containing
the
wheel
carried
on two horizontal trunnions

the
vessel
latter
is is
having their axis athwartships, the steam supply and exhaust passing through
trunnions
rest
as
in
an
oscillating
engine.
is
;
When
the
upright
in
to
and
the
spindle
in
of the flywheel
horizontal
vertical,
and the
when
free
motion
thus
rotates in
plane
also
apparatus
become
effect
inclined
a fore-and-aft direction.
With the gyroscope

is
in
action,
the
of the
transverse
heeling of the vessel
to
cause
the
apparatus to become
of the
vessel's
inclined,
oscillations
and moments to be produced reducing the To control and also their magnitude.
velocity
the
fore-and-aft
move-
*See a paper by Sir
Wm. Whyte
in the
T.I.N.A.
for
1907.
268
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
of the
AND CALCULATIONS.
movement
of
ments
gyroscope
is
and
the
rotary
the
flywheel,
an
arrangement of brakes
water.
provided.
At the commencement of the experiments the torpedo boat was rolled in With the gyroscope at rest, a double-roll period of 4*136 seconds was obtained ; with the apparatus in action, and the flywheel running at 1600 revolutions a minute, the period was found to be 6 seconds, an instill
crease
of 45
roll
per
cent.
effect
The
an angle
extinguishing
was
found to be
at
enormous.
rest,
it
;
Starting
from
single
of
to
10
degrees,
with
the
gyroscope
to
took
twenty
oscillations
reduce
the
inclination
half
little
a degree
with the
gyroscope
oscilla-
in action, the
tions.
same angle was reached

trials
in
more than two
single
The
sea,
sea
were quite as remarkable

roll
when through
the effect
practically to
the state of the
the
vessel
was caused to
considerably,
play,
of the
action
of
the
apparatus,
when
brought
into
was
extinguish
the
rolling
fixed,
motion.
On
two occasions,
for instance,
the vessel, with the gyroscope
reached arcs of rolling of 30 degrees,

to
act,
which,
to
1
on the apparatus being

degree
or
allowed
became
immediately reduced
being
LochieL
it
ij
degrees.
The
is
results
of other
observations were
as
equally convincing.
fitted
The
the
other vessel referred to
with
Dr.
Schlick's
apparatus
gyro-
coasting
passenger
steamer
the
Very
stated
few
details
of the
is
scope in this case are available, but

electrically.
is
that
the
flywheel
driven
to
From
as
the
in
reports,
roll-extinguishing
effect
appears
vessel
be
quite
to
as
great
the
torpedo-boat.
On
to
to
occasions
the
was found
rest,
be
rolling
through arcs of
bringing
it
32
degrees, the
gyroscope being at
the
arc
to
and
2
the
effect
of
into
action
was
reduce
those
from
to
degrees,
It
oscillations
scarcely
perceptible
far this
on board.
remains to be seen
at
how may
and
motions
vessels
sea will be adopted in the future,

trial
unique system of extinguishing rolling but it is not unlikely that the

steamers
success of the Lochiel

of the
lead to the installation of gyroscopes in other

also
in
same
class,
engaged
in
cross-channel
passenger
traffic.
PITCHING AND HEAVING. A

in If
many
directions,
broadside
on,
vessel among waves will have motions depending on her position with regard to the crest lines. the principal motions will be those of transverse rolling,
be also more or less vertical dipping oscillations due to the wedges of immersion and emersion being instantaneously dissimilar in volume. If head on to the waves, while there will be some transverse rolling, the
but there will
chief motions will consist of pitching,
axis
i.e.,
longitudinal rolling about a transverse
in part to the dipping motions above mentioned, and in part to the excesses of weight and buoyancy which occur as the vessel rides over the waves. If, however, the vessel
lie
through the centre of gravity,
and heaving, due
in
an
oblique
direction
relatively
will
to
set
the
up,
wave
as
will
crests,
simultaneous
heaving.
skew
rolling
and pitching motions

conditions
in
be
well
as
The
each of these cases
be modified to a greater or
PITCHING AND HEAVING.

less
269
extent by the forward

oscillations
motion due to the propeller.

thus
affected,
We
have seen how
transverse
are
and we
still
shall
consider presently the
influence of speed
on pitching and heaving.

water
The
the
period of unresisted pitching in
may be determined by
through
the
centre
formula which gives the period of similar transverse oscillations, provided
be the radius of gyration about a transverse
axis
of
gravity,
7",
and
as
the longitudinal metacentric
height.
before,
being the period in seconds,
the
formula
is
= 6 ri4io
J 9 M' a
I
of gyration
As an example, take a vessel of 4000 tons displacement, with a radius of no feet, and a longitudinal metacentric height of 285 feet.
T /
, = V1416 // IIO J 32-2
*
In this case
X IIO
x 285
7T
3'6i seconds.
"*
The corresponding
seconds,
i.e.,
transverse
rolling
period
;
for
this,
this
vessel
is
about 8
is
more than double the other

a
vessel
and
place
in
most
cases,
the
proportion between the two periods.
In
effective
pitching,
always
tends
is
to
her
masts
normal to
the
wave
will
slope.
When
a vessel
long in
comparison with the waves,
wave slope will depart very little from the horizontal, and the be slight; when the opposite is the case, i.e., when the vessel the waves, the extent of the pitching will be governed is short relatively to by the natural pitching period, the period of the waves, and the course and If the wave period be long, speed of the vessel relatively to the waves. and that of the vessel very short, she will follow the slope of the wave but if the wave period be naturally short, or, if it be made so by the speed
the
effective
pitching
of the
to
rise
vessel,
pitching
is
likely
to
become
crest
;
excessive,
as
the vessel
will
fail
on each successive wave
her
ends
will
thus
become
buried,
longitudinal
and the periodical impulses received from the waves will conduce to larger oscillations. Pitching, then, which is in the first instance caused by the passage of waves, will, like rolling, become excessive if the wave period
Every seaman
likes
his
keeps time with her natural pitching period.

vessel
to
be
lively
fore
will
and
aft,
i.e.,
to
have a
will
short pitching period.
In such a case a vessel
follow approximately the
wave
slope,
especially if she
be short relatively to the wave length, and
This vessel will rise on the waves instead of burying her ends into them. than a slower moving boat, and will not be subjected to the same be drier hammering stress which continual plunging into waves is bound to set up.
In order to obtain a short

increased.
pitching
period,
thus
seen to be desirable,
the radius of gyration must be reduced or the longitudinal metacentric height
This follows from the formula
for
the period given above.
The
270
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
metacentric height cannot be affected to any appreciable extent, as the length and displacement, on which its value depends, are fixed by more important considerations than those of pitching
;
the radius of gyration, however,
may
obviously
be reduced by concentrating the heavy weights amidships, and in a merchant ship this should be done as far as possible in stowing the cargo.
Of
sea,
course, just as in the case of transverse rolling, a master
may
sailing
frequently
help matters.
Should pitching become excessive when he
is
head
to
he may change to an oblique course and thus lengthen or, the apparent wave period, and give his vessel time to rise on the waves same end. without changing his course, he may reduce speed and attain the
due
to synchronism,
On
much.
unison
kind are
the subject of vertical
heaving and dipping

it
it
is
unnecessary to say
From what we know

likely
of synchronism,
if
is
clear
that
is
motions of
in
this
to
be
of
excessive,
the
period of
dipping
approximate
Pronounced heaving will not endanger a was noticed in a previous chapter, the longitudinal bending moments, and therefore the stresses brought upon the hull, may be
with
that
the
waves.
vessel's safety, although,
as
considerably affected
vessels
thereby.
It
may be
said
that,
as
usually
to
constructed,
all
are
provided
with a
sufficient
margin of
strength
meet
such
demands.
1.
X.
How
would you
that
set
about obtaining the instantaneous axis of an oscillating ship?

for
2.
j.\
Write down the formula

supposition
?
the
period in seconds of a single oscillation of a ship
the
there
is
no
resistance.
What
a
certain
use
is
made
of this
formula by the
naval architect
3.
Given that the metacentric height

18,
in
vessel
is
feet
and the radius
of
gyration
4.
calculate
the
period of a single
is
roll.
Ans.
7 seconds.
;
The
radius of gyration of a vessel

If
16,
and the single

Ans.
roll
period 5 seconds
find
the
metacentric height.
the
metacentric height be
reduced one foot, what would be the
periodic time?
5.
3"i4
feet;
6 o6 seconds.
What
is
Isochronism?
In rolling through large angles

6.
To what how will
inclinations are vessels of ordinary form isochronous?
the period be affected?
Explain
Calculate
briefly the
modern theory concerning

in
the form
and action of sea waves?

second of
a wave 500
50-6.
7.
the
period
seconds
and
the
speed in feet per
feet
long.
8.
Ans.
is
9S8;
What
waves tends to
Explain why a meant by the term "effective wave slope"? place her masts parallel to the normal to the wave slope as
vessel
among
her
virtually
upright position of equilibrium.

9.
Show
that
the behaviour the
of a vessel at sea depends largely on the relation between
her still-water period and

10.
period of the waves she
may
encounter.
if
What
difference in the behaviour of a vessel
would you expect
her single
roll
period
were
(1) (2)
longer than the half period of the waves;
much
shorter than the half period of the waves?
QUESTIONS.
11.
271
Explain the terms "steady," " crank," and "stiff," as applied to a vessel's condition
at sea.
is
when among waves

12.
Under what circumstances

single
roll
the
is
rolling
of a ship
;
likely
to
be most severe?
expect her to behave
The
if
period
of a vessel
6 seconds
how would you
broadside on to a regular series of waves of 12 seconds period?

13.
Referring to the previous question,
if
the
maximum
slope angle of the
waves be 5
expect
degrees and the vessel upright
when
a wave reaches her, in what position would you

to offer
her to be after the passage of six waves, assuming the water

14.
no resistance?
exceptionally
severe,
to
If
a shipmaster finds the rolling

justly attribute it?
of
his
vessel
to
become
what cause may he the rolling motion ?

15. 16.
What
steps should
he take with a view to reducing
Give an analysis of the resistance encountered by a vessel when rolling
freely.
?
What
are bilge-keels
of motion
In what
way do they
affect
the
rolling
motions of vessels
Discuss the effect

17.
ahead on the action of bilge-keels.

effective in reducing rolling in small vessels
Bilge-keels are
more
of short period than
in large slow-rolling vessels.

18.
Explain why.
What
are
water
chambers?
Show how
they
tend
to
diminish
the
rolling
of
ships
in
which they are

19.
installed.
Explain the terms
" pitching
"
and "heaving."
calculate
Give the formula

vessel
for
the
pitching
period of a vessel in seconds.

longitudinal
The
pitching period
the
of a
being 4 seconds,
and her
feet.
metacentric height 400
feet,
radius
of gyration.
A n s. 144*4
20.
21.
Is
a short or long pitching period preferable?

is
Give a reason
pitch
for
your answer?
Under what circumstances
master,
tain
who
has his vessel
well
Explain how a under control, might help matters in such a case and oba vessel likely to
excessively?
easier
fore-and-aft motions.
CHAPTER XL
Loading and Ballasting.

IT
a
should
simply
now be
to
fill
clear
that
to
efficiently
load
a vessel
possible
does
time.
not
mean
the
her
with
cargo
in
the
shortest
to
In
previous
vessel's
chapters
qualities
we
have
endeavoured
sea
depends
upon
so
the
that
show that the nature of manner in which the weights,

skilful
including
the
cargo,
efficient
are
distributed,
stevedoring
is
almost as
important as
designing.
We
qualities
have- already seen that
the
characteristics
controlling
it
a vessel's sea
in
have a conflicting
to
interdependence, which makes

the values
difficult
any
great
that
given case
that
arrange for
necessary to
is
the
best
all-round results
with great stability heavy rolling
frequently associated,
of
stability.
and with
thus
clear
steadiness
dangerously
care
small
margin
is
It
is
considerable
into
and experience
necessary in order to put cargo properly

of
this
a vessel.
The superintendence
sort
trusted only to thoroughly-experienced
persons,
work should, therefore, be and owners who take no
enpreto
cautions
of this
all
may
find
the
subsequent behaviour of
officer
their vessels
be scarcely
that
might be desired.
An
to
intelligent
and experienced
strive
for,
can,
with
vessel.
care,
usually
if
do much
bring about a satisfactory

all
condition
his
of his
Even
safer
he does not
gain
he may
than
if
vessel
should
still
be
and more com-
fortable
loaded in any haphazard way.

loading general cargoes, an officer
his
vessel.
GENERAL CARGOES. In
his
who knows
business
will
be guided by the characteristics of
narrow and deep,

lighter
he
will
place
the
If she be heavy weights low in the holds and the
weights
of
in
higher
up, thus
ensuring
a comparatively low position

of
the
of the
centre
position
gravity,
necessary
of
this
on
type.
account
If
metacentre
being
low
in
vessels
will
the
vessel
be
broad and
placing
shallow, the
metacentre
be relatively high, and to obviate a too great value of

a
in
GM
he
will
aim
at
higher
the
position
of
centre
of
gravity,
the
heavy
that
weights
higher
vessel.
Besides
the
this,
following
distributed
the
principles
of Chapter
in
weights
trim.
are
longitudinally
sufficient
such
VIIL, he way as
will
see
to
secure
a a
suitable
Thus, with
steadiness
stability,
steadiness
among waves and

without
affecting
satisfactory fore-and-aft flotation
The
vessel's
may be secured. may be further improved,

272
the
GENERAL CARGOES.
stability,
if,
273
of
is
without raising
ship's
sides,
them,
the
the heavy
items
cargo
thus
to
can be banked
against the
roll
as
radius
of
gyration
increased
indicate
vessel's
and the
that,
period
lengthened.
very
little
Actual
experience
appears
in
ordinary
cases,
effect
can thus be done to improve a

the
it
condition,
of.
is
but the
of "winging"
of
weights
is
should not be
to
is
lost
sight
out,
The
a
nature
cargo,
hardly necessary
of
loading.
to
It
point
also
always
that
determining
factor
of
the
style
admitted
and,
circumstances
cargo
may
not
always
for
be
favourable
at
good
correct
stowage.
time,
Suitable
in
may not be
the
at
available
shipment
rather
the
con-
sequence,
heavy items may occupy positions either too high or too low,
of the vessel
and
of
the
centre
than at the sides
but such a state

a
things
may be
of
considered
various
exceptional.
for
When
are
the
weights
particulars
for
the
in
items
to
shipment
available,
and other good plan is

of
the
officer
charge
make a rough estimate
of
the
position
the
centre
of gravity.
In
may
be
determined
of
way the best places for individual items of cargo before commencing operations, and, although in the
this
process
loading
for.
departures
may
require
to
be
made,
these
may
readily
be allowed
as
On
completion of the stowage, the metacentric height may,
and,
checked by means of an inclining experiment, Also, the by transposing some of the weights. roll period may be ascertained by forcibly heeling the vessel and counting It is to be feared the value of the number of rolls as already described. Owners make much of the such experiments is not fully appreciated. trouble and loss of time involved, and do not give the encouragement they
previously
if
suggested,
be
necessary,
corrected
might to their commanding

of a
care
at
officers,
and hence we
find well-proportioned
rolling,
designed vessels developing tendencies to excessive

little
and which the exercise
the
time of loading would have done

that
much
to
obviate.
It
cannot
be
doubted
of
the
carrying
out
to
of
the
experiments above
officer
described would
afford
invaluable
experience
commanding
ship
to
as
to
how
best
ship."
particular
results
It
kinds
sea.
cargo
should be stowed in his

officer
-
to
obtain
his
the
at
Such
an
might
that
be
a
said
is
"know
upon
own
take
sometimes happens,
officer
however,
man
called
is
to
charge of the loading of a ship of whose qualities he
in total ignorance.
In such a case an
condition
should be quick to notice changes in the vessel's

of
loading.
If
during
list
the
port
at
process
or
he
take
should
it
observe
stability,
her
in
to
suddenly
upright
to
starboard,
is
he
of
of
may
small,
her
the
position
least,
dangerously
centre
state
the
sudden
the
movement being
metacentre,
caused
the
by the
will
raising
of
into
the
a
gravity
above
and
vessel
being
put
fig.
unstable
equilibrium.
Her
stability
curve
to
resemble
at
224,
that
is,
she will
to
be
unstable
from the upright
the
angle
which
to
she
has a
come
list
account
as
attempt
cure
such
he
might
matters
S
quite
correctly
do
if
if
must on no moving weights to the high side, the list had been a gradual one due to
rest.
The
officer
by
uneven
loading.
In
worse,
the
present
the
case
the
raising
of
the
weights
small,
would
might
make
and,
reserve
of
stability
were
74
actual
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
disaster.
AND CALCULATIONS.
cure
is
culminate in
The
in
only
to
bring
down
board,
is
the
or
centre
of gravity by lowering
additional
the
position
of weights
holds.
already on
shipping
weights
low down
ballast
stability
the
but,
A
be
good way
seen
to
run
this
up
compartment of a
be dangerous
if
tank,
as
will
later
on,
might
the
reserve
were small.
HOMOGENEOUS CARGOES. In
sumed
certain
the foregoing remarks we have asmore or less general cargo. The case, however, is different with homogeneous cargoes, as we shall now proceed to show.
Suppose, for instance, a vessel
has
her
to
whole
cargo
space
filled
with a
homogeneous
line.
cargo, of such
is
density as
just
bring
her to the load water-
This
centre
a trying condition of loading, as an unfavourable position of

gravity
the
of
cannot
is
now be
corrected
part
by
shifting
this
about the cargo.

few
The
it
only
plan
open
to
discharge
of
it,
and
owners would
contemplate with any satisfaction.

be,
Such a
of
resort,
however,
unpleasant though
would, under such circumstances
of loading
and position of centre of

at
gravity,
be
at
unavoidable
all.
if
the
safety
the
ship
sea
were
to
be
con-
sidered
Of
this
safety.
course,
vessels
intended
frequent] y
to
load
homogeneous cargoes
full
of
critical
density can always be designed to carry a
cargo with perfect

this
The
in
it
naval
architect
would, in such a case,
make
the
one conproperly,
dition
since
which the vessel should

is
have
sufficient
stability
and trim
the
only one
over
which stowage has no control.

design has been demonstrated
actual
The importance of good experience. The late

the
Institution
by the results of
at
Dr. Elgar, in
a paper on
in
"Losses
Sea," read
analysis
that
before
British
of
Naval
Architects
period, design.
1886,
made an
of
shipwrecks
over a certain
and showed conclusively
many
with
of the disasters were due to of such a
bad
as
Few
of the vessels lost were, indeed,

stability
proportions
as
to
admit of
sufficient
when
fully
laden
homogeneous cargo such

It
above described, and many of them were so
laden.
should
be mentioned that the proportionately narrow and

these mainly belonged,
is
deep
the
class
of vessels, to which
no longer popular
is
modern
cargoes,
tendency
is
towards greater breadth, and
this
in
the
as
right
direction.
With homogeneous cargoes of other

due to
cargo
faulty
densities,
with
general
something may be done to correct a high position of the centre of gravity

density, for instance, the whole and the margin of draught taken up if the vessel has no tanks, heavy dry ballast by running in water ballast may be put in the bottom of the holds before the cargo is loaded. With cargoes of greater density, the whole internal space will not be required, and so the position of the centre of gravity can be affected by leaving an empty space in the holds, or in the 'tween decks, according as it is desired
design.
With those of
as
;
lighter
space
may be
filled
before,
to
diminish
or
increase
the
value
of
G M.
oil,
SPECIAL HOMOGENEOUS CARGOES OIL. Bulk

becoming increasingly important, and
special
as
a freight,
is
care
is
necessary in
dealing with
OIL CARGOES IN BULK.

it.
275
vessel,
In explanation of
to
this,
suppose an oil-carrying
in
the
process
of
loading,
Fig. 232 illustrates by some external means. It will the case and is a section through a partially filled compartment. be noted that the act of heeling has transferred the small wedge of oil
be
slightly
heeled
SiOSs
gravity,
across
to
the
ship
into
the
position
S2
$& causing
G,
the
centre
of
be drawn out in the same direction to

act
Gv
the
The
arm
forces of weight
and buoyancy
drawn, form
being
It
through
G and
x
the
right
deflected
centre
of buoyancy, and, as
couple
tending
to
the vessel,
of
the
couple
m Zv
is
thus
seen
that
is
the
effective
centre
of gravity, so far as the
initial
stability
is
concerned,
to
raised
to
m,
and the
the
is
metacentric
in
height
reduced
of
the
from
GM
mM.
If
we assume
in
that
liquid
the
hold
is
same
in
density as the water in which
the vessel
floating,
the
reduction
Gm
feet
may be obtained
any actual case from the formula
Gm
where
1
= y,
in cubic feet.
/*
is
the
moment
of inertia of the free surface of the fluid in foot units,
and V the volume of displacement of the ship

*
This formula
is
This formula
is
obtained as follows:
Referring
to
fig.
232,
Let
/
l
6=hatf breadth of
free surface in feet.

feet.
= length
of free surface in
w = weight
lf
per cubic foot of liquid cargo in
lbs.
is floating in lbs.
= weight V = volume
vessel
per cubic foot of water in which vessel
of displacement in cubic
to
feet,
Assuming the
at
be heeled as
in
fig.
232,
and compartment to be rectangular
the level
of the free liquid surface,
Volume of wedge 8 % 0$ a or S z 0S t = ^b 2 fd cubic foot. Weight of wedge SJS, or S 2 08 4 = $b*f6 wjbs. Moment of wedge 8.08, or S..0S, about"* x \=\b*iewb foot j ft f In fore-and-aft axis k through U )
,
,.
lbs.
And, since weight of
vessel
= Vxw
lbs.
Let a vertical
middle
line,
m.
line be drawn through G lt and Then, the inclination being small,
call
the
point in which
it
intersects
the
GG^Gmd,
therefore,
G
/ is
GG, $6 / w, m =j- = -y- x

liquid
But 6
middle
the
moment
of inertia of the
/',
surface
about the axis through 0,
i.e.,
the
line.
Calling this
we
get by substitution,
Gm= v x--,
which becomes
when, as assumed above, liquid cargo and water

density.
in
which the vessel
is
floating are of
same
276
seen to
the
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
of the transverse metacentre above
takes
be similar to that
of
for
the
height
centre
buoyancy,
resulting
that
is,
except
that
the
place
of
as
the the
point
greater
from
the
which
of
the
/',
distance
larger
must be measured.
the
free
Clearly,
oil,
the value
the
surface of
It
the greater will be
be specially noted that the reduction does not depend on the quantity of oil in the compartment, as a small quantity having a large free surface will have more effect than a
reduction in
the
metacentric
height.
should
large
quantity with
Practical
a small free surface.
Example.
is
A
filled
midship compartment of a vessel

with
It
of
4,500
tons
displacement
partly
is
liquid
of the
same density
that
as the water in
which
the
vessel
floating.
being
given
the
free
surface
is
30
Fig.
232.
feet
long,
38
feet
broad,,
and rectangular
in
shape,
estimate
the
reduction
in
metacentric
height.
Applying the formula,
we
get
Gm = ^ 12
If the
X4500X35
^-=-87
'
feet.
liquid
water
supporting
ratio
by the
cargo
oil different in density from the above value would require to be multiplied of the density of the oil to that of the water. Thus, if the
in
the
compartment were
the
the
vessel,
were petroleum, and the vessel

height
afloat
in
salt
water,
the
reduction
in
metacentric
would be
G
the
ratio
m = '87
-8
-69
feet,
of the
density
of petroleum
to
that
of salt
water
being
'8.
OIL CAkGOES IN BULK.
277
In the above case there

bulkhead, however,
is
is
assumed
in
to
never omitted
be no middle line bulkhead. modern oil-carrying vessels, as

This
Such a
it
is
of
great value in minimising the detrimental effect of a free surface.

in
fig.
is
shown
233.
The continuous
lines
line,
3
St
5
S^
}
indicates the oil surface with the vessel
upright,
and the two

here
is
S S^ S
Sq
the
surface
the presence of the bulkhead restricting the

transferred
when the vessel is heeled, movement as shown. The wedge
from one side to the other of each portion of the divided

half
and one-fourth the volume of that of the wedge of fluid is a half, and the moment an eighth. But two wedges of fluid move instead of one, so that the total moment is one-fourth of what it was in the previous case. The reduction in metacentric height due to the restricted oil surface, since it varies directly as the moment, is thus also a fourth.
the
compartment
previous
breadth
case;
also
the travel of the centre of gravity of the
Fig.
233.
278
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
being
AND CALCULATIONS.
but
as
admitted liquid
surface
low in the vessel;
the
liquid
rises,
its
upper
vessel
broadens
rapidly,
and
quickly
overtakes
and passes M, the

Yft
becoming unstable.
In a case* investigated by the
late
Professor Jenkins,
15
inches.
coincided with
when
the liquid reached a depth of

oil
Heeling then began, and
rapidly increased as the

inclination
rose in the
that
hold, the vessel reaching a

to right
herself,
maximum
finally
re-
of 19!.
After
she
began slowly
turning to the upright

the liquid
when
had passed below M, which took place when

the top of the tank.
oil
came within a few inches of

out,
;
A
scarcely
point of special importance in loading
vessels,
which, perhaps, need
be pointed
is
that
if
adjacent
compartments
dealt
should be
with
the
filled
or
emptied
effect
simultaneously
naturally
for
one side only were

Vessels
inclining
to
would
be
this
great.
have
frequently
been
inclined
;
dangerous angles when

there are cases
precaution as to loading has been neglected
and
when an
on record even of actual capsizing from this cause. Of course, compartment is quite full, no movement is possible, and the oil becomes virtually a solid homogeneous cargo. Expansion Trunkways. A point which must not be overlooked in connection with bulk oil cargoes, is the loss due to evaporation, and unless
oil
specially
in
provided
against,
the
reduction
oil
in
bulk
may
lead
to
free
surfaces
the
holds.
Accordingly,
it,
every
compartment
oil
is
has
one or more open

fill
trunkways rising above

the
and
fill
sufficient
holds
and
partially
these
as
passages.
pumped into the vessel to The horizontal areas of

with
the
the
oil
trunkways are kept as small

in
possible,
consistent
volume of
fully
oil
them above the

to
level
loss
of the
tops
of
the
compartments being
without
bringing
to
suffi-
cient
allow
for
due
to
evaporation
too,
the
level
These trunkways, below the trunkways. serve the purpose of allowing the oil
volume with change of temperature.
being
freely
to
open expand
the
holds, also
and
contract
in
GRAIN
analysis,
CARGOES. Dr.
carrying grain
coal.
Elgar,
in
the
paper
previously
referred
to,
pointed out that between the years 1881 and 1883, the period covered by his
vessels
had a greater number of

striking, as the
losses
than
all
other
cargoes
is
except
This
is
number
of
of vessels carrying grain
a small proportion of those engaged in the coal trade, and points to the
of
special
characteristics
existence
in
the
nature
grain
cargoes
and
their
stowage.
It
Investigation
has
proved these surmises to be correct.
found that bulk cargoes, such as grain, even when loaded with is have a tendency to settle down during a voyage and to leave empty These spaces have been estimated at spaces immediately under each deck. to 8 per cent, of the depth of hold, and in fairly large vessels may, 5
care,
therefore,
be of considerable magnitude.
it
After such settlement, the
grain has
vessel
is
a free surface, and

*
is
here
that
the
danger
lies,
for
when the
See a paper in the
Transactions of the Institution of
Shipbuilders and
Engineers in
Scotland for 1889.
GRAIN CARGOES.
rolling
at
sea,
if
2?rJ>
the
grain
tends
is
to
put
its
is
surface
the
parallel
with
result.
the
wave
slope, and,
the
to
rolling
heavy, shifting
free
inevitable
The
sliding
angle
which the
ensue,
surface
easily
is
of
grain
must be inclined before

If
it
motion
will
may be
until
obtained.
wheat,
for
example,
to
be poured
the
on
side
to
floor
there
heap,
will
be
found
take
form of a cone-shaped
the
of
this
pyramid.
When
grain
;
sliding
has
is
stopped,
called
the angle
the
which
of
pyramid
this
makes with the

for,
floor,
if
angle
more wheat be poured on to the heap, the angle of the cone will be increased, and the particles will run down the side of the cone until the same angle as before is attained. This is one of the principal differences between a liquid and a
friction
or
repose,
of
kind of
grain
cargo.
On
the
the
slightest
inclination
of
the
vessel,
liquid
is
puts
itself
parallel
friction
with
water
surface
with
grain
the
tendency
until
the
same,
but
between the
reached;
the
particles
prevents
in
any movement
fact,
if
a certain inclina-
tion
is
this
inclination,
the vessel
be
heeled
in
quiet
water, being
angle
of repose
of the grain.
of
The
wheat
value
it
of this angle has
been obtained
peas
for
various
kinds
grain;
for 28-J
is
23^ degrees,
for
two kinds of Indian corn, 26^ degrees and
degrees respectively, for mixed
and beans, 27 J degrees.
The
to
late
Professor
Jenkins,
who
investigated this subject,* drew attention
some
the
at
points
of importance with regard to the sliding angle.

forces,
He showed
cargo
angle
that
accelerative
sea,
which
to
act
on
a
at
vessel
and
her
when
than
rolling
qause
shifting
take
place
much
smaller
the still-water angle of repose.

of 25
degrees, he
as to
In the case of grain with an angle of repose
ticulars
stability
degrees.
will,
He
a
this
also
it to be, in a certain vessel of which the parand radius of gyration were assumed, as low as i6| found that heaving motions, when accompanied by rolling,
found
at
certain
angle.
point
during
the
this
each
oscillation,
cause
still
further
diminuless
tion
of
In
example
angle
of
is
above,
it
proved
exceeded
there
shifting
to
be
a
rather
than
14^ degrees.
waves,
As
It
frequently
by vessels
is
rolling
among
in
the
probability
shifting,
where
that
free
surface,
becomes manifest.
the
should
14 J
be
mentioned
at
at
would
take
the
place
oscilla-
above vessel
also,
at
degrees
one
the
point
only during
roll
tion,
namely, when she

;
had arrived
end of a
slide
and was about

angle, but
to
return
that
it
the
a portion
of
at
whole surface would not the upper part of the side
at
this
only
about
to
descend.
in
At any
excess
/,<?.,
other part, the angle of shifting would be greater, reaching a value
of the still-water angle of repose at the other extreme of the free surface,
on the
other
side about to ascend. side
Of
this
course,
state
when
the vessel
became
inclined to the
of
the
vertical,
of things would
to
be reversed.
the
On
the
whole,
to
the
effect
of
rolling
appears
increase
considerably
tendency
shifting.
See a paper on the Shifting of Cargoes in the Transactions of the Institution of Naval
Architects for 1887.
2S0
Piofessor
sliding
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Jenkins
is
AND CALCULATIONS.
that
showed
the
effect
further
the
decrease of
angle
the
at
which
time
case
also
begins
out
greater,
greater
shift
the
stability.,
is
but
at
same
in
pointed
of a
that
the
of a
of cargo
more
serious
the
vessel
that
of small stability than
in that of
one of great
stability.
He
showed
the
the
part
of the cargo
centre
of
gravity,
which,
in
most subject to movement is that above double-decked vessels, would apply to the
the
carriage
for
'tween
decks.
in
Government Regulations prohibit

decks
except
is
of
grain
in
bulk
cargo
it
'tween
the
such
as
may be
shifting
necessary
feeding
;
the
in
holds and
carried
in
carried
;
in properly constructed feeders
generally,
this
is
largely
bags
dangerous
of
of
the
cargo
of
at
part
is
thus
obviated.
The stowage
special
grain
in
the
holds
of
vessels
having a
vessels,
'tween
decks
requires
care.*
In the
case
single-decked
rectified
when
ing
shifting of
cargo has
the
taken place the
effect
may be
there
by opendecks
the
hatches when
of grain
weather permits, and

for
filling
up the empty spaces

is
with
this
bags
carried
the
purpose.
are
to
fit
Where
'tween
cannot be done, as
It
the
is
holds
usual
inaccessible,
and
shifting
once begun
cannot be corrected.
deck,
trimming hatches through the lower
and these to some extent allow the settlement in the holds to be made up from the cargo in the 'tween decks, the grain in way of the trimming hatches being in bulk but empty spaces under the beams are still likely to exist between these hatches. Allowing for certain exceptions, the Government Regulations require onefourth the grain to be carried in bags in all spaces which have no efficient
;
feeding
arrangements.
level
In
such
cases,
before
stowing
the
bags,
the
grain
must be trimmed
above,
this
rule,
and covered with

is
boards.
For
serious
the
reasons
of
given
cargo,
which
calculated
to
prevent
shifting
should obviously apply specially to compartments constituting the lower holds

of
vessels
having one or more 'tween decks.

against
As a safeguard
carrying
vessels,
the
effects
of
in
possible
shifting
in
of
cargo,
grainto
whether
the
grain
be
bags
or
bulk, are
required
have a centre division in the holds and in the 'tween decks, which
the
restricts
extent of the movement of a grain cargo much as it restricts the Generally, the centre division consists ot movement of a cargo of liquid. portable wood boards fitted edge on edge and reeved between the centre but in some modern line of pillars, which are reeled for the purpose
vessels
it
consists
of
permanent
steel
bulkhead
(see
page
161)
except
in
way of
the
main hatchways, the exigencies of stowage demanding portable
boards at these places.
COAL CARGOES. Owing

stowed
'tween
at
There
*
to its density, coal can, in general, be such a rate as to ensure a certain amount of empty space in the decks, the vessel at the same time being down to her load mark. therefore, no apparent reason why coal-laden vessels should is, not
See a paper by the
late
Mr. Martell
in
the
Transactions of the
Institution
of Naval
Architects for 1SS0.
TIMBER CARGOES.
have
sufficient
lost,
28
of such vessels which have
fair
stability.
From
the great
to
number
a
been
the
some
of
them known
it
possess
amount
that
of
stability of
at
start
of their fatal voyages,

the
has been conjectured

of
shifting
the
cargo
are
may have been

fitted
cause
shifting
not
few
of
the
is
disasters.
Colliers
not usually
with
boards, and
decks,
there
as
no
restriction
;
placed
on the stowage of coal

the angle
in
the
is
'tween
with
grain
and,
although
the
of repose
of coal
it
considerably
greater
than
that
at
of grain,
diminishing process
less
undergoes
the
during
range
rolling
motions
appear
sea
may doubtin
often
bring
it
within
of
it
vessel's
oscillations
stormy
near
weather.
From which
considerations
would
that
the
suggested
quite
reason of shifting for the loss of

the
many
coal-laden vessels
may be
are,
mark.
The
at
lessons
to
be deduced here by the

vessel
as to
ship's
officer
first,
to
aim
at
so
loading
his
ensure
easy
motion
when among waves

left
sea;
as
and
second,
inevitably
to
see
to
that
no vacant spaces are

of the
cargo.
under
the
decks,
these
lead
shifting
TIMBER CARGOES. In
the
full
the
case
of
cargoes
of
the
heaviest
woods,
and loading should simply follow the lines already indicated for ordinary heavy deadweight cargoes. With cargoes of mixed timbers, satisfactory conditions of stability and trim can always be attained by a proper distribution of the light and heavy woods. In the case of cargoes of the lightest timbers, however, the problem of stowage becomes more difficult, because, as well as full holds, there is usually a considerable deck load carried. Many vessels that are good deadweight carriers, and quite suitable for general trades, could not, without a considerable amount of ballast, be safely employed to carry a cargo of timber of the last description, the high position of the centre of gravity, due to the presence of the deck cargo, making the stability quite inadequate. In some cases, indeed, there might be actual instability in the upright position, and no seaman would care to face a sea voyage in a ship having a pronounced list to port or
hold capacity
is
not
required,
starboard.
In
as
this
trade,
vessels
should
be
specially
broad
of
in
relation
to
draught,
sufficient
this
ensures
a
a
relatively
high
position
metacentre,
ballast.
It
and
margin of
stability,
without
having to resort to
cargo
of
should,
of
course,
be
noted
in
that
deck
wood,
when
well
packed
which
and
a
securely
lashed
place,
affords
valuable
surplus
buoyancy,
has
marked effect on the form of the stability curve, giving it increased area and range, although at initial angles, owing to a high position of the centre
of gravity,
the
righting
arms may be small.

this
We
223),
perfect
vessel
have already referred to curves of

that
in
type
(see
curve
No.
3,
fig.
and have pointed out

safety,
such cases the value of

this
GM
may, with
a
be quite small;
and as
ensures
roller,
a long rolling period,
so
circumstanced should prove an easy

value
of
and thus a comfortable

be
limited
boat in a seaway
The
in
a case
like
this,
should
by the con-
282
sicleration
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
of
the
vessel
AND CALCULATIONS.
and
is,
being
stable,
not
too
tender,
in
the
upright
position throughout the voyage.

to
That
over and above
a sufficient margin
cover
diminutions
out
of
the
from
causes
coal
that
may
be
anticipated,
in
such
of
as
the
burning
of
bunker
and the increase

water,
weight
the
deck
value
cargo through
becoming saturated with sea

as
certain
minimum
G M, such
previous
experience with
the vessel
is
may
suggest,
should be
the
provided.
extent
vessel.
A
the
metacentric
excess,
height of greater value
unnecessary, and, to the
of
might
be
considered
as
actually
detrimental
to
EFFECT ON STABILITY OF A SHIFT OF CARGO. To

the
calculate
quantity
involved
in
any
of
particular
oil
shift
of
cargo
is
is
not
always
an
easy matter.
In the case
cargoes,
where there
a free surface, the
Fig.
234.
quantity
shifted
through
oil
the
heeling
is
of
the
vessel
may be
but,
as
accurately
deter-
mined,
since
the
owing to
quickly
Still,
friction
nor
so
we have seen, between the parts, dry homogeneous cargoes do not move so definitely as oil, and the same rules cannot be applied.
cargo
always
horizontal,
with grain, an
of
the
is
approximation
is
may be
to
made
to
the
in
heeling
effect
of
the worst shift the
cargo that
vessel
likely
take
place
given
case,
when
plans
Fig.
of
are
available.
vessel.
234 a
the
midship section of a grain-laden

the
is
The
horizontal
to
dotted
line
Ct r
shows
grain
at
level,
assuming
of
the
the
the
settlement
have
per
taken place
ing
cent,
evenly,
and
of
drawn
hold.
a distance
below the deck,

grain,
i.e.,
correspond-
to
the
the
anticipated
maximum
the
settlement
b bx
is
about
of
the
lie
of
depth
the
the
ultimate
line
grain
surface
when
cargo
angle
has
shifted,
and
may
be
taken
to
to
the
horizontal at
of repose
of the
grain.
The wedge
of grain
a x (Ibx
EFFECT OF A SHIFT OF CARGO.
283
now
</ 2)
occupies
the
position
ctcbd,
of
its
centre of
of
gravity
and
to
If
the
common
centre
gravity
vessel
and cargo
moving from moving
#,
to
from
Gv
w =
weight of cargo
shifted
in
tons,
W
9i3%
~ =
displacement of vessel in tons,

travel of centre of gravity of shifted cargo in feet,
GG
will
be
parallel
to
the
line
joining
and g 2
the
point
will
thus
be raised
however,
relatively to
the keel as well as
moved
laterally.
For small
angles,
GG = GM
X
x e (nearly).
From which equation Q

be obtained.
This
reduction
lateral
the
angle at
which
the
vessel
comes
to
rest,
may
movement
righting
of
the
danger her
if
safety.
fitted,
the centre of gravity obviously means a and in a vessel originally tender might enIn the case assumed there is no middle line bulkhead;
of
arms,
such were
the
angle
of
heel,
as
in
the
case
of
liquid
cargo,
would be reduced. Practical Example.

displacement,
In
a grain-laden
vessel
of 48
feet
is
beam, 9000 tons

transversely
and
18
inches
M,
50
tons
of
cargo
shifted
through a distance of 27
feet.
Calculate
the angle
of heel.
In
this case
GG
.*.
5^H7
9000
GM
x Q
KO X -^ 27 9000 x '5
1
-io
6 nearly.
it
If the
shift
of cargo were considerable,

well as the transverse
might be necessary
in
to allow for the
vertical as
movement
determining the angle of heel.
Let
h the
vertical
distance between
d =
,r
the horizontal distance between

r
g x and g g x and g 2
2i
then,
Vertical
movement
of
centre 01 gravity
IV
X H
7^
feet,
TT
Horizontal
movement
of centre 01 gravity
==
w a
x
rr.
feet.
place.
line
This determines the position of the centre of gravity after shifting has taken Join this point with M, the metacentre, then the angle between this
and the middle
line
is
the angle of heel required,
provided
it
does not
exceed
io to 15 degrees.
GM
BALLASTING.
sails
;
285
small,
all
the case of many steamers, that the stability would be dangerously and, in owing to a relatively high position of the centre of gravity such cases, even assuming sufficient stability, that their slight grip of the
in
;
water,
of wind
and their greatly exposed surfaces, would cause them to be the sport and waves, with a probability of serious damage before the end of
Accordingly,
if
the voyage.
he cannot get cargo, he takes ballast aboard,

Frequently, a
is
i.e.,
sand, gravel, rubbish, or of

in
water.
ballast
combination of water and one
the
this
other
forms of
used.
In steamers,
bunker coal
should
is
useful
way.
to
As
(1)
the
total
:
amount
of
ballast
required,
it
be
sufficient
to
secure the
following
An
adequate
of the
immersion
engines
of
the
propeller
in
steamers
to
prevent
(2)
and breaking of the tail shaft, and undue strains being brought upon the stern frame. A stability curve of suitable area and range, with considerable
racing
righting
moments
floating
at
large
to
angles
give
of inclination
grip
in
all
vessels.
(3)
A
as
good
far
depth
of
the
water,
and
to
reduce,
as possible,
as
when among waves,

will
roll.
the effective wave-slope angle, the
which,
we have
seen, directly affects
magnitude
of
the
arcs
through which a vessel
It would appear that a great variety of opinion exists as to the ratio which should hold between the amount of ballast and the full deadweight. In
a paper
in
by Mr. Thearle
Transactions
of
in
on "Ballasting of
the are
Institution
given,
Steamers
for
Atlantic
for
Voyages''
1903, the
the
of
Naval
Architects
actual
figures
"5,
from
51
to
and show the ballast draught to vary 72 of the load draught, and the amount of ballast from '24 to
41
cases
full
of
the
deadweight,
shelter-deck
vessels
with
high
sides
having
flush
the
greatest
proportion
very
short the
of ballast and draught, and small vessels with

erections
decks
for
or
with
the
smallest
in
Mr. Thearle points

steamers
less
out,
that
good
the
results,
amount
of
ballast
ordinary tramp
when making
and the
there
proin
voyages
full
across
the
Atlantic
in
winter
vessels
should
not
feet
be
than one-third of
stern,
deadweight, with
the
4 to
by the
to
pellers
about two-thirds
of
loose of
immersed,
at
experience
having
shown
result
less
that
damage
is
the
less
form
a
rivets
ballast.
the
ends
in
is
is
likely
where
proportion
point
ballasting
that
fact,
not
important
than
having
stowed.
sufficiency
of
deadweight,
The same
operations
;
principles
that
is,
should, in the
ballast
the latter should be carefully be followed here as in ordinary
loading
the
should
low,
not
or
be
there
placed
too high,
or
stability
may be endangered, nor

the
ship's
too
may be an undue
in-
depression
of
centre
of
gravity,
and
consequent abnormal
crease in the metacentric height, a state of things, as
we have
hull.
seen, inevitably
leading
to
excessive
rolling
and
great
straining
of the
the
In
rubbish,
vessels
having
'tween
decks,
;
part
in
of
ballast,
if
of
sand
or
should
be
placed
there
single-decked
the
vessels
some
by
special
fitting
arrangement should be made to
raise
centre of gravity,
either
286
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
to
AND CALCULATIONS.
temporary bulkheads
part
of
it
properly
secured
bank up the ballast in the holds, or by carrying on deck, or by any plan which experience and
the
special
circumstances
not always taken, and thus

particularly
in
may suggest. many vessels

ballast
Unfortunately,
in ballast are
largely
such
precautions
stiff.
are
unduly
It
Nowadays,
the
steamers,
water
is
used.
easily,
has
obvious
and cheaply loaded and discharged. Moat modern cargo steamers have double bottoms and peak tanks some large vessels have also one or more deep tanks extending from the bottom of the vessel to the first or second deck; while in a few instances ballast tanks have been built into the corners under the deck, also on top of the deck between the hatches, and in other places.
advantage over sand or rubbish of
being more
quickly,
;
For
the
details
of
the
construction
details.
of
ballast
tanks,
the
reader
is
referred
to
chapter
on
practical
double bottom,
of
side,
course,
is
except
the
is
in
the
special
for
case
in
which
it
extends up the ship's
not
best
place
ballast.
The amount
carried in a double bottom, however,
not of
itself sufficient
for a sea voyage,
and
deck,
if
the remainder of
is
loaded
in
deep tanks, or
in
corner
tanks under the

a
satisfactory
at
which
the
capacity
has
been
such
to
carefully
considered,
immersion and
sea
metacentric
height
as
to
ensure
good behaviour
bottom
a
may be attained. Where the ballast supplementary

stones
or
that
in
the
so
as
double
to
consists suitable
of
rubbish,
it
should
than
be
the
disposed
obtain
position
of the
centre
of gravity.
vertical
Scarcely less
important
distribution
of
ballast,
is
the
placing of
it
longitudinally.
aft
In steamers, as already noted, there should be
a preponderance
for,
to
properly
immerse
so
the
as
propeller.
to
But
a
this
allowed
pitching
the
remainder should be
This
period
is,
disposed
obtain
suitable
period.
towards the
obtain,
extremities
we know, lengthened by winging out the weights and shortened by concentrating them amidships. To
quick
fore-and-aft
therefore,
satisfactory
motion,
to
and
avoid
the
constant
in
tendency which
slow-moving vessel
has
bury her
extremities
the waves, supplementary ballast, whether water in deep tanks, or stones and rubbish, should be placed towards amidships, while peak tanks, where such are required, should be kept within moderate limits.
Unfortunately,
to
concentrating
the
ballast
amidships
in
lead
to
the
development
of
considerable
bending
this way is moments, but
likely
these
cannot well be avoided, and the strength of vessels should be to meet all such demands.
already been
made
sufficient
DANGER OF FILLING BALLAST TANKS AT SEA. Mention

made
of this
point,
has
which should be abundantly clear from the remarks on the loading of liquid cargoes. It is to be feared that many officers do not fully appreciate the danger of this practice. The ballast is
loaded in order to increase the metacentric height and, therefore, the but, as we have seen, the presence of the free surface during the
stability,
process
to
may
deprive
vessel
of
her
effective
metacentric
height
and cause her
DANGER OF FILLING BALLAST TANKS AT

heel
that to
SEA.
287
a dangerous angle,
formula
if
not to capsize.
It
is
important to remember
the
Gm = L
as
previously
remarked, shows that

the
it
is
the
extent
of the
area of
the
free
magnitude of the quantity of liquid in the tank, which influences the metacentric height. And commanding officers should see that
surface, not
when
the ballast
is
out,
the
tanks
are
quite
empty, particularly in
the
case
of midship
compartments which are of considerable breadth.

the
following
As a concrete example, take

tons
: In
a certain vessel of 7000
displacement,
it
is is
intended to run up a 'midship
compartment of the
4 feet deep,
approxi-
double bottom,
which
80
feet
long,
35
feet
broad,
mately rectangular in shape,
and has a capacity for 320 tons of salt water. Given that the distance between the ship's centre of gravity and the top
tank
in
is
of the
the
12
feet,
calculate
is 1
the
reduction
the
in
metacentric
height
when
to
water
at
the
tank
foot
deep,
metacentre
being
assumed
centre
in
remain
the
same height above the base throughout.

here
the
to
We
gravity
have
consider
two
of
free
things,
viz.,
the
fall
in
the
of
due
of
to
admission
to
the
water,
and
its
the
virtual
rise
the
centre
gravity
gravity
due
the
liquid
surface.
Taking the
centre
of
of the
admitted water to be at half
depth,
we have
Fall
centre
effect
of gravity of vessel of the

free
=
if
80 x 15*5
"17
feet.
In finding the
of the
surface,
we suppose the
to
fore-and-aft
girders, including the
middle one, to be pierced with holes, the whole breadth

the shifting
tank will
be available in estimating the moment due
wedges of water, and, therefore
'
=
.
80 x
-ik
x
I2
?.<
-ik
n n = 285833
(fo0t units) '
and
.
Virtual rise in centre of gravity & J
2^5833 = 5 x
7080
=
-
35
i*ij J
feet.
We
thus
get,
Reduction of metacentric height
= =
1*15
'17.
-98 feet.
This reduction
instability
in
is
serious,
and
in
It
the
is
case
of
many
vessels
would cause
fit
the
upright
division
gravity
position.
the
general
practice,
however, to
the
in
centre
the
line
ot
without
perforations.
In that case, the virtual

of
the
rise
centre
would be
ot
fourth
above
amount,
or
*2Q
feet,
and the reduction
the
29
metacentric height
would only be
"17
"12
feet,
showing
bottom.
the
powerful
effect
of
watertight
centre
division
in
double
25S
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
STABILITY INFORMATION FOR COMMANDING OFFICERS. common plan with many shipbuilders in supplying stability information
new
vessels
for
A
to
the guidance of the officers,

the
stability
is
to
provide diagrams
anticipated
as
of curves of
for
depicting the
nature of
ballasting,
under
such
certain
conditions
loading
the
and
give
along
of
with
the of
remarks
In
may be
the
necessary
proper
shall
interpretation
curves.
closing
present
chapter,
we
two
examples
such
in
stability
diagrams,
and
shall
vessels.
discuss
Fig.
briefly
how
395
they
may be employed
6
the
actual
working of
235 Length
is
a diagram for a modern cargo steamer of the following dimensions:

feet
inches, breadth
51
feet
inches,
inches,
mean
load-draught
forecastle,
23
feet
inches.
moulded depth 29 feet The vessel has a short

;
poop, bridge, and
disconnected,
in
adapted to carry water ballast

'
a double
for
:
she and a main 'tween decks bottom and in both peaks. a

smaller
is
Fig.
236
design.
3
is
similar
diagram
are
cargo
feet
steamer
o
inches,
also
of
modern
49
also
feet
The dimensions
moulded depth 28
erections
consist
Length
5
351
breadth
inches,
feet
inches,
bridge,
for
mean
and
water
load-draught 23 feet
forecastle;
ballast
in
6| inches.
a
The
of
poop,
there
is
main 'tween decks, and accommodation bottom and in the after peak.
Curves A
1st
a double
to
in
each diagram
refer
/>.,
to
the
following conditions
condition (curve A).
Light
ship,
vessel complete,
water in boilers,
aboard,
but
no
cargo,
bunker
B).
coal,
stores
or
fresh
water
and
all
ballast
tanks
empty.
2nd
3rd
condition
(curve
Same
as
1st,
but
with
bunker
coal,
stores,
and
coal,
filled
fresh
water aboard.
(curve
condition
stores,
Vessel ready for sea, water in boilers, bunker C). and fresh water aboard, and the holds and 'tween decks with a homogeneous cargo of such density as just to bring
to
the
vessel
her
legal
summer
as
load-line.
4th
condition
(curve
D).
Same
3rd,
but
with
to
bunker
the
coal,
stores
at
and fresh water consumed, approximating end of a voyage.

5 th
condition
the
condition
coal,
(curve
E).
Vessel
water
ready for
aboard,
as
5th,
sea,
water
in
boilers,
bunker
stores
stores
and
water
fresh
F).
and
but but
all
ballast
tanks
filled.
6th
condition
(curve
Same Same
Same
vessel,
with
bunker
with
coal,
and
7th
fresh
consumed.
G).
condition
part
(curve
as
3rd,
laden
coal
cargo,
of the
bridge
'tween
decks being empty.

as
yth,
Sth
condition
(curve
H).
but
with
bunker
coal,
stores
and
In
dition
small.
fresh
water
consumed.
it
the
case
<?,
of the larger
fig.
will
be
the
observed that the

stability
it
3rd
convery
(curve
235)
in
is
critical
one,
reserve
being
When
cargo
loading a
cargo
the
of
the
given
the
density,
vessel's
would
probably be
considered
of the
desirable,
interests
of
safety,
from the bridge 'tween decks,
and run
to remove some up a compartment of
CO
Cvj
z o <
_j
c ^
*
?
STABILITY INFORMATION.
the the
2C)t
double bottom
stability.
so
as
to
bring
down
the
centre
of
gravity
and improve
the
righting
In vessels of
this
size
and
description, safety
demands
that
and 45 degrees should not be less than about *8 of a foot. Let us find what fall in the centre of gravity would be necessary to secure this in the present case. At 30 degrees the righting lever is '26 feet it has thus to be increased by ('8 - "26) = '54 feet. Assuming the draught to remain unchangedarms
at
inclinations
of 30
degrees
Increase of righting arm at . ,. [ inclination 01 30 degrees )

.
_ = Fall
..
in centre of gravity x sin. 30 degrees,

in centre of gravity
54
= Fall
~
'5
*5,
Fall in centre of gravity
1*08 feet.
The
curve
of stability
the
ordinates
under
the
increasing
of curve
new conditions may now be obtained by G throughout by the amount
1 '08
x sine of angle of inclination.

fig.
In
this
way curve
stability
/C,
236, has
like
fig.
been derived.
235
or
fig.
With a
officer
diagram
236
ready
to
hand,
an
should be able in most cases to
satisfy
himself as to
the state of his
vessel.
can only deal with draughts

in
In making deductions, however, he must be careful to note that he for which he has curves also, that differences
;
stowage
with
in
may
quite
alter
the
nature
of the
stability.
it
This would appear to limit the

out,
utility
of the curves, but

is
may be pointed
fully
regard
so
to
draughts, that
in
this
a ship
the
usually either
light,
loaded,
or
ballast,
that
respect
curves
should
be found generally
applicable.
Differences
cargo,
in
stowage give
of a general
special
or
of
rise to more trouble. The stowage homogeneous cargoes other than those for which
curves are provided, lead to variations in
the positions of the

at
centre
of gravity
from those of the standard conditions

stability
the
obtain a
curve
for
any such new condition,
same draught. the amount of the
To
rise
or fall of the centre of gravity from the position of a standard case must be known, and, with the information usually given, the only way of obtaining this would be by means of a special heeling experiment. If, however, the
position
of the centre of gravity above the
base corresponding to the various

given, a
to
conditions of
the
were
stated,
as
in
the
examples
be
then, to
change
by
a
in
the
position
centre
It
of
gravity
might
the
approximated
simple
moment
calculation.
would only remain,

those
of
new curve
adding
at
from
appropriate
deduce the righting levers of the standard curve, by deducting or
each inclination the amount

fall
Rise or
of centre of gravity
x sine of angle of inclination.

Suppose, for instance,
a
full
The
it
tables of conditions supplied with the diagrams of stability curves are
very useful in working
out problems like the foregoing.

the
were intended to load
smaller
of
the
two given vessels with
292
general
cargo.
is
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
It
AND CALCULATIONS.
means
vessels,
;
would be
first
necessary, by
all
of
to
the
capacity
plan,
which
part
of the equipment of
modern
approximate to the
positions
culation,
of the
to
then, by a moment calvarious weights forming the cargo combine these weights and heights with those of the light ship
to
(taken
from the table)
obtain the height of the
common
centre of gravity
of vessel
to
and cargo. Such a case is worked out in detail on page 192. Suppose this done in the present case,* and the centre of gravity found be '5 feet above the position corresponding to a full coal cargo (curve
236).
G, G,
fig.
The
levers
of the required
the
curve
are
equal
to
those
of curve
decreased throughout by
amount
of angle of inclination,
5
as already described.
x sine
In the subjoined table the righting levers at 15 degrees,

tabulated,
30 degrees,
in
fig
etc.,
are
and the
stability
curve,
marked
K,
is
plotted
236,
Angles of
Inclination.
Ordinate* of
De.uTee^
x
3 45 60
75
90
STABILITY INFORMATION.
Referring to the
table
to
293
of conditions, the
metacentric height in the given

this
is
standard
case
is
found
be
7*57
feet.
As
excessive,
the
supple(see
mentary ballast should be stowed high, particularly as the

E,
fig.
stability
curve
235)
is
of great
to
area and range.
With regard
the
amount of the
additional
ballast,
full
let
it
be
sufficient
make the been shown

to
total
equal to about a third of the
deadweight, this having
to
be a good average.
is
Including bunker coal, stores and fresh

the
total
water, the
deadweight
7677
tons,
ballast
should
therefore
be
7677 "
Including
Table),
= 2559
1954
tons.
bunker coal and
water
ballast,
tons
is
already
loaded
(see
therefore
Supplementary
or,
ballast
= 2559 - 1954 = 605 tons,

suit
in
round
the
figures,
say
case,
600
if
tons.
In
present
such
would
also
the
trim,
it
would be an
If only
advantage to put the whole amount into the

half
bridge
is
'tween
decks.
into
of
it
can
of
be
the
so
placed,
and the remainder

ballast
passed
the
main
the
'tween
the
decks, the
height
of the centre of gravity will
be as obtained below,
taken
centres
supplementary
being
assumed
from
capacity
plan
as before.
Items.
294
discharge
part
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
of her
AND CALCULATIONS.
port,
cargo at
a certain
and afterwards proceed

for
to
sea
under the reduced load.

so
as
to
The
question
is,
how should
tons.
the unloading be
done
leave
her in a favourable
to
condition
prosecuting
the voyage?
Let the amount

scale,
be discharged be 2000
to
rise
From
in
the
deadweight
assuming the vessel

coal
is
evenly,
feet
the 9
reduction
inches.
draught
due to
unloading the
draught
the
fore
aft
found to be 4
coal
right,
the
should
be
In order to keep the taken out forward, say 1000 tons from from
the
main-hold,
and the
from
remainder
the the
main
and
and
the
bridge
'tween
decks.
Taking
of gravity
the
centres
capacity
plan,
for
figures
for
the
loaded condition from

is
the
:
table,
calculation
the height of the
centre
as
follows
Items.
QUESTIONS.
3.
If,
295
observed
to
in
the
process
of loading,
vessel
is
suddenly
list
to
port
or
starboard,
what may be inferred
as the probable cause,
and how should
the subsequent loading
be conducted so as to bring the vessel back to Ihe upright?

4.
Whether does
a.
general or a homogeneous cargo afford greater
facilities for
loading so
as to produce a comfortable vessel at sea?

5.
Give reasons
for
your answer.
vessel b33
entirely
fills
her,
been loaded to her maximum draught, with a homogeneous cargo which and the master desires to ascertain the metacentric height before sailing.
readily obtain this knowledge.
Explain
how he may
If the
metacentric height were found to be deficient, what steps should
the master take
to correct it?
6.
Write
down
the
formula
for
the
reduction
in
the
metacentric
height
due
to
the
presence of a free liquid suiiace in the hold.
One
of the compartments of an
oil
steamer
is
partially filled with
petroleum.
Calculate
is
the reduction in the metacentric height due to the free surface, given that the
situated amidships,
is
compartment
the level of the

7.
oil,
30 feet long, 42 feet broad, and approximately rectangular in shape and that the total displacement is 6500 tons. Ans. '65 feet.
at
Show
that the presence of a middle-line bulkhead greatly modifies the effect of a tree
in
liquid surface
question,
8.
in the holds. Assuming a middle-line bulkhead what would be the reduction in metacentric height?
in
the vessel
of the previous
Why
9.
Enumerate the precautions which should be taken are trunkways fitted in oil vessels ?
loading a vessel with
oil
in bulk.
Explain
n
why
it
is
that
grain
cargoes
loaded
in
bulk
are
frequently found
to
shift
during
voyage when bad weather has been encountered.

transversely through a distance of 18 feet, what will be the angle
A
If
grain-laden vessel of 7000 tons displacement has a metacentric height of 2 feet 6 inches.
shift
100 tons of cargo
of heel,
assuming the vessel to have been upright before the shifting took place?
Ans.
6,
nearly.
10.
Show
that
the burning
out
of bunker coal
may have an
is
important
influence
on
vessel's condition.
If the coal in
particular vessel,
decks as well as lower bunkers,

the vessel
11.
?
how
whose margin of stability should it be worked out
small,
is
contained in 'tween
in
the interest of the safety of
A
is
steamer 470
aft,
feet
in
length,
15,600 tons displacement, drawing
27
feet
inches
forward and
the latter
has a reserve bunker containing 500 tons of coal.
The
centre of gravity of
10 feet below that of the vessel, and 35 feet before the centre of gravity of the
load-waterplane.
The
tons per inch
is
60, the longitudinal metacentric height
is
equal to the
is
-
length of the vessel, and the transverse metacentric height at the start of the voyage
5 feet.
to
Assuming the transverse metacentre

coal in the reserve
to
remain at the same point while the vessel
rises
the
lighter draught, estimate approximately the draught
and transverse metacentric height when the

(
bunker
is
consumed.
[
Forward, 26
27
feet, feet,
feet.
2| inches. 4 f inches.
Am,.-
DraUghtS
{
I
\Aft,
Metacentric height,
117
12.
What
is
a sea voyage?
What should be aimed at in ballasting a steamer for meant by ballasting? How would you expect a vessel to behave if laden with heavy ballast placed
to be
low down in the holds?

13.
cargo steamer of 7000 tons deadweight

coal,
is
ballasted for an Atlantic voyage.
With bunker
3350
stores
and
fresh water
feet
aboard, and water in boilers, the

aft
displacement
is
tons, the
feet
draught forward 8
and
is
10 feet 9 inches, and the centre of gravity

follows:
195
above the base.
Water
ballast
then loaded as
1000
tons in
double
2g6
bottom, centre 2
centre 16 feet
feet
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
above base and 2
feet
AND CALCULATIONS.
;
engine-room, centre 14
the parallel layer
to
feet before 'midships 650 tons in a deep tank abaft above base, and 54 feet abaft 'midships; 140 Lons in the fore-peak, Assuming the centre of gravity of above base, and 163 feet before 'midships.
be 3
feet
forward of 'midships, the average tons per inch in
way
;
of in-
creased immersion to be 34, the average

height
of the transverse metacentre
moment
to
alter
trim
inch 670 foot tons,
and the
estimate
above the base with
the ballast aboard
19 feet
approximately the draught and metacentric height when in ballast trim.

f
Am.-)
I
Drau g hts
Forward,
II feet,
4^ inches.
ij inches.
(Aft,
16
feet,
Metacentric height,
<
37
feet.
14.
If,
while on her voyage, a vessel should exhibit signs of

to
tenderness,"
show
that
it
would be unsafe
bottom.
attempt to remedy matters by running up a compartment of the double
Referring to example 11,
it
is
proposed to
purpose
fill
a compartment of the double bottom, with

shape, and
a view to making good the reduction in

coal.
metacentric height due to the consumption of the

is
The tank chosen

centre
division
for
;
the
it
approximately rectangular in
has
perforated
is
60
feet
long,
44
feet
broad,
and
4
to
feet
deep,
feet
and
has
capacity for 300 tons of salt water.

centre
is
Assuming the top of the tank
be 18
below the
the tank
of gravity of the vessel, estimate approximately the

full,
metacentric height
when
(
[
,
half
and
also
when
it
is
full.
Ans. \i
'58 feet.
H~
c *p feet.
.
15.
A
If
vessel
whose load displacement

water in the dock
voyage.
centre
the
is 7500 tons is being loaded in dock for a. summer weighs 63 lbs. per cubic foot, to what extent may the
of
the
disc
that
is,
the
is
legal
summer
load-line
feet.
in
salt
water
be
immersed?
The
area of the
load
waterplane
12,000 square
Ans.
16.
inches.
In loading a general cargo,
how
should the heavy items be disposed longitudinally to
ensure a vessel behaving well at sea?

17.
Give reasons.
01
What
stability information
should be supplied with a new vessel for the guidance
the officers?
APPENDIX
A.
CHANGE OF DRAUGHT IN PASSING FROM FRESH TO SALT WATER. Taking salt water to weigh 64 lbs. to a cubic foot, and fresh
water 62*5
lbs.,
the
number
r,
1
of cubic
feet
to a
ton in each
case
is
2240 2240
Salt water,
-p -
35,
_
Let
Fresh water,
35*84.
now
a vessel's
displacement in tons,
salt
then immersed volume in
water
water
=
=
and immersed volume

In passing from fresh to
to
salt
in
fresh
35 x 35*84 x
thus
cubic
feet, feet.
cubic
out
water,
the
vessel
rises
of the
water
the
If
extent
35-84
- 35
'84
cubic square
feet.
feet,
A be the area of the waterplane through which the vessel rises in inches
in
and d the distance
298
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
draught
sea
is
AND CALCULATIONS.
at
load
into
3$,
were to pass from river water
6$
lbs.
per
cubic foot
water,
she
would
rise
9500
63 x 35
4*3 inches.
MEAN DRAUGHT. In
scale,
it
reading
displacement
vessel's
from
displacement
i.e.,
is
the
usual
custom to employ the

read
off
mean
draught,
the
2.
sum
of
the
actual
draughts
at
the
stem and stern divided by

to
This assumes the waterplane drawn at

of equal volumes forward
this
mean draught
cut
off
wedges
and
aft,
which in ordinary cases would not happen.

approximating to that of the vessel when
To
the
cut
off
displacement closely
trim,
out of the
point
normal
in
be drawn parallel to the base through which the actual waterline intersects the locus of the centres
a line should
of gravity
Fig.
flotation
of waterplanes.
237
at
shows
it
a
is
vessel
trimming
to
by the
the
stern
WL
is
the
line
of the
which
required
know
displacement.
Let
S,
S T be
locus
of the
centres
of gravity
of the waterplanes.
line
Through
the point of
intersection of this locus
and the
W L,
237.
let
W.Z L 2 be drawn parallel to the
Fig.
I
base.
The displacement
original
to the waterplane
L 2 will be very nearly equal to that
to
the
waterplane
W L.
At amidships draw Q R normal to the keel

to
line.
is
the
mean draught corresponding

scale,
but
this
mean
a
draught,
less
marked
W.,L2
off
on the displacement
would
obviously
give
reading
than the actual displacement

.
by the amount of the layer between

therefore
and
The draught
the
QR
should
be employed.
are
Since
triangles
WW
Q and
qj?
SRO
similar
_ wj/i
RS
o'
WW, 0R = TO"
But
abaft
RS.
and
WL>.
W Wi
to
is
half the trim,
half the vessel's length,
RS
the distance
/?,
amidships of the centre of gravity
of waterplane
to
Thus
to
the
with
amount
the
be added
actual
6
to
is
the
mean draught
obtained.
get
the
draught
use
displacement
scale,
readily
In
an
case,
if
RS
were
feet,
the
get
length
of
vessel
360
feet,
and the trim
feet
by
the
stern,
we should
APPENDIX
A.
299
OR
180
4
5
x 4 x 12
of an inch,
corresponding to an increase of
displacement
over
that
given
by the mean
draught of about
30 tons.
PROOF OF FORMULA
height
of
BM
= p. In
this
formula, which
expresses the
the
metacentre above the centre of

of buoyancy.
buoyancy
BM =
Height of metacentre (transverse or longitudinal) above centre
/=
Moment
of
inertia
of
the
waterplane about
the
middle
line
about as axis in the case of the transverse metacentre, and gravity of the watera transverse axis through the centre of plane in the case of the longitudinal metacentre.
= Volume
of displacement.
Fig.
238.
Consider
case, is
first
the
transverse
metacentre.
Fig.
238,
which
illustrates
the
transverse
the
at
upright.
from view of a vessel inclined through a small angle Before the inclination took place, the centre of buoyancy was
it
is
now
of the
line
resultant
and has thus travelled the distance B B v The line at B upward pressure passes through B x and intersects the middle
lt
in M, which by definition is the transverse metacentre. In the act of heeling the wedge of displacement
WSW
passes
across
to
g.,
the
in
ship into
the
position
LSU
V x
its
centre
of gravity
moving from g x
ship's
If V be the volume of the a line parallel to B B v and u the volume of either wedge
displacement,
BB =
X
u x g y g2
or
l/xBI\/lx0 =
of
small.
ux
g g*
x
(1)
is
Where 9 sumed to be
is
the circular measure
the angle of inclination, which
as-
very
300
1/
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
is
AND CALCULATIONS.
assumed
of the
to
be
to
calculate
the value
of the
known, so that to find B M it is only necessary quantity u x g Y g,, i.e., the moment due to the
ship.
movement
line.
the point of intersection of
wedge of displacement across the the water lines W L and

of the
being small,
is
S,
L^
in
the
middle
Calling
the
half breadth
waterplane amidships,
6,
Sectional
area of wedge
WS W
or
LS L =
x
6 .ft
and
Volume
of a
thin
slice
of either
wedge
2
~*ft 5 -*,
8X being the thickness of the slice. Moment due to movement of Also
thisl
)
b
2
4
u
3
volume across the ship
= Now
all
b\0.dX.
the
moment
into
of the whole
wedge
is
equal to the
sum
of the
is
moments
of
the
slices
which
it
may be supposed
to
1
divided.
x 2 = ^-b
, , .
t J
,
That
.0.5x.
Moment due
But
movement
of
1
;
u a whole wedge
S-65x
is
the
expression
axis.
for
the
moment
this
/,
of inertia
...
of the waterplane
about the middle line as
Calling
to
we
get
Moment due
of
movements wedge J
in
(1)
Substituting
this
for
u x
g g2
}
1.6
or,
= V.BM.O
-
BM= T
the
Take now
Fig.
longitudinal
metacentre.
The
inclination
here
is
is
a fore-
and-aft one, but except as modified by this circumstance, the proof
the same.
inclina-
239 shows
fore-and-aft
view of the vessel with
slight
tion
aft.
is
the centre of buoyancy
when
./??,*
floating at
the waterplane of the
W\L U
Bi
its
position
when
ls
at
the
line
L,
the
intersection
;
verticals
through
plane
B and B
being the longitudinal metacentre

the
line
0,
the projection in the
of the
is
paper of
of
intersection
of
the
waterplanes
WL
and
WiLu
called the centre of flotation
and occurs
at the
same point
case,
in the length
as the centre of gravity of
the waterplane
WL
the x
h ly h 2 are the centres of the
immersed and emerged wedges.

1
As
in
previous
we have
ix h,h,= V
wedge,
small,
BB,
that
being the volume
of either
and V
x
of the
ft
displacement.
The
inclination
being very
u x
BB = Bm x
So that
hih % = V x B
x 9
(2).
used here instead of
ll/l
to distinguish the longitudinal
metacentre from the transverse.
APPENDIX
A.
3 OI
To
volume
element
5
calculate
the
quantity
u x
h h^
x
consider
small
element
thickness
at
of
of
the
this
of
is
emerged wedge distant x from 0. X x 0, and if y be the breadth of the

the
in
The
vessel
the
place,
and
its
X the dimension of the element volume will be
the
direction
of
the vessel's
length,
x.y.0.sx
and
its
moment about
of the
a transverse
axis
through
The
moment
whole
x 2 .y.0.dx. wedge is the
sum
of
the
moments
of
the
Fig.
1
239.
TO
elements,
or
^xly.Q.sx,
and the moment of both wedges, double
this
quantity,
or
2'2x\y.0.$x.
But
axis
2^x iy.dx
i
is
the
moment
of of the
of inertia of the watcrplane about a transverse

0.
through
for
its
centre
gravity
Calling
this
I,
and
(2),
substituting
the
value
the
moment
wedges thus obtained
in
we
get
LB = V.Bm.Q
or,
Bm = V
are useful in
J_
CO-EFFICIENTS OF FORM. These

with another.
comparing one vessel

:
The
following are the usual co-efficients employed
302
i,
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
Co-efficient of area of load- water plane.

Co-efficient of area of
2.
immersed midship
section.
3.
Block
co-efficient.
4.
1.
Prismatic co-efficient.
Co-efficient of
important to
Area of Load-Waterplane,
ratio
This
is
it.
the ratio of
the area of the load-waterplane to that of a rectangle enclosing
In a new
design
it
is
ratio of a vessel of
know how this known performance.

360
feet
compares with the corresponding

broad,
Example.
vessel
long,
48
feet
is
used as a basis in
designing another vessel 340 feet long and 46 feet broad.

area in the standard case
is
The
load-waterplane
13,000 square
feet,
and
it
is
intended to give the
new
vessel the
same
co-efficient of load-waterplane.
Calculate the area of load-
waterplane in the
latter
case.
The
in the
standard co-efficient
vessel will thus be
is
1
:
3000
7:
360 x 48
= '7 ^2: /J
the area of the load-waterplane v
new
340 x 45 x '752
11505 square
useful
in
feet.
The
load-waterplane
:
co-efficient
is
also
approximate calculations
like
the following
A
If
vessel
of 330 feet length and 45 feet breadth floats at her
load draught.
ships,
150 tons of cargo be discharged from a compartment amid-
calculate the decrease in draught, assuming the co-efficient of the plane

"83,
of flotation to be
and the
vessel to rise to a parallel waterplane.
Area of L.W.P.
= 330
x 45 x '8$
i2325"5 square
feet.
Tons per inch immersion = ^

.'.
= 20^.
420
y
Decrease
in
draught
S'12 inches.
Immersed Area of Midship Section. This is the immersed midship section to that of a rectangle having a depth equal to the vessel's moulded depth, and a breadth equal to the Thus, in the case of a vessel of 28 feet breadth and 8 breadth of the vessel. feet mean draught, which has an area of immersed midship section of 210
2.
Co-efficient of
of
ratio
of the area
square
feet,
this
co-efficient
is
210
The immersed midship

in
section
co-efficient,
like
the
previous
one,
is
is
useful
designing,
and should be
carefully considered
where speed
ratio
an important
condition.
3.
Block
between
Co-efficient.
the
This
it.
is
volume
of
relation
immersed
volume
vessel's
and expresses the body and that of
a rectangular
figure
surrounding
APPENDIX
If
A.
303
length
of vessel,
of vessel,
B = breadth
D =
rr.i
draught of vessel,
Inen,
Block
,
co-efficient
rr
volume of displacement n n x x
-,
Example.
draught
efficient
A
28
vessel
feet.
500
feet
long,
57
feet
broad,
has a
moulded
block
co-
of
Calculate
the
displacement,
assuming
of 76.
Displacement
500 x 57 x 28 x
cubic
vessel,
76
= 606480
Again,
ticulars:
feet.
find
the
block
feet,
co-efficient
of
given
Length
the
following
in
salt
par-
185
breadth
tons.
.
26
feet,
mean
draught
water
10
feet,
displacement,
1000
Block
This
it
co-efficient
-5
1000 x 35 =='727. ? ' ' 185 x 26 x 10
co-efficient is of great value in comparing the forms of vessels, must be used with care. It is easy to show that two vessels of displacement, may be very the same dimensions, block co-efficient, and different in shape. In one case the midship section may be full and the
but
ends
full.
fine;
in
the
other,
the
in that
midship
cargo
is
section
may be
large
fine
and
for
the
ends
ends,
Generally
fining
speaking,
the
boats
having
block
co-efficients,
any
the
of
body
done
full.
should
"Where
be
reserved
the
midship
section
being
kept
this
has
not
been
done,
vessels
4.
hard to drive and
difficult
to
steer
have resulted.
the ratio of the volume volume of a prism, whose section is the vessel's immersed midship section, and length the length of the vessel. Thus, in the case of a vessel 140 feet in length, which has an immersed midship feet, and a displacement of 640 tons, the section area of 210 square
Prismatic
Co-efficient.
the
This
expresses
of
displacement
to
prismatic
co-efficient
is
640 x 35 140 x 210

It
will
, A
76.
be
readily
seen
that
this
co-efficient
affords
closer
in
means of
case of
comparing immersed the two vessels above

section
forms
than
the
to,
block
co-efficient,
and
one
be
the
fine
referred
would
vessel.
2, 3,
show
the
It
4.
the
of
midship
being
that
and
full
ends to be of poor design,

than
in
prismatic
co-efficient
relatively
higher
exists
the
other
should
observed
relation
If
section,
between
co-efficients
and
y be the volume of displacement, A the area of immersed midship G% G C the co-efficients 2, 3, and 4 above described, then
3t 4i
304
SHIP CONSTRUCTION A
o.
AND CALCULATIONS.
APPENDIX
Angle
B.
Table of Natural Tangents, Sines, and Cosines.
306
Angle
in
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
APPENDIX
Angle
B.
307
3 o8
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
Rates of Stowage."
Cargoes.
APPENDIX
I.
i.
C.
Additional Questions.
Define the term area as applied to a plane surface,
plate
Calculate
the
area of the
shown
in
the
following
sketch
Ans.
2.
1
^'75
3I
of
square
feet.
Calculate
side.
the
(2)
area in square feet of the following:
(i)
(4)
A
êet
square of
(3)
*5
feet
rectangle
of
15
feet
(4)
length,
circle (3)
feet
breadth.
Triangle 6-5 feet base, 8-25 feet height.
12-25
diameter.
Ans. (1)
3.
132*25.
(2)
56*25.
26-81.
117-85.
The
a
ordinates
in
feet
of
plane
respectively, the
common
interval
being 8
feet
is
ordinates,
half
ordinate
4*6
are 3, 5-5, 7-5, 8, and 9 Between the first and second introduced, and another of 8*6 feet
curve
feet.
between the fourth and
fifth
ordinates.
Calculate
the
area in
square
feet.
Ans.
4.
220*4.
it
State
the
Five-Eight
Rule
upon
what
assumption
is
based
Show how the Five-Eight Rule and Simpson's First Rule may be combined. The half ordinates in feet of a portion of the load waterplane of a vessel
are
3j
!>
8,
8*5,
6'^,
and
respectively,
and the
feet,
common
distance
between
them,
of the
12
feet.
Calculate
the
area
in
square
First
employing a combination
Ans.
Five-Eight
Rule and Simpson's

No.
Rule.
822.
inch
lbs.
5.
Referring
to
question
1,
if
the
plate
be
steel
of an
thick,
what
is
its
weight in
lbs.?
Ans.
6.
937
4^
solid
wrought
its
iron
pillar,
18
feet
in
length,
is
inches
in
diameter.
Find
weight.
Ans.
* in
851
lbs.
Many
of these examples are based on questions set at the Board of Education Examinations
Naval Architecture.
309
310
7.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
\\ inches
its
portion
of
a cyclindrical steel shaft tube,
thick,
is
20
feet
long,
and
its
external
diameter
is
16
inches.
Calculate
weight.
lbs.
Ans.
8.
4646
with
deck
9000
square
feet
in
area
is
to
be
laid
pitch-pine
planks 4 inches thick and 5 inches wide.

12
feet
and one opening 24

(1) (2)
feet
There are two openings 16 feet x x 12 feet, which are not to be covered.
feet
Calculate
The number of running The weight of the wood
of deck
planking;
deck,
excluding fastenings.
19,987.
is
Ans.
9.
(1)
(2)
124,920
of
lbs.
derrick
post
18
inches
external
diameter
feet,
built
J-inch
steel
rivets.
plates.
Estimate the weight of a length of 15
neglecting straps and
Ans.
10.
1402
lbs.
Define displacement.
The
145,
areas
in
30,
of
the
vertical
feet
transverse
are
sections
25,
of
ship
180,
up
250,
to
the
load
waterplane
square
respectively
interval
105,
295,
290, 235,
and
6.
and
the
common
the
between
is
The displacement them is 20 feet. 5, and abaft the aftermost section is feet and in tons (salt water).
n.
draught
in
tons
before
foremost section
in
Find the load displacement

Ans.
cubic
30,900;
882
'8.
Deduce
may be
-2,
a formula
ascertained.
by
which the
feet 13*4,
tons
per
inch
immersion
at
any
Given that the half ordinates in

are
of the
10-4,
load waterplane
7*2,
of a vessel
respectively
4,
8-3,
11*3,
of the plane
130
feet,
calculate
and 2*2, and the length the tons per inch immersion in salt water.
13*4,
Ans.
12. floats
'42.
A
a
also
prism
of
rectangular
15
feet.
section
120
the
feet
long and
30
feet
broad,
in
salt
at
draught of
construct
for
Calculate
displacement in
tons
water;
the
this
curve of displacement and the

vessel.
curve of tons per
inch
of immersion
Ans.
13.
1543.
the
1
The
feet
tons
per inch
are
at
the
successive waterplanes of a vessel, which

6'5,
1
are
rj
apart,
respectively
2,
5 "6,
4*5,
1
and
foot
o.
Construct
draught,
curve
of tons
1
per inch
on a scale of
inch
to
of
and
is
it
inch to
14.
ton.
How
is
"deadweight scale" constructed?
Of what use
that
is
to
the
commanding officer? What is meant by "mean draught"? 15.

floating
in
Show
it
in
the case of a
vessel
considerably out of her normal trim,
incorrect to use the

scale.
mean draught
reading
feet
the
displacement from
the
the
displacement
A
stern.
vessel
If
300
a
in
length floats in salt

intersects
feet
water and trims 8 feet by the

of the centres of
gravity
to
the
waterplane
point 3
locus
of of
waterplanes at
abaft
amidships,
measured
parallel
top
APPENDIX C
keel,
311
the
actual
and the tons per inch immersion be 23, estimate the difference between displacement of the vessel and that obtained from the displacescale,
ment
using
the
mean
draught.
Ans.
16.
22
tons.
Obtain an expression giving the extent to which

fresh
a vessel
rises
in
passing from
to
salt
water.
is
A
1
vessel
is
whose
partly
displacement
4000
to sea.
tons,
If
leaves
a harbour
inches
in
which which
is
the water
o15
ozs.
salt,
and proceeds
foot,
the water in harbour weighs
per
cubic
calculate
the
number
of
through
the vessel will rise
on reaching
salt water,
given that the tons per inch
Ans.
17.
30.
'18.
vessel
of box
form
feet
is
210
feet
long,
30
feet
broad, and has an

If a sheathing
even draught of water of 10

of teak 3 inches thick were
when
floating in sea water.
worked over the bottom, and also over the ends and sides to a height of 12 feet above the bottom, what would be the additional weight, taking teak at 50 lbs. per cubic foot, and what would then be the draught of water.
Ans.
18.
feet.
68
tons,
10 feet z\ inches.
side
vessel
carries
in
her
hold
cube,
each
of
which
is
10
If
the
cube
be
put
overboard
effect
of a
chain,
what
will
be the
feet.
and attached to the ship by means upon the vessel's draught, the cube being
supposed of greater density than

plane
is
salt water.
The
Ans,
area of the vessel's waterrises
4000 square
Vessel
feet
inches.
feet
19.
is
rectangular
pontoon
the
100 feet long, 50

condition
broad, 20
feet.
deep,
altera-
empty, and floating in sea water at a draught of 10

will
What
if
tion
take
is
place
in
floating
compartment
(a)
breached and in
free
of the pontoon communication with the

into
five
the
if
centre
sea,
The
the
pontoons
were
divided
equal
watertight
com-
partments
by transverse
?
bulkheads,
extending
the
full
depth of
not water-
pontoon
12
(b)
The
watertight
feet
bulkheads
tight,
stopped at a deck which from the bottom of the pontoon ?

Vessel will
founder.
is
((a) Vessel will sink bodily 2 feet 6 inches.
Ans.1(b)
II.
1.
Show how
The
from
an(*
9"4
the
principle
of
moments
a
is
applied
in
obtaining
the
centre
2.
of gravity of a
plane area such as

of
vessel's
waterplane.
half-ordinates
aft,
load-waterplane
5,
of
vessel
i6'8,
in
17,
feet,
com16-4,
mencing
I
are,
respectively -i,
tne
ri'6,
is
15-4,
16-9,
4'5)
'h
anc*
common
interval
feet.
Find
312
(i) (2)
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
The The
area
of the
of
plane in square feet;

its
distance
centre
centre
of of
gravity from gravity

is
the
17-feet
ordinate,
that
stating
whether
the
before
2'83
or
abaft
ordinate.
Ans.
3.
(1)
2732*4.
(2)
feet
forward.
vessel to
is
180
keel
feet
long,
and
the
transverse
sections
from
being
the
load-waterline
the
are
semicircles.
Find the longitudinal position of

of the
the
5,
centre
13, 15,
of
14,
buoyancy,
12,
the
half-ordinates
feet,
load-waterplane
1,
and
10
respectively.
Ans.
4.
73*76
II.,
feet
from
the
10-feet
ordinate.
Given
as
diagram
showing
in
the
locus
of
centre
of
buoyancy,
of the
constructed
centre
5.
described
Chapter
of
the
explain
how
the
height
of
buoyancy corresponding with

the
any waterplane
centre
for
may be
for
ascertained.
Construct
of
locus
section,
of
buoyancy
prism
its
an
upright
is
prism
rectangular
triangle,
and
floats
also
whose
faces
section
an
equilateral
example the arrangement of the numerical 6. Illustrate work usually followed in an ordinary displacement paper for obtaining the displacement and position of the centre of buoyancy of a ship.
7.
and which by a simple
with
one of
horizontal.
The
is
load
ro
of
displacement
of
ship
is
buoyancy
layer
feet
below the
ship
is
load-waterline.
tons,
light
5000 tons, and the centre of In the light condition the

the
is
displacement
the
2000
the
and
lines,
centre
feet
of
gravity
of
the
between
light
the
load
and
of
below the
loadline.
Find the
the
vertical
position
the
centre
of
buoyancy below the loadline

Ans.
in
condition.
16
feet.
IV.
1.
Distinguish clearly between hogging

strains,
and sagging
strains.
What
they
causes
likely
these
to
and
at
what parts
of
loaded cargo
steamer are
be a
2.
scribe
maximum ? What is a u curve of how these curves are
weight,"
and a
for
"curve of
a vessel
buoyancy"?
in
still
Dewater.
constructed
afloat
What conditions must these curves comply with in relation to each other? What are the usual assumptions made in constructing curves of weight and buoyancy for a vessel afloat among waves?
3.
A
in
vessel
of
box form
a
level
240
feet
long, 8
40
at
feet
broad,
the
20
feet
deep,
is
floats
salt
water at
draught of
is
feet.
If
vessel's
weight
length of
1000 tons evenly distributed, and she

70
feet
loaded
each
end
for
of
with
600
tons,
also
evenly
distributed,
draw the
curves
weight
and buoyancy.
Write down the formula employed in calculating the longitudinal on the material at any point of a section of a beam under a longitudinal bending moment.
4.
stress
APPENDIX
5.
C.
313
referred
to
What assumptions
question
to
are
made
case
in
applying the formula

ship
12
?
-|
in
the
previous
6.
the
of a
is
steel
beam
of
section
inches deep,
inch thick, and has
6-inch flanges top
and bottom.
Calculate the
moment
of inertia of the section.
Ans,
7.
254
is
inch units.
Referring to
the
previous
question,
if
the
beam
20 feet long and

per
square
supported at each end, and loaded in the middle with a weight of 6 tons,
calculate
inch.
the maximum tensile and compressive stresses The weight of the beam itself may be neglected
in in
tons
working out the

S-$.
problem.
Ans.S'S,
8.
State
the
maximum
small
steel
longitudinal
stress,
as
ordinarily
calculated,
in
large
and
9.
in
cargo
steamer,
when poised on waves
of
their
own
length.
Give reason
light
for
any difference in the values.

steel
In the case of some large

of
build, the
is
passenger vessels
cut
having long
super-
structures
joint
latter
are
about mid length, and a sliding

to
made.
10.
What
the reason
stresses
for
this?
Enumerate the
changes
to
resist
to
which ships are subjected which tend

forms.
State
produce
structure
in
their
transverse
what
parts
assist
the
change of form.
V.
1.
Sketch
In
and
describe
the
three-deck,
spar-deck,
and
awning-deck
type
of vessels.
2.
designing
cargo
vessel
of
full
form,
state
generally
how you
of
vessel.
would proceed to shape the body

3.
with
a view to securing the
best results.
Sketch
are the
in
profile
well-deck
of each
of
and
quarter-deck
type
What
4.
essential
briefly
features
type?
Describe
steamers.
the
in
trend
section
development
vessel
in
the
construction
of
cargo
also
Sketch
on
the
web
frame
steamer.
system,
one with deep frames. Sketch in outline midship section of a turret-deck 5.

6.
What
the
are the advantages claimed for this type over cargo vessels of ordinary form?
Describe
with
the
sketches
are
the
the
Ropner
Trunk
of
Steamer,
these
and
Isherwood Patent Ship.
What
chief features
types?
VI.
1.
Sketch
and describe an ordinary bar

the
keel.
2.
How
scarph
is
scarph
of
of
bar
keel
formed?
the keel?
What
is
the the
length
rivets
of
in
terms
is
the
thickness
of
How
to
are
arranged, and what

3.
their
spacing?
it is
Before proceeding with the framing
necessary
set
the
keel
314
straight
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
the
keel
on
so
the
that
is
blocks,
this
How
are
lengths
temporarily
joined
together
4.
may be
correctly
Is
?
done?
it
What
to
a side-bar keel?
previous
a better or worse
form than that
referred
5.
in
the
questions
Give reasons.
attendant
Mention any
the
side-bar
practical
difficulty
keel
on
it.
system,
and
state
what
on the constructing of a means are taken to over-
come
6.
Sketch
and
What are the advantages and disadvantages of projecting keels ? and describe a form of keel which entails no outside projection, show that the arrangement is satisfactory from a point of view of Show
a
strength.
7.
of the vertical keel
good shift of butts of the flat keel with reference to those and angles connecting them also with reference to the
;
garboard strakes of plating,

8.
Describe,
and show by sketches

keelson
(or
in
section
is
an
intercostal
plate
vertical
keel)
and side elevation, how worked and secured in an

keel.
ordinarily
9.
transversely are
framed vessel with a
flat
plate
fitted ?
What
bilge-keels ?
Why
the
are
they
to
Sketch
an
efficient
form of bilge-keel,
1
indicating
connections
fitted ?
the
hull.
o.
Why
are
is
?
hold keelsons
gained by
Sketch a side and a bilge-keelson.

plates
to
What advantage
the
fitting
intercostal
the
shell
between
bars?
keelson
11.
bars
is
How
What
frame,
the strength maintained at the joints of hold keelson

details
Make
how a
sketch showing
is
of riveting,
etc.
12.
the usual spacing of transverse

frame,
frames?
connected.
are
Show by a sketch
fitted?
reverse
and
floorplate
are
13.
What
are
at
frame
the
heel
pieces?
Where
far
they
They
are
not usually
14.
fitted
ends of a
floor.
vessel.
Why ?
does
it
Sketch an ordinary
How
extend
a
up the
at
ship's
joint,
side?
Where
are
floorplates
usually
joined?
Make
sketch
showing the
15.
rivets.
Show
in
section the
common
forms of ship beams, and state where
each section should be employed.
beams cambered ? Is their strength increased thereby ? camber of upper-deck beams? Deck beams are sometimes fitted at every frame, and sometimes 17. State the circumstances in which each arrangement may at alternate frames. be employed to most advantage. Why are deck beams not reduced towards their ends, as on the 18.
16.
Why
are
What
is
the
usual
principle
19.
of the
girder
they
usual
might be.
Describe
the
methods of
state
forming
in in
"bracket,"
opinion,
is
"slabbed," and
"turned"
20.
beam
Sketch
knees, a
and
are
which,
your
most
efficient.
bracket
knee
showing
detail
the
connections
to
the
frame and beam.

in
What
Lloyd's requirements as to the
number
of rivets
beam knees?
APPENDIX
21.
C.
315
requiring
In
the
design
the
of
certain
vessel,
it
by
rule
tier
of
lower-deck beams at
with
this
usual
spacing,
is
proposed
for
to
modify or dispense
the latter in order to improve the facilities might be done without reducing the strength.
22.
stowage.
Show how
What
all
are
web frames?
relative
Why
of
vice
are
they fitted?
Sketch a web frame

continuous,
the
showing
23.
connections in a vessel having ordinary

the merits
floors.
Discuss
making the web frames

versa.
and hold
tion
stringers
intercostal,
and
Show
in
detail
connec-
of a
24.
web frame to the margin-plate of an inner bottom. What is meant by "deep framing"? What are the advantages
of
this
system of construction over that consisting of
combined ordinary fram-
ing
and web frames. Sketch and describe a M'lntyre 25.

?
ballast
tank.
What
are
its
essential
features
26.
Describe
in
details
the
cellular
system
of constructing
to in
double bottoms;
previous
question.
com-
pare
it
with
the
system
referred
the
27.
Assuming
the
continuous
of the
longitudinals
sketches
construction
indicating
a cellular
man-holes
double
compartment,
top,
and intercostal floors, show by bottom for a length of one through the longitudinals and tank
and showing details of the connections of the longitudinals to the floors, tank top and shell. 28. Show by a sketch how the plating of the tank top or inner bottom is usually arranged, giving details of the butt and edge connections. At certain
parts
the plating
is
increased in thickness.
Name
been
of
these parts, and state
why
the
increase
29.
is
made.
of
straining
Signs
the the
have
to
frequently
observed
the
in
the
riveting
par-
connecting
ticularly
tank
knees
part
the the
to
margin-plate
knees.
double
sketch
bottom,
the
at
upper
are
of
Show by a
such straining.
of
means
edges
usually
30.
taken in modern vessels
prevent
What
in
the
advantages
?
and
disadvantages
flanging
the
of plates
31.
lieu
of fitting angles
Why
are wash-plates fitted in deep ballast tanks
and
in
peak tanks?
32.
33.
Show by a sketch how a deep tank is made watertight at the deck. What considerations determine the diameters of pillars in a ship?
pillars
In
fitting
to
beams, where should they be placed in order

limit
to
develop
their
greatest
34.
efficiency?
is
What
for
the
of
breadth
usual
of
ship
allowed
by Lloyd's
pillars
Rules
for
one and
35.
two rows of
sketches
pillars,
respectively?
Show by
the
methods of attaching
at
their
heads and heels.

36.
may be
37.
efficiently
In the case of a deck having beams at every frame, show how supported by a tier of pillars at alternate frames.
pillars,
it
Sketch an arrangement of wide-spaced

pillars
is
showing how the deck

attachments
to
between the
supported.
Give
details
of
the
tank
top and deck.
316
38.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Certain parts
these
parts,
AND CALCULATIONS.
of a ship are thicker than others.
of the
shell-plating
for
Name
39.
and give reasons

Lloyd's
the
increased
the
thickness.
What
are
requirements
regarding
length
of
shell-plates
and the position of end joints?

or
joints.
Sketch a good arrangement of shell butts

various
40.
plating,
Sketch
indicating
is
and
describe
the
plans
adopted
fitting
of of
fitting
shell-
specially
system
by which the
to
frame
packing
of rivets
pieces
41.
in
obviated.
What
are Lloyd's requirements as
the
number
single,
of rows
shell
landings?
Show by rough
lap,
sketches
thickness
double,
and
treble-riveted
edge
are
indicating
the
of the
plates,
width of
laps,
and diameter and spacing of

42.
rivets.
joints
and disadvantages of overlapped end compared with butted joints ? Lapped joints and butted joints having single straps, show a 43. What is the reason of this ? tendency to open when under stress. How would you proceed to stop a leaky end joint of butted type 44. in a strake of bottom plating?
the
What
advantages
as
It is the practice in many shipyards to scarph overlapped joints 45. where they are crossed by the landings so as to avoid the use of packing
pieces.
Show by
;
sketches
(b)
how
the
this
is
done
(a)
in
the
case
of a joint
in
an outside strake
46.
in
case
of a joint
in
an inside strake.
considerations
In a riveted
joint,
discuss
rivets,
the
general
which govern
edge
rivets
the
diameter and pitch

why,
plates
of
and
the
their
distance
from
size
the
of
the
joint.
47.
Explain
of the
as
rule,
ratio
of
the
of
to
the
in
thickness
thickness.
48.
they
connect becomes reduced as

to this
plates
increase
Show
Sketch
that a limit
ratio is
fixed
by practical considerations.
and
state
describe
the
is
various
used.
heads
and
points
common
for
in
ship
work,
49.
and
where each
of
",
State
the
diameters
rivets
required
f",
by Lloyd's
1",
Rules
plates
of
the
following
thicknesses
rivets
be the pitch of
50.
rivet
is
in
and watertight work?

V,
in
respectively.
What should
What
is
the
in
spacing of rivets
frames and beams?

in
Why
is
the
spacing closer
bulkhead frames than

thus
frames
elsewhere,
and
how
the loss
51.
of strength
caused made good?
Why
way
pitch in
52.
are the rivets connecting the framing to the shell-plating of closer of deep water ballast tanks and peak ballast tanks than elsewhere.
Rivets
are
usually
manufactured
of
cone
shape
under
the
the
heads.
Why ?
53.
Two
plates
have to
be joined
by
rivets.
Discuss
advantages
and disadvantages of
(a)
(&)
Punching the
Drilling
rivet rivet
holes
holes.
the
APPENDIX
Describe
Iron
C.
317
of
how
the
punching
work.
and
fitting
the
plates
should
be
con-
ducted to secure
54.
efficient
rivets
are
found to have a higher strength efficiency in iron

Give a reason
in
for
this.
plates
than in steel
in
steel
is
plates.
Why
rivets
?
are
iron
rivets
employed
55.
shipbuilding
preference
to
its
steel
uses.,
What
drift
punch?
Explain
Show
to
that
in
certain
circumstances
56.
the
use
of
a drift punch
might lead
of a
bad workmanship.
stringer
?
sketches
ing,
What are the principal how you would connect

plating
functions
deck
Show by
and^ fasten a stringer to the
beams, framin
and
57.
of a
ship.
How
the
would
in
you proceed in arranging the
fastenings
stringer
plate
at
butts?
riveting
A
a
stringer
plate
is
50
inches wide
and
that
-|-inch
thick;
arrange-
sketch
the
beam and
at
a butt,
and show
the
ment
is
a good one.
58.
steel
ship
is
found on her
first
voyage at sea to be structurally

to effectually strengthen the ship
weak
longitudinally.
How
would you attempt

Sketch
as
with the least additional weight of material?

59.
What
are
deck tieplates?
sailing-ship,
an arrangement of
fitted.
tieplates
on
the
main deck of a
arranged
60.
showing how they are

well
fore-and-aft.
in
Explain
why
they are
diagonally as
require
to
Decks
a
be
strengthened
at
way
sides
of
large
openings.
Show by
large
sketch
the
usual
compensation
values
of
the
and corners of a
upper-deck
61
cargo hatch.
the
relative
Discuss
for
teak,
pitch
pine,
and
lay
yellow
pine,
as
materials
62.
deck planking.
in
detail
(a)
(b)
Describe
how you would proceed to Where no steel deck is fitted Where there is a steel deck.
of
a wood
deck
Show by
each
decks.
case.
sketches
the
connections at a butt joint
the
deck
planking
in
What is the Rule height for hatch coamings at upper and at Show by detail sketches how the end and side coamings of an deck hatchway are bound to the deck structure.
63.
bridge
upper-
How are hatch openings protected against inroads from the sea ? 64. Sketch an arrangement of beams for supporting the covers of a main cargo
hatch in a modern vessel. Describe the mechanical appliances usually installed in cargo steamers 65.
for
loading and discharging cargo.

66.
how it is supported at the heel, and and slewing it. detail the arrangements for topping Assuming two winches to be fitted to one hatch, sketch roughly 67. two arrangements by which direct leads to the winch barrels may be obtained.
Sketch
a
derrick,
showing
68.
In what
posts
circumstances
instead
of
may
the
is
it
be
desirable
to
hinge
the
derricks
on
special
on
masts? connected
Sketch
to
derrick-post
and
derrick,
and show how the former
the
deck.
318
69.
(b)
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
on an unsheathed
is
How
are steam winches supported (a)

is
steel
deck?
Where a wood deck

of the
70.
laid?
What arrangement
of
made
?
to
minimise
a
are
large
vibration
deck due to the working of the winches

in
Show
section
the
is
construction
the
lower
mast
in
sailing-ship.
At what
fitted?
parts
mast-plating
doubled?
Why
at
the
doublings
71.
Show by rough
is
sketches
how
in
mast
is
wedged
for
ship.
deck,
and
how
it
supported at
the
heel
fitted
it
72.
Sketch an appliance
modern
vessels
tightening
up the
is
standing rigging.
73.
Show how
is
is
connected to the
What
and
"spiked
in
bowsprit"?
diameter
Show how a
allowed
in
bowsprit
sup-
ported
74.
stayed.
What
heel
reduction
is
steamer's
masts
as
compared with those of a

at
sailing-ship?
How
is
a steamer's mast supported

?
the
75.
where
the
it
is
stopped at a lower deck

of
are
State
advantages
having
Lloyd's
a good
system
in
of watertight
respect
to
bulkwaterlength,
heads
tight
in
steamer.
for
What
a
requirements
feet
bulkheads
?
steamer
of
300
and
one
of
400
feet
respectively
76.
Explain
fitted
why, in
ordinary cases, only one
transverse
watertight
bulk-
head
a
is
in
a sailing-ship.
77.
How
the
are watertight bulkheads
sketch
arrangement of the
of the
latter
the
large
attachments
cargo
78.
in
Show by and details of a main transverse watertight bulkhead of a

usually built
and stiffened?
stiffeners,
plating,
spacing
of
steamer.
stiffeners
In many modern cargo steamers the

only.
fitted
vertically
What
?
are
the
advantages
of
the
below the deck are arrangement ? Are

which
to
is
there
any disadvantages
79.
Taking
with
the
the
case
of
fore-peak
bulkhead,
so
as
deep
the
and
narrow,
how would
you
least
arrange
the
stiffeners
get
greatest
efficiency
80.
weight of material?
through
hold stringer consisting of a bulb plate and double angles passes a watertight bulkhead. Show how you would make the bulkhead
watertight
81.
around the
Referring
of
to
girder.
the
previous
question,
if
the
stringer
were stopped on
each
to
side
the
bulkhead,
show by a
the
junction.
sketch
how you would endeavour

of fitting a
keel.
maintain the strength at

82.
Sketch and describe a

vessel,
common method
is
stem bar in a
cargo
steamer,
is
modern cargo
83.
where there
iron
a
a
flat
plate
Sketch
it
roughly an
is
or
steel
sternpost
to
of
showing how
sole piece of
connected with
of a
and fastened
the
keel.
Why
the
the
sternpost
single-screw ship
frequently
made broad and

after-
shallow in
84.
way of the aperture?
Sketch a
bracket
shaft
arrangement as
in
fitted
for
supporting the
end of each propeller
small
twin
screw
steamer.
APPENDIX
C.
319
by
the
What
which
spacing
86.
this
is
the
principal
in
is
overcome
85.
Sketch
of the
and
objection to a brackets? Describe a plan many modern high speed vessels. describe a modern single plate rudder, showing
details
is
arms and
of
the
pintles.
Commonly, a rudder
supported
by the
the
friction.
bottom
sternpost.
Sketch the arrangement and indicate
gudgeon of the means taken to ensure

ac-
that
the
87.
rudder shall work without undue
Show by rough
unshipping
turns.
sketches
the
usual
method of preventing the

the
cidental
of
rudder
and of
the
limiting
angle
through
which
the
rudder
88.
Sketch
indicate
a
the
rudder
coupling,
diameter
of
rudder
stock
bolts.
being
inches
number,
position,
and diameter of the
VII.
1.
Define
stable,
unstable,
freely
and
in
neutral
water.
equilibrium
Illustrate
as
applied
to
the
case
of a vessel
sketches.
floating
still
your definitions
design
by
suitable
2.
Explain
briefly
what
are
the
elements
importance.
in
the
of
vessel
which control the position of the transverse metacentre.

of the
3.
Show
State
that the position
metacentre
is
only
of relative
Describe in detail an "inclining experiment."

result.
what precautions
vessel,
should be taken in order to ensure a reliable
An
The
side
inclining
experiment
is
to
be
conducted
on
certain
her
displacement at the time being 2600 tons, and mean draught 8 feet 6 inches.
inclining
weight
is
6 tons, arranged in two
lots
of 3 tons, one on each

in length.
of the
is
upper deck.
:
The pendulum
lot
is
29*5
ing
done
First,
one
to
of the
inclining
weights
starboard
the
through 40
feet.
its
The
deflection of
position.
weight returned
original
The followmoved from port to the pendulum is observed and Then the second lot is moved
feet
is
from starboard to port through the same distance, an observation taken, and
the
weight,
as
before,
returned.
The mean
deflection
of
the
pendulum
is
found to be 1*9 inches.

height
of the
vessel
Estimate from the information given the metacentric

in
when
the
above condition.
A/is.S'6
4.
feet.
Obtain
and
is
prove
the
expression
for
the
height
of
the
transverse
metacentre above the centre of buoyancy.

5.
vessel
30
feet
wide,
is
15
feet
deep,
and the centre of

the
gravity
vessel
of
for
the
all
vessel
and
its
lading
at
the
middle of
depth
of
the
variations in
the draught of water.
Construct to scale the metacentric
diagram.
6.
with which
Sketch the metacentric diagrams of any two vessels of different types you are acquainted. Give reasons for any differences * in the
form of the curves.
320
7.
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AND CALCULATIONS.
A
with
vessel
its
140
feet long,
floats
sides
upright,
and whose body plan half sections are squares, and the centres of all the sections lie in the
of
the
sides
plane of flotation.
The
'8,
lengths
of
the
sections,
including
the
end
ordinates, are
3*6, 7*0,
being equally spaced.
and 7 feet, respectively, the sections Calculate the distance between the centre of buoyancy
8*o, 6*4, 3-0,
and the metacentre.
Am. 4*51
of what
class
for
feet.
8.
In
the
case
of
vessel
must the centre of gravity be

feet long,
below the centre of buoyancy,

9.
equilibrium?
vessel of constant rectangular section, 200
40
feet
feet
broad,
draws 20
feet of
water
when
intact.
Two
rectangular watertight compartments,

side,
10 feet in
the bottom
side
width,
measuring in from the ship's

being 6
a
feet
and
10
in
depth,
of each
below the original waterplane, extend each

60
feet.
of amidships
If
for
length
of
of
the
centre
of
gravity
(a)
the
the
in
vessel
vessel
is is
15
feet
above
(b)
the
keel,
find side
the
metacentric
height
When
intact
When
r66
-07
the
compartments (assumed empty) are
open communication with the
sea.
Ans.-{
VIII.
1.
{a)
feet
feet.
\{b)
Obtain
the
expression
centre
which
gives
the
height
of
the
longitudinal
metacentre above the

2.
of buoyancy.
Calculate
the
longitudinal
metacentric
height
for
a log
feet
long and of square section, the
side being 2 feet 6 inches,

r
of wood 20 when floating
freely
and
at
rest
at
a draught of
foot
inches.
Ans.
3.
2172
over
the
feet.
raft
15
feet
long
is
constructed
of two logs
of timber
18 inches
in 3
4 feet between centres, and is inches thick, forming a platform 12 feet by 5
diameter
and
planked
feet.
with
wood
is
All
wood
of
same density, and the raft floats in sea water with the logs half immersed. Find the longitudinal metacentric height and the moment to alter trim 1 inch. {See note to question No. 6 on opposite page).
the
Ans.
4.
31*33
a
feet,
295 foot
lbs.
A
and
small
weight
is
placed
on
board
vessel
in
any
longitudinal
position.
Explain
aft.
how you would proceed
to find the
changes in the draughts
forward
5.
cargo vessel
of
the
to
tons
alter
per inch
trim
1
is 48 feet broad on the load waterline. Given that immersion is 35, calculate approximately the moment
inch.
Ans.~ 788
6.
foot tons.
feet
vessel
of
circular
section,
80
feet
long
and
20
diameter,
APPENDIX
floats
C.
321
the
with
the
axis
in
the
waterplane.
Calculate
to
trimming
10
feet
effect
of
shifting
after
weight of
15
tons
from mid length

is
a point
from the
end.
The
centre
centre
of gravity
feet
below the waterplane.

in
Note.
verse
The
of
buoyancy may be fixed

Ans.
relation
to
the
trans-
metacentre.
i2>\
inches by the stern.
7.
Describe any simple method
of providing
vessels
such information
quickly
8.
concerning
their
own
as
will
commanding officers with enable them to deal
and
correctly
with trim
problems.
The
trim line
of a certain vessel
corresponding to the load draught
makes an angle of 42 degrees with the horizontal. Plot the trim line, and from it obtain the change of trim due The displacement is 8000 tons. 50 tons through 100 feet aft.
Ans.
to
shifting
6|
inches by stern.
IX.
1.
Given that the righting

an d
at
levers
of a vessel at angle of 15
1*53,
2*1,
30,
feet,
45
6o j
struct
75>
respectively,
stability,
it
are
^74,
2*18,
1*65,
'9
con-
the
curve
of
and indicate the
maximum
is
righting
lever
and
the angle
which
occurs.
The
metacentric height
2*62
feet. feet,
Ans.
2.
2*22
range
55.
What
range.
are
the
features
in
a vessel
affecting
the
of the
curve
with
of stability?
Show
in
that
a great
metacentric height
may be
of
associated
short
3.
Draw
one
which
exist
figure
the are
curves
of
stability
two
the
dissimilar
types
of
vessels
with
you
in
acquainted,
of the
and
give
reasons
for
any
differences
4.
which
the
nature
curves you show.

upright
position
stability
Some merchant
Explain
in
vessels will
not remain in an
this.
when
of
unloaded.
vessel
5.
the
reason
of
Draw
the
curve
of
when
the
condition
is
named.
by the pressure of the wind on the steady angle of heel, show in a sketch
relation
sails.
sailing-ship
heeled
a
the
Assuming
forces
her
to
be
at
the
to
acting,
and
state
of
the
moments
of
these
forces
each other.
of box form 200 feet long, 40 feet broad, 20 feet deep, Assuming a metacentric water at a level draught of 15 feet. floats in sea 2 feet, construct the curve of statical stability. height of Draw cross curves of stability for a vessel of square section at
6.
vessel
7.
angles
1
of
foot
8.
respectively, assuming 45 and 90 below the centre of the section.
the
centre
of
gravity
to
be
inclination
Having given the value of the righting arm of a vessel at a certain when at her load displacement, the position of the centre of
322
gravity
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
being known,
at
AND CALCULATIONS.
find
it
show how you would
at
the
same
inclination
when
a reduced displacement, due to the consumption of the bunker coal.
X.
i.
What
to
is
meant
the
by the
of
phrase
roll
"Period
a
of
a single
roll"?
in
It
is
desired
obtain
period
this
of
cargo
vessel
?
when
is
it
given
condition.
2.
How
is
could
the
be ascertained experimentally
radius
of
3.
What What
rolling
transverse
gyration
How
obtained
effect has the variation
of the metacentric height
upon the value

rolling
of the
period?
vessel
In
given
to
what
is
the
difference
between
feet
the
periods
corresponding
metacentric
height
of
and
18
feet,
respectively, in
assuming the transverse radius of gyration

both cases
4.
?
to
be
feet
and the same
Explain why waves that are relatively high in relation to their lengths
powerful
in
are
more
causing
vessels
to
roll
heavily
than
waves
that
to
that
are
relatively low.
5.
Describe
simple
to
experimental
of
method
waves
slope.
of
proving
tends
vessel
when broadside on
masts
6.
series
regular
always
place
her
parallel
to
the
normal
to
the
wave
as
State
the
length
and period
with.
actually
observed
period
Atlantic,
of
large
Atlantic
storm waves ordinarily
met
What, by inference,
the the
should
the
to
natural
in
roll
approximate
in
to
in
case
best
7.
of
a vessel
intended
trade
the
order
to
obtain
results.
Mention an appliance
case,
that
has
been recently employed

the
to
minimise
in
the
rolling
motions of vessels at
actual
what
success
Show by quoting has attended the new system.

sea.
results
any
XL
1.
vessel
is
to
and
other
particulars
be loaded with a general cargo of which the weights are known. How would you proceed to find the
centre of gravity
to
?
vertical
position
of the
and the diagram of

the
metacentres
with
the
at
be available,
load
Assuming the displacement scale how would you determine

of loading?
in
metacentric
2.
height
proposed system
the
The
stability
curve
draught
certain
vessel
is
of
and range, but shows upsetting levers at angles near the origin. How do you account for this? In the case of such a vessel, what considerations would influence you in fixing upon a value of metacentric height with which to start a voyage.
considerable
area
3.
What
of
is
the
if
chief
well
objection
to
deck
cargoes?
cargo
timber,
stowed
and
secured,
Show may improve a
that
deck
sea,
vessel's
qualities.
APPENDIX C
4.
323
What
certain
is
the
angle
of repose
grain
for
wheat?
in
In
found
repose.
circumstances,
at
carried
the
hold
its
of
steamer
angle
is
to
slide
much
to
smaller
inclination
than
normal
of
Describe these circumstances, and explain the causes to which they
give
rise
5.
which lead
the
of
reduction
the
full
in
the
sliding
angle.
a modern steamer To what extent should the making an Atlantic voyage in ballast? What has frequently happened when a voyage has propeller be immersed? been made in too light a trim, and rough weather has been encountered ?
proportion
What
deadweight
should
carry
in
. .
NDEX.
PAGE
Area, Centre of Gravity of Metrical Units of. ,, of Portion of Curve between ,, Consecutive Ordinates
,,
,,
2S
1
Beam Knees, Width
across Throats
for
.
IO9 109
Two
>>37
2
2
1
,,
,,
,,
,,
of of of of of of
Rectangle
Rhomboid
Square Trapezoid Triangle
2
fo:
VVaterplane
Areas, Combination of Simpson's Rules

,, ,, ,,
,,
Simpson's First Rule for Simpson's Second Rule for Tchebycheft's Rule for Trapezoidal Rule for
.
6 10 6 9
I
log 107 108, 109 Turned ,, Beam, Effect of on Curve of Stability 237, 241 IOO Beams, Lloyd's Rules for Spacing of I06 Method of fitting Wide-Spaced ,, 106 Reason for Giving Camber to ,, Under Unsheathed Steel or Iron ,, I06 Decks
Lloyd's Rules of Rivets in Size of in Single-Deck Vessels
Number
Slabbed
.... ....
.
.
1-13
Beam
Sections,
Forms
of
51, 52, 55
I07
4
221
of
Bending Moments and Shearing Forces

of Floating Vessels
.
Atwood's Formula
for Statical Stability
Awning Deck
Vessels,
Restriction
Draught in Balanced Rudder Ballast, Advantages of Water over Dry

Conditions Fixing Amount Re quired Longitudinal Disposition of ,, Stowage of ,, Ballast Tanks, Early Methods of Con
,,
.... ....
.
.
76
1761
2S6
2S5 280 2S5
1
Bending Moments and Shearing Forces of Simple Beams 45-50 Bending Moments, Effect of Orbital Motion of Water Particles on 54
.
....
.
56
Bilge Keels Bilge Keels, Experiments with

,,
96, 97
H.M.S.
.
Repulse and Revenue
265
structing
,, ,,
Function of
109
no
III
10
Extinctive Value of 264, 265, 266 Prof. Bryan's Investigations 265 ,, Bilge Keelson 104
Methods of Making Water

margin of M'Intyre System of Contight joint at
,,
structing
,, ,,
,
of Special Type Testing of
120 120
Fitted
in
I
Block Co-efficient Bowsprit, How Secured and Stayed Bowsprit, Spiked Bow Rudder, design of Bow Rudder, Function of Bulkheads, Arrangement and Spacing of
.
.
... .....
.
302 163 163 176/ 1760
Why
Seldom
10
,, ,,
Sailing Ships
Ballasting,
,,
Danger of Filling Tanks at Sea Effect on Stability of Filling Tanks
....
. . .
2S6
2S7
,,
,,
Importance in Minimising Pounding Strains of Efficient 73 Purpose of 284 285 ,, Bar Keel, Chief Objection to 96
.
,,
,, ,,
Description of with Intercostal Centre Keelson with Single Plate Centre Keelson ,, Beams, Function of Deck Number of Tiers required in a ,, Vessel Beam Knees, Bracket
,,
,,
93 95
Stiffeners of 16S Centre Line 171 Connection of to Ship's Side 169-170 Construction of 168-171 Function of Lower Limit to Number of in Steamers 166 Lloyd's Rules for Number of Transverse Watertight 167 Screen. 171 Spacing of Rivets in Watertight. I37-I3S> 168
. .
.
.165
....
.
94
io5 105 107
,,
..... ....
.
.
,,
Bulkhead
ting
Stiffening of Peak Tank Thickness of Plating of Value of Collision Liners, Compensation for Omit-
117 168 166
170
,,
Comparison of Methods of 10S, 109 Forming

Considerations influencing
Bulkhead Liners, Reason for fitting 138, 170 Bulkhead Stiffeners, Advantage of flanging plates in lieu of-
,,
169
of Fitting 16S, 169
Depth and Thickness
of
109
Bulkhead
324
Stiffeners,
Method
INDEX.
I'AQB
325
I'AGIi
Bulkheads of Deep Tanks

,,
,,
169
Co-efficient of
Load Waterplane
to
.
.
.
,, Oil Vessels Height of Transverse Water. .
.169
Midship Section
Resistance Froude's
302 302 264

166
Roll ng,
j . . .
tight 167 Bntlslraps of Keelson and Hold Stringer Angles, Method of Fitting 104-105 Cargo Steamers, Awning or ShelterDeck Type of 76, 78
. .
Collision Bulkhead, Stiffening of Value of ,, Compressive Stresses, Effect of, on

.
168, 169
Deck-Plating
,,
,,
Compensation for Omission of Hold Pillars in Erections on Freak Designs of

.
,, ,,
,,
,, ,, ,,
,, ,,
Isherwood Type of
Partial
84 77 77 89-92
Correction of Wedges Countersinking of Rivet Holes

.
....
. . .
. .
Thin
66
225, 226
.
139
176/- 176'/* Coupling for Rudder Cross Curves of Stability 231-236 Cross Curves of Trim for Box-Shaped
. .
Awning-Deck
of
of.
.
Type
,,
,,
,.
,,
,,
Quarter-Deck Type
Single- Deck
,,
,,
.,
,,
,.
Type of Strength Types of Three- Island Type of. Trunk Type of. Turret-Deck Type of Well-Deck Type of
.
79 78 83 75
77 87 85
Vessel Cross Curves of Trim, how Obtained Curve of Bending Moments and Shearing
.
211
209
46-50
Forces
,,
for
Simple Beams
Vessel Afloat
i
Bending Moments and Shearing

Forces
Still
for
,,
Camber
Cargo Cargo Cargo Cargo
,,
Beams, Reason for giving Cranes, Advantage of Gear in Sailing-Ships Gear in Steam-Ships Hatchways, Arrangementsforsecurto
.
.
77 106 155 155 155

152
,,
Water Bending Moments and Shearing Forces for Vessel Loaded with Homogeneous Cargo Bending Moments and Shearing Forces for Vessel on a Wave
.
....
.
.
51
52
ing Water-tightness of
,,
.
,,
,
,, ,,
,,
Arrangements for taking Chafe of Cargo 152 Function of 148 Height of Coamings of 148-149 Method of Framing 148
. .
,,
Size in
of
,, ,,
Web
....
Modern
. . .
Vessels
148
and Cargo Ports and Doors 152-154 Cellular System of constructing Double 112-115 Bottoms Centre of Buoyancy, Approximate Posi.
Plates and Fore Afters in 151-152
of Her Own Length 55, 56 Centres of Buoyancy 36, 40, 185 Displacement, how Constructed 20 Flotation ,, 255 Loads for Simple Beams ,, 49, 50 Loads of Vessel Afloat in Still ,, Water 51, 52 Loads of Vessel Among Waves 55, 56 ,, Moment to Alter Trim One ,, Inch 199, 213 Tons per Inch Immersion 22 ,, Transverse Metacentres 185, 186 ,, Curves of Stability, Effect of Beam on 237, 241
,-,
....
. .
.
....
.
,,
,,
for for
Commanding
.
tion of
,, ,, ,, ,,
.184
Term
33
36,
,,
.
,,
,,
,,
Explanation of Locus of
40
33
,,
,,
,,
of Prismatic Vessels of Vessels of Ordinary Form

.
,,
289, 290 Vessels of Circular Section 218 for Vessels of Box Form 237, 239, 240 Influence of FreeOfficers
. .
board on
34-40 249
,, ,,
Centre of Effort Centre of Gravity, Definition of

,,
28
Influence on Curve of Stability of Position of 240 28-32 of an Area of a Ship, Method of Finding Position of 187-191 of the Area of a Half,, 29-32 Waterplane Centre Girder, Connection to Flat-Plate Keel 9 6 97
. . .
. >
Centre Keelson 44> 93"97 171 Centre-Line Bulkhead, Construction of 249 Centre of Lateral Resistance Change of Draught in Passing from Fresh 297 to Salt Water 198, 213 Change of Trim Coal Cargoes, Precautions Necessary in
. . . . . . . .
Loading
...
....
Centre of Gravity on . 240 of Actual Ships 241 ,, ,, Tangent at the ,, ,, Origin . 230, 231 Curves of Weight and Buoyancy . 54 Deadweight Scale 21 Use of to Ship's Officers 21 ,, ,, Deck Beams, Function of 105 Decks, Comparative Values of Wood and Steel 142 Function of . ,, Deck Loads . 281 Openings, Strengthening at Cor,, ners of 146 Plating, Compensation for Cutting
. .
Influence tion of
of
238, 239, 241 Posi-
.....
. . , .
.
.142
...
.
Openings
in
145 145
.281
Plating,
Objection
of
to
.
Joggling
.
Edge Seams
326
Deck
Plates, Precaution Fitting Stringer Plates ,, Decks, Strength Value of
.
INDEXNecessary
in
Freeboard,
Influence
.
of
.
on
.
_
Curve
.
of
Upper
Deep Tanks, Frame

,,
Riveting in Way Function of Centre Line

in
.
.
145 44, 142 142 of 119
Stability
Garboard Strakes Precaution

.
Bulkheads Hatchways,
120
119 152
119 Il8
ing End [oints of Girders Under Deck Grain Cargoes, Causes of Shifting of Government Regulations ,,
.
....123
in
. .
237-241 Arrang128
279 280
284
Methods of obtaining water-
,,
Regarding Margin of Stability Required with

.
tightness at margin of Usual Positions of Derricks, Advantages of Plumb Function of Cargo ,, Number of in Steamers ,, Value of Hydraulic ,, Derrick Posts Tables Displacement Calculation, Specimen
,,
. . .
_ .
157 154-157 156 155

157 157
19
Stowage of Gudgeons, Rudder Gusset Plates and Angles Double Bottoms

,,
.
278,308
176/- 1 76/
at
.
Margin of
Minimising
.
.116
Gyroscopic
Apparatus
.
for
.
20
29s 7
171
,,
of
Vessel
Trim,
Docking Stresses Doors in Watertight Bulkheads Double Bottom, Advantages of a Contin. .
....
To Obtain
. .
out
of
Normal
Rolling 267, 268 152 Hatch Cleats, spacing of 14S-152 Hatchways, cargo Hatch Coamings, Advantages of Round Corners at Upper Deck 15 Hatch Coamings, Scantlings of 149 120-152 Hatchways into Deep Tanks Hatch Webs, Number of 151
.
....
. .
,,
uous Butts of Centre and Side Girders in

. .
. .
in
116
,,
,,
Method
of fitting
,,
,,
,,
Cellular System of Con112, 115 structing Connection of Side Fram115. 116 ing to margin of Gusset Plates and Angles 1 16 at margin of ill Partial
.
. . .
Heel Pieces, Frame Hogging and Sagging Strains. Holds, Penalty exacted for Unobstructed Hold Pillars, Compensation for Omission of
,,
.
151 101
53 105
84
.
,,
Wide Spaced
84, 125
Homogeneous Cargoes, Loading of 274 60. 67 Horizontal Shearing Stress Inclining and Rolling Experiments, Value
.
.
Plating of
,,
.116
in
Reduction
Thickness
of Shell Plating in
,,
,,
way of
.
Riveted Connections of Strengthening Forward

in Full Vessels in way of Testing of Objections to Excessive
.
.
15 16
of 2/3 Inclining Experiment 1S7 -190 Integrator, Mechanical 236 Intercostal and Single Plate Centre Keelsons, Comparison of 95
. .
.
,,
117 120
Isherwood Type of Steamer

Isochronous Rolling
89-92
2 57
Drift
Punch,
.
[ibboom
96 245 24S
14
...
.
Use of Dynamical Stability, Definition of Moseley's Formula Ellipsoid, Volume of

.
Joints of Shell Plating, Arrangement of 127 Joints of Shell Plating, Comparison of
163 128
...
.
for
Overlapped and Butted
Equilibrium of Floating Bodies, Condition of 177 Erections on Steamers, Structural Value of 77, 79 8 Five-Fight Rule for Areas Flanging of Plates in Lieu of Fitting 112 Ang!e Bars 96 Flat-plate Keel, Description of Flat-plate Keel, with Intercostal Centre Keelson 96 Flat-plate Keel, with Centre through Plate Keelson96 Floors, Connection to Centre Keelson 103 Floors, Ordinary 103 Form of Modern Cargo Steamers, Development of 76
.
Joints of Shell Plating, Lloyd's Rules for Joints of Shell Plating, Method of curing
133 12S
Leaky
134
136
129 136
Joints of Shell Plating, Methods of forming [oints of Shell Plating, Scarphing of End Keel, Flat Plate Scarpb of Solid Bar ,,
.
93
.... ....
. .
.
...
93 Scarpb, Use of Tack Rivets in 93 Side Bar ,, 95 Solid Bar ,, 93 94 Keelson and Hold Stringer butt straps.
,,
...
. . .
.
Method
of Fitting
104, 105
Frames, Advantages and Disadvantages

of joggled
Knighthead Plate Law of Archimedes Liquid Cargoes Lloyd's Numerals, how Derived
.
163 iS
274 27S 97-100

. .
Reversed ,, Transverse ,, Frame Heel Pieces
...
. .
. .
132 42, 100, 101 42, 100

. .
101
Frame
Slips,
Use of
129, 130
Lloyd's Rules, Definitions of Length, Breadth, and Depth, as given in Lloyd's Rules for Breadth of Shell Plates Lloyd's Rules for Camber of Deck Beams Lloyd's Rules for Diameters of Rivets
.
98 129 106 137
INDEX.
PAGR
32 7
Lloyd's Rules for Joints of Shell Plating . Lloyd's Rules for Number of Transverse Watertight Bulkheads . . Lloyd's Rules for Position of Collision
.
128
167
Bulkhead
....
,
166
.
Lloyd's Rules for Riveting of Edge Seams of Shell Plating in Large Vessels Lloyd's Rules for Seasoning of Pine Deck
133
148 106
Planking
Lloyd's Rules for Spacing of Beams Lloyd's Rules Regarding Diameter
.
of
Masts of Steamships Loading and Ballasting 272-2S7, 292, 293 Loading of General Cargoes 272, 273 HLmogeneous Cargoes 274 ,, Local Stresses 73 Locus of Centres of Buoyancy 36, 40 Longitudinal Metacentre 19S, 199, 202
.164
62-64 69, 126 Normand's Approximate Trim Formula 213 Oil Vessels, Bulkheads of 169 Isher wood's System Applied ,, to Construction of 91 Loading of 277, 278 ,, Outer Bottom, Function of 125 Plating, Relative Value of ,, Different Parts of 126 Outlines of Construction 42 Panting Strains 73
Neutral Axis of a Ship Stress on Shell Plating at ,,
.
....
. , . . . . . .
PAGE
.....
,
Awning Deck Type of Cargo Steamer Peaks, Spacing of Transverse Frames in Peak Tank, Bulkheads, Stiffening of Peak Tanks, Function of
Partial
.
.
.....
.
...
. . . .
79 100 117
Strains
,, ,,
....
. . . .
.
.117
.
Strength of Shallow Vessels

Stresses
.
51-53 100 66, 67
Machinery Casings Masts of Steamships, Diameters Masts of Steamships, Staying of
146, 171
of.
.
164 165 , Masts, Function of in Sailing-ships . 159 Function of in Steamers 156, 159, 164 ,, Number of Plates in Round 160 ,, of Sailing-ships, Riveting of End ,, and Edge Joints in 160 Stresses on 161, 164 ,, Mountings, Importance of Strong Mast 164 Mast Steps, Construction of 161, 165
. .
.
Pitch of Shell Rivets thro' Frames in way of Testing of ,, Value of Wash Plates in . ,, Period of Roll Effect of Motion Ahead on Period of Wave Pillars, Arrangement of, for Shifting
,,
. ,
117 120 117
.....
. . .
.
256 266 258
Boards
,, ,,
.122
.
,,
Comparison of Short and Long 120 Heads and Heels of 121- 124 Number of Rows Required 121
.
Quarter
Portable Rivets in
Pillars, in
,,
Deep Tanks
Wedging, Method of Fitting . ,, Materials of Construction, Modern System of Distributing

.
161
79 66
Mauretania,
Longitudinal
Stress
on
R.M.S
M'Intyre System of Constructing Ballast
Tanks
..Ill
.20, 22, 293
.
End Attachments of Runners under Beams for Wide Spaced ,, Pintle, Detail of Bottom Function of Lock ,, Pitching and Heaving Pounding Strains
,,
,,
.
....
. .
.
121
.119
123, 124
123 122 124, 125

.
176/, 1767'
.
176/*
Mean Draught
tion of
Metacentre, Proof of Formula for Posi.

.
Prismatic Co-efficient Propeller Brackets for

.
299, 300
Transverse, Approximate Methods of finding Position of 183, Transverse, Calculation for Position of 181, Transverse, Definition of ,, Metacentric Height in Sailing-ships Height, Safe Minimum Value ,, of Height, Transverse ,, Metacentre, Longitudinal, in Vessels of
, , . .
.
1S4 182 179 194
Steamers 176^, 176^ Pyramid, Volume of a 14 Quarter-deck Type of Steamer 78 Quarter-deck Type of Steamer, Compensation at Break of Main Deck in 78 Radius of Gyration, Transverse 256 Rates of Stowage 308
. . .
.
.... ....
.
.
268-270 J^ 285 303

y
Twin
Screw
194 179
Rectangle, Area of Resistance of Beams to Change of
Reversed Frames
Righting
Rhomboid, Area of
200
,,
Simp'e Forms
,,
Moments by Metacentre Method

Curve of
.
Longitudinal, in Vessels of
Ordinary Forms
Metacentric Stability Moment of a Force of Inertia, Explanation of ,, of Inertia of a Waterplane ,,
. . .
.
198, 199
.179
.
Rigging Screws, Use of Rivet Holes, Advantages and Disadvan,,
... ... ...

. .
Form
.
56
42, 100
217 233
163
25, 26
Term
180
Method
1S0, 181,
200, 201
of Inertia of a Section of a Beam 59 of Inertia of a Section of a Ship 65 of Stresses resisting bending of ,, Beams and Ships 59, 65 to Alter Trim One Inch 199, 213 ,, Neutral Axis of a Beam 58
,,
,,
. . .
.
141 Objections to Punching . 14O Riveted Connections, Strength of , 141 of Stern Post to ,, ,, Shell Plating 176a, 176^
.
tages of Drilling of Correcting Blind and Partially Blind

.
140
,,
,,
Joints,
Experiments
. ,
to
.
find
.
...
.
Strength of
,,
Joints, Frictional Strength of
141 141
3 23
Riveting of
in
INDEX.
PAGE
Edge Seams
Large Vessels
of
Riveting
,,
Edge and End Joints

Masts
. . .
....
Joints
of Shell Plating
133
Edge and End
of i6o, 164 of
. . Rudder, Single Plate 1762, 176/ 176/& Stops ,, . 176/ Bearing or Thrust Block ,, Sailing-ships, Watertight Bulkheads in 167 Sails in Steamships, use of 164
. . . .
...
. . .
Top Masts
Edges of Sheer Strakes
162
Joints of Bowsprit Plating 163 Frames to Shell Plating in way of Deep Tanks 119, 138 Joints of Watertight Bulk-
End
heads
Shell Plating of R.M.S. Lusj'tam'a and Mauretania 137 Stem to Shell Plating 175, 176 Rivets, Considerations Governing Sizes of 137 Forms of Heads and Points of 13S. 139 for Watertight Wo-k, Spacing of 137 ,138 in Bulkhead Frames, Spacing of 138 in End Attachments of Pillars 123 in Flat Plate Keels, Spacing of I3S in Joints of Shell Plating, Spacing of 138 in Seams of Shell Plating, number of Rows of 133 Spacing of in Bar Keels 94, I3S Iron Plates of Iron Strength in 141 Steel Plates of Iron 141 ,, Through Frames and Shell Plating in Oil Compartments of Bulk Oil Vessels 138 Rivet Holes, Countersinking of 139
.
.
.... ....
133
168
21 Scale of Deadweight 97-100 Scantling Numbers, Lloyd's . Scarph, Bar Keel 93 Scarphing of End Joints of Shell-plating in Way of Seams . 135, 136 Sea Waves, Theory of 257 Sections of Beams 107 86-89 Cargo Steamers Self-trimming Types of Shaft Bossing in Twin Screw Steamers 176^, 176^ Shallow Vessels, Provision for Strength. . .
.
....
.
,,
Precaution
Necessary in
140 264
Marking and Punching

Rolling of Ships, Analysis of Resistance to Effect of Synchronism of ,, Periods of Ship and
. .
,,
,,
Waves on 261, 263 Experiments with Water Chambers 266, 267 Extinctive Value of Bilge Keels 264-266
.
45-56 Graphical Method of Finding . 49, 51, 56 Sheerstrakes, Precaution in Arranging End Joints of 128 Riveting of Edge Seams of 133 ,, Shear Stress, Maximum. . 68, 69 Mean 67 ,, Shearing Stresses, Position of Maximum Longitudinal 69, 127 Shell Plating, Advantages and Disadvantages of Joggled . . 131 Advantages and Disadvant,, ages of butted End Joints 133 Arrangement of End Joints ,, of. 127, 128 Methods of Forming Joints of 129 of Small Vessels at Ends, ,, Taper of . 127 Precautions necessary in ,, working . 136
,,
. .
ening Shearing Forces

.
......100
. . . . .
.... ....
.
Reason
of
Comparative Uniformity in Thickness

of
127
.
,,
,,
Influence of
Change of
.
Course and Speed on

,,
263
,,
Influence of Metacentric
Height on
,,
256
.
,,
,,
Instantaneous Axis of Rotation 254, 255 Isochronous ,, 257 Resistance to ,, 263 Use of Gyroscope for ,, Minimising 267 Rudder, Alternative Plans for Carrying Weight of 176/ Balanced, advantage of a 176/ Bow 176/
. .
Relative Importance of Different Paris of Riveting of Edge Seams in Large Vessels Scantlings of in Two Cases Thickness at Sternpost of
. . .
.126
133 127 127
Shell Plates,
Advantages and Disadvant.

.
Coupling.
.....
. . . . . . .
ofWide. 129 Lloyd's Rules for Breadths of 129 Shelter Deck Type of Steamer 76, 77 Shift of Cargo, Effect of 2S2, 283 Shrouds, Mast 162 Side Bar Keel ge 96 Side Keelsons 103 Side Stringers, Connections to Bulk.
,,
...
. . . . . . . .
176/, 176;;/
1
Consisting of Forged Side Plates
Gudgeons
lings of
Considerations Governing Scant-
of Large Steamer
Pintles
.... .... ....

.
, , , T
.
Frame and
jbm- 1760
iy6r
176^/,
176c 176/ 176/-176/

176.-
heads . 171, Function of 82, How Constructed Number * >< Required by Lloyd's Rules Simpson's Rules, Application of 6-10, 16,
>
>*
172 104 104
104
17,
19, 30. 32. 35i 40. 1S2, 202, 22S,
Single
in
Deck
Large
247
I0g
Vessels, Size of
Beam Knees
,
Relative Meritsjof Cast Steel and
Forgings for
Single Plate
Rudder
176^
176/, 176/
INDEX.
C Sphere, ,r Volume of Square, Area of
1
3-9
'AGP,
...
. .
PAG "' 14
I
Tieplates,
Deck
.
M3
281
for
. .
.
Stability,
,,
Dynamical
Effect of a Squall on
245 249-251
'
Timber Cargoes, Stowage of Type of Vessel Suitable ,,

Topmasts, Method of Fitting
.
28
161, 164
Information
Officers
,,
for
Commanding
Initial
,,
Metacentric
Statical,
.179
288 187
,,
Riveting of Joints of plating of

.
Tons per Inch Immersion

1,
Tranaverse Frames, Spacing of

,,
Atwood's Formula for 221 Statical, Causes Influencing Forms of Curves 237 Statical, Cross Curves ot 231-236
.
Types
of.
.
Transverse Metacentre
,
M eta ccn tre,

tion of
162 22 100 100 179, 1S1, 1^2

.
Approximate
. .
Methods of Finding
,, ,,
,,
,,
Adding or Removing Weights 193, 194 Statical, Effect of Consumption of Bunker Coal 192, 284
Statical,
Effect
of
Metacentres, Curve of Metacentric Height,
Posi183, 184 185, 1S6
Safe
194 194
Minimum Value
,
of
in Sailing-
,,
Statical, Safe
Statical, Statical,
Curve of Specimen Calculation

to
244
Metacentric Height
ships Stresses
Stresses
228-230
,,
,,
Due Due
to
to
Incorrect
71
Tangent
Curve
,
at
Loading
Origin
Standing Rigging
Steadiness
.
230, 231 162, 165
272 Sup157 157 15S
Steam Winches, Arrangement

porting
,,
for
.
Arrangement of
Seats for Pipe Stools
.
,,
Steam Winch
,, .,
.159
173, 174 174, 175 174, 175
Stem, Connection to Bar Keel
Flat Plate Keel Side Bar Keel

.
Rolling 72 System of Construction ,, 42-44 Trapezoid, Area of a 3 Trapezoidal Rule for Curvilinear Areas 4 Triangle, Area of a 2 Trim, Approximate Calculation of 213, 214 Change of 19S, 213 Cross Curves of 209, 211 Effect of Filling Fore-peak Tank on 205 In formation for Commanding
.
Officers
.
173 Scarphs, Position of Sternpost, Scarphs of 176c, 176^ Sternposts of Single Screw Steamers Ij6a-ij6d Siernposts of Twin Screw Steamers 176/ Sternposts, Relative Merits of Steel Castings and Forgings for 176^ Sternposts, Connection to Shell Plating 176.2:, 176^ Sternposts of Sailing Ships 176 Stowage Rates 308 Strength of Beams, Influence of Form of Section on Strength Types of Cargo Steamers 75 64 Stress at any Point of a Section of a Ship Stresses, Compressive, Effect of on thin 66 Deck-plating Due to Action of Propeller 73
Ordinary Form of
.
...
. .
^5
207, 208
.176
Lines Mr. Long's Method

.
206 209
Normand's Approximate Formula Worked-out Examples 203, 205, Trochoidal Theory of Waves 257, 25S Tunnel Door 171 173
. . .
Type
of Steamer,
,, ,, ,,
Awning
01 Shelter
Deck
.
Dixon <N: Harroway Isherwood

.
76, 77 87, 88
Partial
Awning Deck
Deck
89-92 79
7* 87 S3
Quarter-deck
,,
,, ,,
,
.61
Ropner Trunk
Single
Three Island
Turret
S5
.
77 86 77
...
.
. .
Well Deck
Twin Screw Steamer

Volume
,,
,
Propeller Bracket
170?
of of of of of of
Ellipsoid
.
,,
, ,
'
Due to Docking on Shell Plating

Position tudinal Position tudinal
66,
70 69
126
Pyramid
Ship Sphere
'
. .
of of
Maximum
.
Longi66,
Rectangular, Solid
.
Bending
,,
,,
Maximum LongiSheering 67, Transverse, Due to Rolling
,,
...
.
. .
14 14 14 14, 15, 16 14
.
126
,,
Wedge bounded by Curved

221, 222, 224 13
Posi-
72
,,
Stringer Plates on Deck Beams 143 219, 220 Submarine Vessels, Stability of Tables of Natural Tangents, Sines and
Surface Units of
Ballast,
Water
,,
Advantage bf High
.
tion of
.120
266, 267
.
Cosines
35-37
.
Chambers
Tack
Rivets, Function of
(J
Objection to use of
Tap
Rivets
TchebychefTs Rules for Areas Telescopic Topmasts

.
....
. .
.
.176
176 140
11, 12
Watertight Bulkhead Doors into 'Tween

171. 174 Decks Bulkhead Doors, Arrangements for Operating 172, 173 Watertight Bulkheads 165-171
.
.
93,
,,
.164
.
Three Island Type of Cargo Steamer
77
Wave, Period
of
25S
33
INDEX.
Wave, Speed of 258 Waves, Lengths and Periods of Atlantic Storm 258, 259 Web Frame, Connections Lo Beams and Inner Bottom 103
,,
....
.
. . .
]'AGB
l'AGB
Wind Curve
Wood
,, ,,
Definition of
102
,,
Web Frames and
Side Stringers, ative Strength of . Weight of Fresh Water
Compar103 297 307

18
Weights of Materials Weight of Salt Water
249, 250 Decks, Comparative Values of Different Timbers for 147 Fastenings for. 147 Objections to Use of Slips in Laying . 148 Precautions necessary in laying . . Seasoning of Planking intended for 147
. . . . .
.146
163
Yards

Ships Contruction and Calculation

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BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE

Cornell University Library

the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

the United States on the use of the

NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS AND EXAMPLES.

JAMES BROWN & SON,

Darnley Street, Pollokshields,

London; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON,

have been made in recent years both

volume before the

blems met with

simple and practical

hoped the book

a more or less intimate knowledge of naval architecture

would give him

management of his him at any time

In conclusion, the author begs to thank Messrs.

Sunderland, for their kind permission to publish diagrams and results of

examples, as well as for other valuable assistance

rendered while the

work was passing through the

Moments, Centre of Gravity, Centre of Buoyancy

Bending Moments, Shearing Forces, Stresses and Strains

Types of Cargo Steamers

Equilibrium of Floating Bodies, Metacentric Stability

Stability of Shits at Large Angles of Inclination

Loading and Ballasting

........ ..... .....

Table of Natural Tangents,

Simple Ship Calculations.

moments and of how to calculate may perhaps be said to

taking up areas of surfaces, and afterwards, as

moments, especially as applied a plane surface bounded by

be defined as the number of units of surface contained within

whose chief properties are

one side being, say, 6 A B and A D, be divided into 6 equal

the square will contain

36 small squares, each of which

the length in lineal units

In passing to a rectangle the

SIMPLE SHIP CALCULATIONS.

ACBD = ACxBE, AP v triangle ABO equals

length of one side

and the point

which the other two sides

Thus, a triangle having

area of any plane figure

may be found by one

should be noted that the

waterplanes and sections

plying the rules already established.

Using the symbols,

For example, take one having

.\ the whole area,

called the trapezoidal rule for obtaining areas of surfaces

by curved and straight

Tabulating the information,

SIMPLE SHIP CALCULATIONS.

between the straight

joining the extremities of

each two consecutive