Diode Circuit Analysis: Basics

The loop equation for the diode circuit is:

Load-Line Analysis (Example)

Problem: Find diode Q-point Given data: V = 10 V, R = 10k. Analysis: 10 = I D 10 4 + VD To define the load line we use,
For VD = 0, ID = (10V 10k) = 1 mA For VD = 5V, ID = (5V 10k) = 0.5 mA

V = I D R + VD
This is also called the load line for the diode. The solution to this equation can be found by: Graphical analysis using the load-line method. Analysis with the diodes mathematical model. Simplified analysis with the ideal diode model. Simplified analysis using the constant voltage drop (CVD) model.
Chap 3 -1

V and R may represent the Thvenin equivalent of a more complex 2terminal network. The objective of diode circuit analysis is to find the quiescent operating point for the diode. Q-Point = (ID, VD)

These points and the resulting load line are plotted.Q-point is given by intersection of load line and diode characteristic: Q-point = (0.95 mA, 0.6 V)
Chap 3 -2

Analysis using Mathematical Model for Diode

Problem: Find the Q-point for a given diode characteristic. Given data: IS =10-13 A, n=1, VT =0.0025 V Analysis: Make initial guess VD0 . Evaluate f and its derivative f for this value of VD. Calculate new guess for VD using

f VD 1 0 VD = V D 0 f ' (VD ) VD 13 I D = I S exp 1 = 10 [exp(40VD ) 1] Repeat steps 2 and 3 till convergence. nVT Using a spreadsheet we get : 10 = 1041013 [exp(40VD ) 1] + VD Q-point = ( 0.9426 mA, 0.5742 V)

( )
0

The solution is given by a transcendental equation. A numerical answer can be found by using Newtons iterative method.

f = 10 10 410 13 [exp (40VD ) 1] VD

Since, usually we dont have accurate saturation current values and significant tolerances exist for sources and passive components, we need answers precise to only 2or 3 significant digits.
Chap 3 -4

Analysis using Ideal Model for Diode

If an ideal diode is forward-biased, the voltage across the diode is zero. If an ideal diode is reverse-biased, the current through the diode is zero. vD =0 for iD >0 and vD =0 for vD < 0 Thus, the diode is assumed to be either on or off. Analysis is conducted in following steps: Select a diode model. Identify anode and cathode of the diode and label vD and iD. Guess diodes region of operation from circuit. Analyze circuit using diode model appropriate for assumed region of operation. Check results to check consistency with assumptions.
Chap 3 -5

Analysis using Ideal Model for Diode: Example

Since source appears to force positive current through diode, assume diode is on. (10 0)V ID = = 1 mA | ID 0 10k Our assumption is correct, and the Q-Point = (1 mA, 0V)

Since source is forcing current backward through diode assume diode is off. Hence ID = 0 . Loop equation is: 10 + VD + 10 4 I D = 0

VD = 10V | VD < 0 Our assumption is correct and the Q-Point = (0, -10 V)
Chap 3 -6

Diode Circuit Models

The Ideal Diode Model
The diode is designed to allow current to flow in only one direction. The perfect diode would be a perfect conductor in one direction (forward bias) and a perfect insulator in the other direction (reverse bias). In many situations, using the ideal diode approximation is acceptable.

Two-Diode Circuit Analysis

Analysis: The ideal diode model is chosen. Since the 15-V source appears to force positive current through D1 and D2, and the -10-V source is forcing positive current through D2, assume both diodes are on. Since the voltage at node D is zero due to the short circuit of ideal diode D1,

Example: Assume the diode in the circuit below is ideal. Determine the value of ID if a) VA = 5 volts (forward bias) and b) VA = -5 volts (reverse bias) RS = 50 ID VA + _ a) With VA > 0 the diode is in forward bias and is acting like a perfect conductor so: ID = VA/RS = 5 V / 50 = 100 mA b) With VA < 0 the diode is in reverse bias and is acting like a perfect insulator, therefore no current can flow and ID = 0.

(15 0)V = 1.50 mA 10k 0 (10V ) = 2.00 mA ID 2 = 5k I1 = I D1 + I D 2 | ID1 = 1.50 2.00 = 0.500 mA I1 =
The Q-points are (-0.5 mA, 0 V) and (2.0 mA, 0 V) But, ID1 < 0 is not allowed by the diode, so try again.
Chap 3 -8

Two-Diode Circuit Analysis (contd.)

Since the current in D1 is zero, ID2 = I1,
1510,000I1 5,000ID2 (10)= 0 25V I1 = =1.67 mA 15,000 VD1 =1510,000I1 =1516.7 =1.67 V

Multiple Ideal-Diode Circuit Analysis

Assume either a on (short) or off (open)state for a diode Determine the current direction in an on diode. Determine the voltage polarity of an off diode. If the assumption is correct, current flows from anode to cathode in all on diodes; cathode voltage should be positive with respect to anode in all off diodes. In a n diode circuit 2n such combinations are possible

Analysis: Since current in D2 is valid, but that in D1 is not, the second guess is D1 off and D2 on.

Q-Points are D1 : (0 mA, -1.67 V):off D2 : (1.67 mA, 0 V) :on Now, the results are consistent with the assumptions.

Chap 3 -9

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Example on Diode Circuit

What are the currents in D1,D2,D3,D4?

Assume ideal diodes

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Answer and Another Question

Diode Circuit Models

The Ideal Diode with This model is more accurate than the simple ideal diode model because it includes the Barrier Potential
approximate barrier potential voltage. Remember the barrier potential voltage is the voltage at which appreciable current starts to flow. Example: To be more accurate than just using the ideal diode model include the barrier potential. Assume V = 0.3 volts (typical for a germanium diode) Determine the value of ID if VA = 5 volts (forward bias).
+ Von

iD1= 2 mA, iD2= 0 mA, iD3= 0 mA, iD4= 5 mA What should be the minimum value of the current source in the previous figure 10.17(c) in order to make D3 conduct?

RS = 50 ID VA + _
+ Von

With VA > 0 the diode is in forward bias and is acting like a perfect conductor so write a KVL equation to find ID: 0 = VA IDRS - Von ID = (VA - Von )/ RS = 4.7 V/ 50 = 94 mA

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Analysis using Constant Voltage Drop Model for Diode

Analysis:

Third approximation of a semiconductor diode

iD Diode on vD /iD =Diode body (bulk) resistance Rf Diode off vD Vf 0.7V iD R=10 Vs= 10V iD = 0A R=10

Since the 10-V source appears to force positive current through the diode, assume diode is on.
(10 Von ) V 10 k (10 0.6) V = = 0.94 mA 10 k ID =

Actual Characteristics iD Vs= 10V

vD = Von for iD >0 and vD = 0 for vD < Von.

Chap 3 -15

iD = 0.62 A (say Rf = 5 )

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Plus and minuses of Shockley Equation

Shockley equation: v i D = IS exp D 1 nVT

Reverse Breakdown
Increased reverse bias eventually results in the diode entering the breakdown region, resulting in a sharp increase in the diode current. The voltage at which this occurs is the breakdown voltage, VZ. 2 V < VZ < 2000 V

kT VT = q

Fairly accurate with diode near the forward biased region Not a good predictor of IS which happens to much larger in magnitude Does not predict reverse breakdown Usually simpler models for diodes are useful

Chap 3 -18

Reverse Breakdown Mechanisms

Avalanche Breakdown
Si diodes with VZ greater than about 5.6 V undergo avalanche breakdown. At large electric fields, accelerated carriers begin to collide with fixed atoms. As the reverse bias increases, the energy of the accelerated carriers increases, eventually leading to ionization of the impacted ions. The new carriers also accelerate and ionize other atoms. This process feeds on itself and leads to avalanche breakdown.

Reverse Breakdown Mechanisms (cont.)

Breakdown Voltage Temperature Coefficient Temperature coefficient is a quick way to distinguish breakdown mechanisms. Avalanche breakdown voltage increases with temperature, whereas Zener breakdown decreases with temperature. For silicon diodes, zero temperature coefficient is achieved at approximately 5.6 V.
Chap 3 -20

Zener Breakdown
Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped diodes. The heavy doping results in a very narrow depletion region at the diode junction. Reverse bias leads to carriers with sufficient energy to tunnel directly between conduction and valence bands moving across the junction. Once the tunneling threshold is reached, additional reverse bias leads to a rapidly increasing reverse current. Zener breakdown is reversible.

Breakdown Region Diode Model

In breakdown, the diode is modeled with a voltage source, VZ, and a series resistance, RZ. RZ models the slope of the i-v characteristic. Diodes designed to operate in reverse breakdown are called Zener diodes and use the indicated symbol.
Chap 3 -21

Zener Diodes
Unlike ordinary diodes they are used in the breakdown region Zener diodes are used to get reasonably regulated dc voltage when the input voltage and load resistance vary This is achieved by passing controlled current through the zener diode in the breakdown region The nominal breakdown voltage VZ is specified as the zener voltage (example 4.7 V zener, 8.2 V zener) Symbol looks like

Example 1 on Zener Diode Voltage Regulator (ideal-characteristics)

Example 1 on Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

The characteristics shown for the zener diode is the ideal characteristics- one without any zener bulk resistance. Hence the zener will be able to provide ideally regulated voltage unless the load current demand exceeds (15- v0)/100 = 50 mA. When iL 50 mA the zener absorbs the differential (excess) current to maintain the load voltage at 10 volts. When iL > 50 mA the zener loses its regulating capacity(since it cannot generate current!) and the output voltage starts drooping. Then v0 = 15-100 iL.

Find v0 for iL= i) 0 ii) 30 mA iii) 80 mA

Answer to Example 1 on Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

i) 10V, ii) 10V, iii) 7 V

Voltage Regulator Using the Zener Diode

IS = VS VZ (20 5)V = = 3 mA 5k R VZ 5V =1 mA | IZ = IS IL = 2 mA IL = = RL 5k

Another question
What is the maximum possible value iL ? What is the load resistance under this condition?
The Zener diode keeps the voltage across load resistor RL constant. For Zener breakdown operation, IZ > 0.

For proper regulation, Zener current must be positive. If the Zener current < 0, the Zener diode no longer controls the voltage across the load resistor and the voltage regulator is said to have dropped out of regulation. V R IZ = S VZ 1 + 1 > 0 | RL > =R R R min R L V S 1 V Z
Chap 3 -26

Analysis of Diodes in Reverse Breakdown Operation

Choose 2 points (0V, -4 mA) and (-5 V, -3 mA) to draw the load line. It intersects the i-v characteristic at the Q-point: (-2.9 mA, -5.2 V). Using the piecewise linear model:

Voltage Regulator Using a Zener Diode: Example Including Zener Resistance

VL VZ 20V VL 5V + + =0 5000 100 5000 VL = 5.19 V IZ = VL 5V 5.19V5V = =1.9 mA > 0 100 100

IZ = ID > 0
Problem: Find the output voltage and Zener diode current for a Zener diode regulator. Given data: VS = 20 V, R = 5 k, RZ = 0.1 k, VZ = 5 V Analysis: The output voltage is a function of the current through the Zener diode.

20 5100IZ 5 = 0 (20 5)V = 2.94 mA IZ = 5100

Using load-line analysis: 20=VD + 5000ID

Since IZ > 0 (ID < 0), the solution is consistent with Zener breakdown.

Chap 3 -28

Example 2 on Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

Example 2 on Zener Diode Voltage Regulator(contd..)

Compute the Thevenin equivalent of the previous circuit with the zener diode as the load

VSS = 24V R = 1.2 k RL= 6 k; = 1.2 k Find IS and vL using the zener characteristics

Thevenin voltage

VT = Vss

RL = 20V;12V R + RL

Thevenin Resistance R T =

RR L = 1;0.6 k R + RL

We can then write VT +RTiD+vD = 0 and find out vD,, iD using the zener diode characteristics vL = vD and IS = vL /RL + iD

Example 2 on Zener Diode Voltage Regulator(contd..)

Answer to Example 2 on Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

vL = 10V

IS = vL /RL + iD = 10/6 +10 mA = 11.67mA

vL = 9.5 V

IS = vL /RL + iD = 9.5/1.2 +5 mA = 12.92mA Note that load resistance change has caused the output voltage to change by 0.5V due to non-ideal reverse characteristics of the zener diode

Load Line : vD = -VT -RTiD

Line and Load Regulation

Line regulation characterizes how sensitive the output voltage is to input voltage changes. dV Line Regulation= L mV/V dVS RZ For a fixed load current, Line Regulation = R+ RZ Load regulation characterizes how sensitive the output voltage is to changes in load current withdrawn from regulator. dV Load Regulation= L dI L
For changes in load current, Load Regulation = RZ R

Rectifier Circuits
A basic rectifier converts an ac voltage to a pulsating dc voltage.
A filter then eliminates ac components of the waveform to produce a nearly constant dc voltage output. Rectifier circuits are used in virtually all electronic devices to convert the 120-V 60-Hz ac power line source to the dc voltages required for operation of electronic devices. In rectifier circuits, the diode state changes with time and a given piecewise linear model is valid only for a certain time interval.

Load regulation is the Thvenin equivalent resistance looking back into the regulator from the load terminals.
Chap 3 -33 Chap 3 -34

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with Resistive Load

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with Resistive Load (cont.)

Using the CVD model, during the on-state of the diode vO = (VP sint)- Von. The output voltage is zero when the diode is off. Often a step-up or step-down transformer is used to convert the 120-V, 60-Hz voltage available from the power line to the desired ac voltage level as shown.

For the positive half-cycle of the input, the source forces positive current through the diode, the diode is on, and vO = vS. During the negative half cycle, negative current cant exist in the diode. The diode is off, current in resistor is zero, and vO =0 .
Chap 3 -35

Time-varying components in the rectifier output are removed using a filter capacitor.
Chap 3 -36

A simple Battery charger-Example of a Rectifier

Can be used to charge a car battery from the alternator

Peak Detector Circuit

As the input voltage rises, the diode is on, and the capacitor (initially discharged) charges up to the input voltage minus the diode voltage drop. At the peak of the input voltage, diode current tries to reverse, and the diode cuts off. The capacitor has no discharge path and retains a constant voltage providing a constant output voltage: Vdc = VP - Von

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Chap 3 -38

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with RC Load

As the input voltage rises during the first quarter cycle, the diode is on and the capacitor (initially discharged) charges up to the peak value of the input voltage. At the peak of the input, the diode current tries to reverse, the diode cuts off, and the capacitor discharges exponentially through R. Discharge continues till the input voltage exceeds the output voltage which occurs near the peak of next cycle. This process then repeats once every cycle. This circuit can be used to generate negative output voltage if the top plate of capacitor is grounded instead of bottom plate. In this case, Vdc = -(VP - Von)
Chap 3 -39

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with RC Load (cont.)

The output voltage is not constant as in an ideal peak detector, but has a ripple voltage Vr. The diode conducts for a short time T called the conduction interval during each cycle, and its angular equivalent is called the conduction angle c. T T (VP Von ) T Vr (VP Von ) 1 C RC T R
1 T 2T (VP Von ) 1 2Vr = VP RC VP 2Vr VP
Chap 3 -40

c = T =

Half-Wave Rectifier Analysis: Example

Problem: Find the dc output voltage, output current, ripple voltage, conduction interval, and conduction angle for a half-wave rectifier. Given data: secondary voltage Vrms = 12.6 (60 Hz), R = 15 , C = 25,000 F, Von = 1 V Analysis: V =V V =(12.6 2 1)V =16.8 V
VP Von 16.8V = =1.12 A R 15 (VP Von ) T Vr = 0.747 V R C Idc =
dc P on

Peak Diode Current

In rectifiers, nonzero current exists in the diode for only a very small fraction of period T, yet an almost constant dc current flows out of the filter capacitor to load. The total charge lost from the filter capacitor in each cycle is replenished by the diode during a short conduction interval causing high peak diode currents. If the repetitive current pulse is modeled as a triangle of height IP and width T,

Using discharge interval T=1/60 s,

c = T =

c T = = c = 0.29 = 0.769 ms 2f 120

2Vr = 0.290 rad =16.6o VP

IP = Idc 2T = 48.6 A T
using the values from the previous example.
Chap 3 -42

Chap 3 -41

Surge Current
In addition to the peak diode currents, there is an even larger current through the diode called the surge current that occurs when power is first turned on. During first quarter cycle, current through diode is approximately d id (t)=ic (t) C VP sint = CVP cost dt Peak values of this initial surge current occurs at t = 0+:
ISC = CVP =168 A

Peak Inverse Voltage Rating

The peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating of the rectifier diode is the diode breakdown voltage. When the diode is off, the reverse-bias across the diode is Vdc - vS. When vS reaches negative peak,

PIV Vdc vsmin =VP Von (VP ) 2VP

The PIV value corresponds to the minimum value of Zener breakdown voltage required for the rectifier diode.
Chap 3 -44

using values from previous example. Actual values of surge current wont be as large as predicted above because of the neglected series resistances associated with the rectifier diode and transformer.
Chap 3 -43

Diode Power Dissipation

Average power dissipation in a diode is given by
I 1T 1T PD = v D (t)iD (t)dt = Von iD (t)dt =Von P T Von Idc 2 T T0 T0

Full-Wave Rectifiers

The simplification is done by assuming a triangular approximation for the diode current and that the voltage across diode is constant at Vdc. Average power dissipation in the diode series resistance is given by
1T 2 4 1 2 2 PD = iD (t)RS dt = IDRS T = T Idc RS T 3 T T0 3
Full-wave rectifiers cut capacitor discharge time in half and require half the filter capacitance to achieve a given ripple voltage. All specifications are the same as for halfwave rectifiers. Reversing polarity of the diodes gives a fullwave rectifier with negative output voltage.
Chap 3 -46

This power dissipation can be reduced by minimizing peak current through the use of a minimum size of filter capacitor or by using fullwave rectifiers.
Chap 3 -45

Full-Wave Bridge Rectification

Rectifier Topology Comparison

Filter capacitors are a major factor in determining cost, size and weight in design of rectifiers.

The requirement for a centertapped transformer in the fullwave rectifier is eliminated through use of 2 extra diodes. All other specifications are the same as for a half-wave rectifier except PIV = VP.

For a given ripple voltage, a full-wave rectifier requires half the filter capacitance as that in a half-wave rectifier. Reduced peak current can reduce heat dissipation in diodes. Benefits of full-wave rectification outweigh increased expenses and circuit complexity (an extra diode and center-tapped transformer). The bridge rectifier eliminates the center-tapped transformer, and the PIV rating of the diodes is reduced. Cost of extra diodes is negligible.

Chap 3 -47

Chap 3 -48

Comparison of Rectifier Circuits

Half-wave # of diodes DC output voltage(**) DC diode current PIV (***) Ripple Frequency 1 Vin (peak) IL 2Vin (peak) f Full-wave 2 Vin (peak) (*) 0.5IL 2Vin (peak) 2f Full-wave Bridge 4 Vin (peak) 0.5IL Vin (peak) 2f

Rectifier Design Analysis

Problem: Design a rectifier with given specifications. Given data: Vdc = 15 V, Vr < 0.15 V, Idc = 2 A Analysis: Use a full-wave bridge rectifier that needs a smaller value of filter capacitance, smaller diode PIV rating, and no center-tapped transformer.
V= VP 2

V dc + 2Von 15 + 2 = V =12 Vrms 2 2

C = Idc T =

T /2 1 1 = 0.111 F = 2A s 120 0.15V Vr

1 1 2V r = V P 120

2(0.15V ) = 0.352 ms 17V

* With 1:2 transformer turns ratio; ** With Large C *** Peak Inverse Voltage (also with Large C)

1/60 s = 94.7 A IP = Idc 2 T = 2A 0.352ms T 2 Isurge = CV P =120 (0.111)(17)= 711 A | PIV = VP =17 V

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Chap 3 -50

Rectifier Circuits

Three-Terminal IC Voltage Regulators

Regulators use feedback with high-gain amplifiers to reduce ripple voltage at the output. Bypass capacitors provide low-impedance paths for highfrequency signals to ensure proper operation of the regulator. Regulators provide excellent line and load regulation, maintaining constant voltage even if the output current changes by many orders of magnitude. A main design constraint is VREG which must not fall below a minimum specified dropout voltage (a few volts).
Block diagram of a dc power supply.

Chap 3 -52

Clipping or Limiting Circuits

A Clipper Circuit (Assume ideal diode)

Clipping circuits have a dc path between the input and output, whereas clamping circuits use capacitive coupling between input and output. The voltage transfer characteristic shows that the gain is unity for vI < VC, and gain is zero for vI > VC. A second clipping level can also be set as shown or diodes can be used to control circuit gain by switching resistors in and out of the circuits.
Chap 3 -53

A Clipper Circuit (Practical Implementation)

Limiting and Clamping Circuits

A variety of basic limiting circuits.

Clamping or dc-Restoring Circuit

After the initial transient lasting less than one cycle in both circuits, the output waveform is an undistorted replica of the input. Both output waveforms are clamped to zero. The dc levels are said to be restored by the clamping circuit. The clamping level can also be shifted away from zero by adding a voltage source in series with the diode.

Dynamic Switching Behavior of Diodes

The non-linear depletion-layer capacitance of the diode prevents the diode voltage from changing instantaneously and determines turn-on and recovery times. Both forward and reverse current overshoot the final values when the diode switches on and off as shown. Storage time is given by:

S = T ln 1

IF
IR

Chap 3 -57

Chap 3 -58

Photo Diodes and Photodetectors

If the depletion region of a pn junction diode is illuminated with light with sufficiently high frequency, photons can provide enough energy to cause electrons to jump the semiconductor bandgap to generate electron-hole pairs:

Solar Cells and Light-Emitting

Diodes
In solar cell applications, optical illumination is constant, and dc current IPH is generated. The goal is to extract power from the cell, and the i-v characteristics are plotted in terms of cell current and cell voltage. For a solar cell to supply power to an external circuit, the ICVC product must be positive, and the cell should be operated near the point of maximum output power Pmax. Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) use recombination processes in the forward-biased pn junction diode to produce light. When a hole and electron recombine, an energy equal to the bandgap of the semiconductor is released as a photon.
Chap 3 -60

E P = h =

hc

EG

h =Plancks constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J-s = frequency of optical illumination = wavelength of optical illumination c = velocity of light = 3 x 108 m/s Photon-generated current can be used in photodetector circuits to generate an output voltage

vO = iPHR

The diode is reverse-biased to enhance depletion-region width and electric field.

Chap 3 -59

10