LAND USE THEORIES: Concentric Zone Theory: According to Burgess.

the growth of any city occurs through a radial expansion from the center so as to form a series or concentric rings, in essence, a set of nested circles that represent successive zones or urban expansion. The five zones Burgess observed and described during the 1920s, before the automobile transformed Chicago, were: (1) the central business district (CBD), with its retail and wholesale sectors; (2) the zone of transition, characterized by stagnation and social deterioration; (3) the zone of factory workers homes; (4) the zone of better residential units, including single-family dwellings and apartments and (5) the commuter zone, extending beyond the city limits and consisting of suburbs and satellite communities. The process Burgess used to explain these concentric rings was called invasion and succession. Each type of land use and each socioeconomic group in the inner zone tends to extend its zone by the invasion of the next outer zone. As the city grows or expands, there is a spatial redistribution of population groups by residence and occupation. Burgess further demonstrated that many social characteristics are spatially distributed in a series or gradients away from the central business district. Such characteristics include the percentage of foreign-born groups, poverty, and delinquency rates. Each tends to decrease outward from the city center. The Concentric zone model also known as the Burgess model is one of the earliest theoretical models to explain urban social structures. It was created by sociologist Ernest Burgess in 1924. Based on human ecology theories done by Burgess and applied on Chicago, it was the first to give the explanation of distribution of social groups within urban areas. This concentric ring model depicts urban land use in concentric rings: the Central Business District (or CBD) was in the middle of the model, and the city expanded in rings with different land uses. The zones identified are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The center was the CBD The transition zone of mixed residential and commercial uses Low-class residential homes (inner suburbs), in later decades called inner city Better quality middle-class homes (Outer Suburbs) Commuters zone

The model is more detailed than the traditional down-mid-uptown divide by which downtown is the CBD, uptown the affluent residential outer ring, and midtown in between. Zone I, the CBD, lies at the centre of the city. Zone II is in transition. It is the crowded, multi-occupied zone of the city first invaded by migrants. Within this Zone are the ghetto areas (these are not necessarily slums). In Zone III are the working men's houses, the area of second generation immigrants, one step up from Zone II. Zones IV and V are residential; Zone IV for the better-off and Zone V for the commuters. All these zones are held to have evolved separately and without planning. They result from the competition of different socioeconomic groups for land. This competition results in variations in the cost of land and, therefore, causes segregation within a city. The model assumes uniformly flat, and available, land, and ignores the importance of transport routes, but relies on the theory that city growth results from distinct waves of in-migrants, that is to invasion and succession. In this last respect it is therefore more applicable to cities in the USA than to European cities The Burgess Urban Land Use Model In 1925, Burgess presented a descriptive urban land use model, which divided cities in a set of concentric circles expanding from the downtown to the suburbs. This representation was built from Burgess' observations of a number of American cities, notably Chicago, for which he provided empirical evidence. The model assumes a relationship between the socio-economic status (mainly income) of households and the distance from the CBD. The further from the CBD, the better the quality of housing, but the longer the commuting time. Thus, accessing better housing is done at the expense of longer commuting times (and costs). According to this monocentric model (see above figure), a large city is divided in six concentric zones: Zone I: Central Business District (CBD) where most of the tertiary employment is located and where the urban transport infrastructure is converging, making this zone the most accessible. Zone II: Immediately adjacent to the CBD a zone where many industrial activities locate to take advantage of nearby labor and markets. Further, most

transport terminals, namely port sites and railyards, are located adjacent to the central area. Zone III: This zone is gradually been reconverted to other uses by expanding manufacturing / industrial activities. It contains the poorest segment of the urban population, notably first generation immigrants living, in the lowest housing conditions. Zone IV: Residential zone dominated by the working class and those who were able to move away from the previous zone (often second generation immigrants). This zone has the advantage of being located near the major zones of employment (I and II) and thus represents a low cost location for the working class. Zone V: Represents higher quality housing linked with longer commuting costs. Zone VI: Mainly high class and expensive housing in a rural, suburbanized, setting. The commuting costs are the highest. Prior to mass diffusion of the automobile (1930s), most of these settlements were located next to rail stations. According to Burgess, urban growth is a process of expansion and reconversion of land uses, with a tendency of each inner zone to expand in the outer zone. On the above figure, zone II (Factory zone) is expanding towards zone IV (Working class zone), creating a transition zone with reconversion of land use. Although the Burgess model is simple and elegant, it has drawn numerous criticisms: The model is too simple and limited in historical and cultural applications up to the 1950s. It is a product of its time. The model was developed when American cities were growing very fast in demographic terms and when motorized transportation was still uncommon as most people used public transit. Expansion thus involved reconversion of existing land uses. This concept cannot be applied in a contemporary (from the second half to the 20th century) context where highways have enabled urban development to escape the reconversion process and to take place directly in the suburbs. The model was developed for American cities and has limited applicability elsewhere. It has been demonstrated that preindustrial cities, notably in Europe, did not at all followed the concentric circles model. For instance, in most pre-industrial European cities, the center was much more important than the periphery, notably in terms of social status. The Burgess concentric model is consequently partially inverted. There were a lot of spatial differences in terms of ethnic, social and occupational status, while there were low occurrence of the functional differences in land use patterns. The concentric model assumed a spatial separation of place of work and place of residence, which was not generalized until the twentieth century. However, the Burgess model remains useful as a concept explaining concentric urban development, as a way to introduce the complexity of urban land use and to explain urban growth in American cities in the early-mid 20th century. The Concentric Zone model is a model of the internal structure of cities in which social groups are spatially arranged in a series of rings. It was originally based off Chicago (although the model does not apply well to Chicago today The idea behind this model is that the city grows outward from a central area in a series of rings. The size of the rings may vary, but the order always remains the same. This model suggests that the social structure extends outwards from the central business district, meaning that the lower classes live closer to the city center, while the upper classes live farther from the city center because they can afford the commute. Also, as you get further away from the city density decreases. The rent tends to increase as you get further away from the CBD and residents are more likely to rent near the center. As you get further away from the CBD it is more likely that you will find condominiums. Indianapolis is a city that can be applied to the concentric zone model today. That is because more people rent near the CBD than away from it. However, this model has its weaknesses. It does not take into account any physical barriers and it does not take into account gentrification- which may occur in these cities. An important feature of this model is the positive correlation of socio-economic status of households with distance from the CBD more affluent households were observed to live at greater distances from the central city. Burgess described the changing spatial patterns of residential areas as a process of "invasion" and "succession". As the city grew and developed over time, the CBD would exert pressure on the zone immediately surrounding it (the zone of transition). Outward expansion of the CBD would invade nearby residential neighborhoods causing them to expand outward. The process was thought to continue with each successive neighborhood moving further from the CBD. He suggested that inner-city housing was largely occupied by immigrants and households with low socio-economic status. As the city grew and the CBD expanded outward, lower status residents moved to adjacent neighborhoods, and more affluent residents moved further from the CBD. Burgess's work is based on the bid rent curve. This states that the concentric circles are based on the amount that people will pay for the land. This value is based on the profits that are obtainable from maintaining a business on that land. The center of the town will have the highest number of customers so it is profitable for retail activities. Manufacturing will pay slightly less for the land as they are only interested in the accessibility for workers, 'goods in' and 'goods out'. Residential land use will take the surrounding land. Problems with the Concentric Zone Model The model has been challenged by many contemporary urban geographers. Firstly, the model does not work well with cities outside the United States, in particular with those developed under different historical contexts. Even in the United States, because of changes such as advancement in transportation and information technology and transformation in global economy, cities are no longer organized with clear "zones". It assumes an isotropic plain - an even, unchanging landscape Physical features - land may restrict growth of certain sectors Commuter villages defy the theory, being in the commuter zone but located far from the city Decentralization of shops, manufacturing industry, and entertainment Urban regeneration and gentrification - more expensive property can be found in 'low class' housing areas Many new housing estates were built on the edges of cities in Britain

 It does not address local urban politics and forces of globalization The model does not work well for cities which are essentially federations of similar sized towns. The Different Rings of the Concentric Zone Model 1) Central Business District (CBD)This area of the city is a non-residential area and its where businesses are. This area s called downtown in the U.S. and city center in Europe. This area has a developed transportation system to accommodate commuters coming into the CBD. Also, due to the high land cost in this area, a lot of sky scrapers are built in order to take full advantage of that land. Most government institutions, businesses, stadiums, and restaurants chose this area to build on due to its accessibility. At the center of the city is the first zone, the central business district. Physically, it is composed of departmental stores, high-fashion stores, office buildings, banks, hotels, theaters, and civic buildings. Most or the city's cultural activities take place here. Competition for land is intense and land use is intensive. Activities that draw on and are based on the city's whole population are found here, for this is the focal point of transportation routes. The central business district is the downtown center for culture, commerce, business, and supporting facilities. It is the heart or the business and governmental activities of the city. The central business district, however, is not totally homogeneous. At the outer edge there is often a warehouse and wholesale area that serves the retail and commercial outlets at the center of the zone. Because wholesalers serve the central business district and not the city's total population, they need not attract as many individual customers. Therefore, they locate near their primary customers but in a less desirable part of the central city where competition is less intense. 2) Zone of Transitionthe zone of transition contains industry and has poorer-quality housing available. Immigrants, as well as single individuals, tend to live in this area in small dwelling units, frequently created by subdividing larger houses into apartments. Most people in this area rent. The second zone of the city is the tone in transition. Originally, this was a residential zone for the people who worked in the central business district. As the city expanded, the area was invaded by retail businesses, small manufacturing firms, and some warehouse and wholesale facilities from the outer edges of the central business district. These institutions had been forced outward by competition for space in the center. The homes in the zone of transition are among the oldest in the city and are deteriorating because of their age and the inability of residents to compete for the space with occupants from the encroaching central business district. The zone in transition is not homogeneous. Generally it has an inner factory belt close to the outer belt of warehouses in the central business district and an outer belt of declining neighborhoods and slums. In the early twentieth century, the first generation of European immigrants found homes in the zone in transition. More recently, migrants from rural America, white and black have settled here. Burgess described the zone as the location of slums which housed poverty, degradation, disease, and underworld activities, crime and vice, the night club districta place occupied by artists and radicals, all obsessed with the vision of a new and better world. 3) Zone of the working class/ workingmen s homes This area contains modest older houses occupied by stable, working class families. A large percentage of the people in this area rent. The third city zone is the zone of workingmen's homes. Here, low-rise apartments and small, closely spaced one and two-family dwellings house the large labor force of the city. To this area the residents fleeing the invasions of the zone in transition escaped. Here, too, the second generation of immigrants and migrants movedtheir first step on the route to higher status suburbs. 4) Zone of better residenceThis zone contains newer and more spacious houses. Mostly families in the middle-class live in this zone. There are a lot of condominiums in this area and residents are less likely to rent. Better residences make up the fourth zone. Relatively expensive apartment houses and detached homes on larger lots dominate in this area. Population density is lower here than in the zone of the working men's homes, and exclusive districts are found here. More accurately, it is a middle class housing zone. 5) Commuters ZoneThis area is located beyond the build-up area of the city. Mostly upper class residents live in this area. This area is also known as the suburbs in the United States. At the time Burgess was writing (in the 1920s), this was a suburban or satellite zone thirty to sixty minutes commuting time from the central business district. In the late 1970s, this zone has been incorporated into the city itself, and the commuter zone is now much farther from the center, although still only thirty to sixty minutes away by rapid transit or expressway travel. Burgesss commuter zone is perhaps best described as a ring of dormitory towns and suburbsthat is, areas with many residences but few other facilities. 6) Additional ZonesTwo additional zones lie beyond the commuter zone. One (in the 1920s) was an agricultural zone that overlapped the outer portion of the commuter zone and provided much of the local produce. Beyond that was the hinterland or fringe of the city, which might include independent settlements not completely integrated with the central city. Other Names for the Concentric Zone Model

 The Burgess Model The Bull's Eye Model Concentric Ring Model Concentric Circles Model Sector Theory:

The sector theory was developed in the 1930 by Homer Hoyt, an economist. He concluded that general patterns of housing values applied to all cities and that those patterns tended to appear as sectors, not concentric rings. According to Hoyt, residential land use seems to arrange itself along selected highways leading into the CBD, thus giving a land-use map a directional bias. High- rent residences were the most important group in explaining city growth, because they tended to pull the entire city in the same direction. New residential areas did not encircle the city at its outer limits, but extended farther and farther outward along a few select transportation axes, giving the land-use map the appearance of a pie cut into many pieces. The sectoral pattern or city growth can be explained in part by a filtering process. When new housing is constructed, it is located primarily on the outer edges of the high-rent sector. The homes or community leaders, new offices, and stores are attracted to the same areas. As inner, middle- class areas are abandoned, lower-income groups filter into them. By this process, the city grows over tine in the direction of the expanding high-rent residential sector. Homer hoyt (1943) developed a modified version or the concentric zone model that attempted to take into account the influence of urban transportation systems. It agreed with the notion that a business center lies at the heart of a city but not the tight geometrical symmetry of the concentric Zones. Hoyt suggested that the structure of the city could be represented better by a sector model in which urban groups establish themselves along major transportation. Then, as the city becomes more crowded and usable land is even farther from its heart, each sector remains associated with an identifiable group but extends its boundaries toward the city's edge.

Multi Nuclei Theory: A model of town growth advanced by C. D. Harris and E. L. Ullman based on the fact that many towns and nearly all large cities grow about many nuclei rather than around a simple CBD. Some of these nuclei are pre-existing settlements, others arise from urbanization and external economies. Distinctive land-use zones develop because some activities repel each other; high-quality housing does not generally arise next to industrial areas, and other activities cannot afford the high costs of the most desirable locations. New industrial areas develop in suburban locations since they require easy access, and outlying business districts may develop for the same reason. While the layout of the model is generally standard in most reference books, the location of the various sectors is infinitely variable, in contrast to the concentric model. In 1945, two geographers, Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman. developed a third model to explain urban land-use patterns, the multiple nuclei theory. According to this theory, cities tend to grow around not one but several distinct nodes, thus forming a polynuclear (many-centered) pattern. The multiple nuclei pattern is explained by the following factors: I. Certain activities are limited to particular sites because they have highly specialized needs. For example, the retail district needs accessibility, which can best be found in a central location, while the manufacturing district needs transportation facilities. 2. Certain related activities or economic functions tend to cluster in the same district because they can carry on their activities more efficiently as a cohesive unit. Automobile dealers, auto repair shops, tire shops, and auto glass shops are

examples.

3. Certain related activities, by their very nature, repel each other. A high-class residential district will normally locate in a separate area from the heavy manufacturing district. 4. Certain activities, unable to generate enough income to pay the high rents of certain sites, may be relegated to more inaccessible locations. Examples may include some specialty shops. The number of distinct nuclei occurring within a city is likely to be a function of city size and rcventness of development. Autooriented cities, which often have a distinct horizontal as opposed to vertical appearance, include industrial parks, regional shopping centers, and suburbs layered by age of resident, income, and housing value. Rampant urban sprawl is likely to be reflected in a mixed pattern of industrial, commercial, and residential area as in peripheral locations. Emphasizes the fact that different industries have different land use and financial requirements which determine where they establish themselves. Thus, the multiple nuclei model holds that as similar industries are established near one another the immediate neighborhood is shaped by tile nature of its typical industry, becoming one of a number of separate nuclei that together constitute the eit1 Ior example.

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