Notes for Mapping Projects 2007

Compiled by Conall Mac Niocaill

With input from David Bell, Steve Hesselbo, Hugh Jenkyns Simon Lamb & Dave Waters

This document also available at: http://www.earth.ox.ac.uk/~conallm/MappingNotes.pdf

Time Line:
Hillary Term: Read this document thoroughly. Decide on your mapping partner and groupings (minimum of 4 per group). Think about where you would like to map: consult tutors, or anyone else in the department who has some knowledge about your chosen area, and the geolsoc questionnaires from previous years (you may not map any area that was mapped last year). When thinking about a mapping area you need to think about what kind of rocks you would like to map (igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary), where you like to map (Britain, Europe etc), the likely climatic conditions there (can you tolerate extreme heat? Etc.), what the terrain is like, what the level of exposure is like, whether accommodation is available locally, etc. Start looking for sources of maps. You will need topographic maps at a scale of 1:25,000 or better (you will be mapping at 1:10,000) and a geological map of the area (1:50,000 is usually adequate in assessing the geological suitability).

By the Easter vacation you should have a clear idea of where you want to go and who with. If you have any queries you can ask your tutor of the members of the mapping panel.

Trinity Term: In fifth week groups will meet with the mapping panel (currently Drs. Lamb, Mac Niocaill & Waters) for approval of the mapping areas. You will need to bring your

topographic maps, a geological map of the area, and a logistics plan (where you propose to stay, how you will travel there, how you will move around in your field area etc.). The panel is chiefly concerned with safety aspects of your project.

Important Deadlines for 2007-2008 Week 2 Trinity Term 2007: Risk Assessment forms available from Emma Brown.

Week 3 Trinity Term 2007: Completed Risk Assessment forms should be submitted to Emma Brown by 4pm on the Friday (Friday May 18th).

Week 4 /5 Trinity term 2007: Each Group meets with the mapping panel to review their risk assessments and to approve the mapping areas.

Hillary Term 2008: The mapping project report must be handed in by 12:00 (noon) on Monday of 1st week (January 14th)

1. INTRODUCTION
One of the requirements for your degree is that you complete a field mapping project and present the results to the Examiners. When choosing a mapping area, you must seek advice, especially from the mapping project panel (see below) and at least one experienced geologist who is personally familiar with the area. This way, both the safety of the area for individual mapping and its geological suitability can be assessed. Field-work is normally only done within Europe, during the summer of the second year. If you choose an area abroad, however, you should think about a reserve area in the British Isles in case logistic problems develop at a later stage. Most undergraduates choose to map an area about 15 square km, at a scale of 1:10,000. You may choose a different area and scale for your mapping, if the nature of the project, the rocks, or the available maps warrant it, but this must be approved by the mapping project panel. In addition to the mapping, specialised projects may be undertaken, involving detailed study such as structural analysis, petrology, palaeontology, or sedimentology. The area should be reasonably compact and have a sufficient degree of natural or artificial exposure to allow effective mapping at the scale you choose. It should contain distinct and mappable rock-types, avoid large areas of uniform lithology. There should be a sufficient level of stratigraphic or structural complexity to present a challenge to the mapping. The rocks need not span a wide range of ages: lateral facies variations within a single stage, complex structure, or detailed intrusive and extrusive relations in an igneous centre, could all be suitable for mapping. Areas where recent detailed maps have been published are in general best avoided. You should spend about 4 weeks in the field, and aim to produce the following: Field maps (field slips). These should normally be drawn on a topographic base. You may use aerial photographs as an aid in mapping. If a topographic base is unavailable, you may construct a base from aerial photographs (subject to the panels approval). If the only available topographic base does not include contours, then you should make some attempt to show the topography.
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A field note-book(s). This should be a sturdy hard-backed notebook, and be kept tidy and legible. Grid-references or other information should be included to allow notes to be keyed to your maps. Field sketches should have scales and orientation.

Structural sections and sedimentological logs. These should be drawn up as far as possible while you are in the field area. You should collect representative rock-specimens (about fist-sized and as fresh as possible), and take photographs of outcrops to supplement field sketches. The thin-section laboratory will normally prepare up to 10 thin-sections for you (you must saw the rocks), so collect samples with this in mind.

2. SAFETY
For reasons of safety, you are required to organise yourselves into groups of at least four people to map adjacent areas in pairs. A standard safety pack will be loaned by the Department to each of you against a deposit, consisting of a helmet, safety glasses, whistle, survival bag, torch, and emergency rations. In addition, it is highly desirable to have a mobile telephone, though they may not work in remote mapping areas. BEFORE YOU EMBARK ON YOUR PROJECT, YOU SHOULD HAVE: Attended the talk on safety in the field (you will need to sign a form to show that you have done so). Completed the Independent fieldwork risk assessment form and discussed your plans, in depth, with the Mapping Project Panel (currently Drs. Lamb, Mac Niocaill (chair), and Waters), who will be particularly concerned with safety. The panel will want to be assured that you are aware of potential hazards in the area, and that you have planned suitable control measures to reduce these hazards to an acceptable level. A checklist of possible hazards are at the end of this section. You must demonstrate that you have suitable clothing and footwear and other necessary equipment. Received the safety pack and other documentation (safety information, addressed envelope, names and telephone numbers of members of the department who can be contacted while you are in the field). Handed in the information sheet, giving details of the precise location of your mapping project, the names of all members of your group, where you are planning to stay and any points of contact, and the dates of your field work, and also a preliminary assessment of likely hazards in the mapping area. In addition, you are strongly advised to discuss your plans widely, especially with your College tutor and anybody close to you (family, friends etc.) - this way you will be able to take into account a wide range of experience and points of view before going to your mapping area.

WHEN YOU ARRIVE IN YOUR MAPPING AREA, YOU SHOULD: The group as a whole should undertake a reconnaissance of each members area, and each member of the group should spend odd days or half days accompanying other members of the group in the field. You should use your initial reconnaissance to update your risk assessment. Record in your field notebook any amendments to the nature and severity of hazards and how you plan to address these hazards to minimise the risks. Return the addressed envelope with your updated address, dates of mapping, and any new information about potential hazards in your mapping area. If you dont feel confident about working in the area at this stage, you should take appropriate and sensible action. Use your common sense you are ultimately responsible for your project, including your own safety in the field. All members of the group should live in the same place, and should exchange information each day on where they plan to map, and a local independent party (hostel guardian, policeman, shopkeeper) should also be informed.

3. PRODUCING THE REPORT

On the basis of the field project, you should prepare and present the following to examiners. 1) The original field slips, original field notebooks, logs and structural sections 2) A neat geological map, prepared on a topographic base 3) A typed report of between 4000 and 6000 word, presented in a hardback ringbinder. 4) Accurate cross-sections across the mapped area. You should present as many as are necessary to illustrate the structural and stratigraphic relationships within your area. 5) If you include photographs in your report there should be a full explanatory caption and, preferably, a transparent overlay or accompanying sketch illustrating the main geological features in the photograph. 6) The official from showing the exact area mapped and the OU Geological Society Questionnaire. THE REPORT The following is a general guide as to what you should include in the final report. It is by no means comprehensive, you may add things as necessary, but all reports should contain the following: Introduction The area studies and its boundaries. Who did the work and when. The base maps used, their scale, source, and year of publication. This section should also contain a brief description of the general geography of the area, topography, level of exposure, and general level of weathering of the outcrops. A description of the lithologies mapped This should contain a brief introductory statement of the general rock types encountered (i.e. sedimentary, igneous, and/or metamorphic) and the approximate age. It should contain a description of the hierarchy of units (Formations, members etc.). If stratified units are mapped and overall stratigraphic column, drawn to scale, should be presented illustrating the relationships between the various rock units.

Characteristics common to a number of Formations (e.g. a common grade of metamorphism, or a common structural fabric) should be described, followed by a detailed description of each of the units, in order. These should be accompanied by field-sketches and photographs illustrating various aspects of the units described. Any fossils found should be described and identified as they provide constraints on the both the age of the rock unit described and its environment of deposition. This section should all include any petrological and thin-section descriptions you wish to include. The structure of the Area This section should deal with the geometrical distribution of the rocks in the field; whether they are folded, faulted or otherwise deformed. The attitudes of the various units should be described and cleavages or schistosities should be noted. This should be illustrated with sketches, photographs, and stereonets. In particular, where more than one phase of deformation is noted the relationships between the various structures should be described and an attempt made to construct a synthesis of the structural history of the region. A geological history This section should include the genesis of the rocks described, the nature of the environment in which they were formed (i.e. for sediments whether they are marine or continental etc., for igneous rocks the setting, for metamorphic rocks the P-T conditions), and their subsequent tectonic history, based on your structural observations. This section can also include reference to regional studies, and the work of others in the area. The history will be slanted towards the particular characteristics of you mapping area (e.g. if your mapping area consists of undeformed sediments you should place a lot of emphasis on the depositional environments and subsequent diagenetic history, rather than spend pages comments on the lack of deformational structures in the region). Above all you should present your map, the field slips, cross sections, notebooks and logs, since this is the primary data for your project, and the examiners give the greatest emphasis to these. Nothing should be on the final map that doesnt already appear on the field-slips and in the notebooks. The examiners pay

especial attention to consistency between the raw observations and the final product. The final report, neat map, field-slips, logs, sections, and field notebooks must be submitted to Emma Brown, in the Departmental Office, in the Department of Earth Sciences, by noon on Monday of the first week of Hillary Term in the third year of study. Maps and sections should be manageable size, folded neatly (not rolled) and placed in the back of the report. All separate items should be clearly named, and submitted together in a sturdy box file.

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4. SOME NOTES ON FIELD MAPPING

THE MAPPING AREA The nature of the mapping area, to some extent, determines the scale at which to map. For instance, if the mapping area is complex, with lithological and structural changes on the scale of 100's m, then you should map at 1:10,000 and will probably cover 10-15 square kilometres during a four week period. Alternatively, if the structure is simple, then you may cover a much larger area (25-50 square kilometres) in the same period, mapping at a scale of 1:25,000. So, be prepared to adapt your mapping to the local geology, and if necessary map at a number of different scales: i.e. a regional map at 1:25,000, and more detailed maps of areas which are particularly interesting at much smaller scales (1:10,000 to 1:100). This means that you should have base maps (several copies) at different scales (e.g. 1:25,000 and 1:10,000) and be prepared to make more detailed maps in the field. You can easily enlarge a portion of your base map by eye, using a grid system and some graph paper. NOTEBOOKS The notebook contains the written record of your mapping. Treat it like a diary, noting the date of each mapping day. It is a good idea to clearly label the notebook with your name and address and explanation of what the book is - this way, if you lose it, there is a chance that somebody will find it and return it to you. Each day you should write down all your observations, measurements, and ideas about the geology. All these observations and measurements must be tied to the field slips by way of grid references. Do not rely on station numbers from field slips as there is nothing more frustrating for anyone trying to look at your map and notebook than trying to scan through a field slip looking for a random outcrop number. By all means use location numbers on your field slip but make sure that localities are cross-referenced to the notebook with grid references. Fill the notebook with sketches - detailed sketches of particular outcrops, panoramic views with geological interpretation, sketch cross-sections or ideas about the structure of the region. Good notebooks contain more sketches and diagrams than words. Experienced mappers spend a lot of time drawing panoramic views which at one glance give an impression of the relationship between the various geological

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units. It is also good practice to change your notebook every so often, even it is only half full - this way, if you do lose it you wont have lost the entire record of your mapping. FIELD SLIPS These are the base maps you carry around with you in the field. The field slip is the most important document in your mapping - here you record all the spatial information about the geology of the area. It should be possible to produce the final map using only the field slip, without recourse to the notebook. It is good practice to record as much information on the field slips as possible - shorthand lithological descriptions, mapped contacts or putative contacts, orientation data (i.e. strikes and dips of contacts, bedding, cleavages etc.), areas of no exposure, topographic features which may indicate geological contacts or lithologies etc. Use empty parts of the map to put your notes, linking them to particular locations with arrows. It is essential that all the pertinent detail be on the map: sketch the actual shapes of the outcrops rather than plotting on coloured dots with station numbers. It is recommended that you colour in the outcrops in a darker shade or with bolder strokes than the inferred extent of the lithology. When you find a contact between two lithological units mark it directly on the field slip, including the orientation, and map it out by following it along strike. Plot the orientation of contacts (strike & dip) directly on the field slip. If you lose the contact in the field check the adjacent outcrops along the projected strike until you find it again. If you find faults in your area, again, map them out by following them and plotting all orientation data directly on the maps. Under no circumstances should you be returning from the field having to infer contacts by interpolating between coloured dots!! A good field slip is a record of the process of map making - the geological map is there together with all the supporting information. It should be possible to reconstruct the entire map with recourse only to the field slips, with the notebook as back-up, and nothing should appear in the final map that is not on the fieldslips. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

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If you have aerial photographs, you can map directly onto them, using a fine Rotring ink pen. If the aerial photographs are at a 1:30,000 scale (standard scale for aerial photographs) and you are mapping at 1:10,000 scale, then map on to both your base map and aerial photographs. Be careful about which direction on your photograph is North. If you see a prominent feature on the ground, then look for it on your photographs and sketch it in. Try and get to high points in the study area and spend some time just looking around and comparing what you see with the aerial photographs. A pair of binoculars would be very useful. LOCALITIES Give a locality number to every place where you stop and take notes. The first locality number of the field season is 1 (can be preceded by a one letter code i.e. P1 if youre mapping in Paris etc..), and the last is whatever you get to. You will probably have over a hundred localities. You must mark a map grid reference for each locality in your notebook- this way if you lose your field slip you can still reconstruct the locality. It is suggested that you give any samples you collect the same number as the locality. Try and take at least one orientation measurement at every locality and mark it directly on your field slip. Write all your notes about a locality in pencil or biro (something that does not run if the notebook gets wet), and include plenty of sketches. There should be more sketches than writing in your notebook. Always give a scale, showing dimensions of important features one forgets very easily. Take photographs, and remember to have a scale in the photograph (hammer, compass, notebook, etc.). ORIENTATION DATA Collecting orientation measurements is a very important part of the mapping. Always take as many measurements as you can - measuring bedding and any other fabric you can see (cleavages, lineations, fold axes, joints). If you are not sure what a particular fabric is (i.e. whether it is bedding or cleavage), then say so in your notes. Try and get an even coverage over the study area. Don't try and guess the measurements - it is very easy to be fooled. You will often be surprised how steep or shallow the dip is. Also, bedding measurements may reveal subtle angular discordances, which are not easily revealed by the mapping. These angular

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discordances may point to more important structural or stratigraphic discontinuities. A large amount of orientation data can be used in structural analyses - e.g. plotting stereograms, which may be an important part of your project. BEWARE OF MAGNETIC VARIATIONS. There is nothing worse than not knowing if a measurement is w.r.t. True or Magnetic North! SAMPLES Collect samples, both of rocks you can't identify and also representative lithologies in the study area. Don't end up with only samples of all the oddities. Each sample should be about fist-size. Make sure you have collected the freshest sample available - this might mean you will have to spend some time chipping away weathered portions of the outcrop. Don't be afraid to collect lots of samples - you can always sort them out at the end of mapping and take back only the important ones. You will probably collect a lot of samples to begin with, as you will have difficulty identifying the rock types. Samples can be useful in the field if you want to compare one outcrop with another. After a while you will get your eye in, and then you can discard many of your samples, many of which will probably turn out to be of the same rock type. Put your samples in plastic bags, and label both sample and bag with an indelible felt pen. Don't let samples bang around lose in your rucksack - they will break up and become useless. SEDIMENTARY SECTIONS You should gather information to produce an approximate stratigraphic column for the study area. In parts this may be generalised, based on distances measured off your map. However, you might need to spend a few days measuring up in more detail parts of the stratigraphy that you think are interesting or merit a closer look. In any case, a general description of the lithologies in the study area must go with your map, and this will involve general descriptions of lithology, grain size, sedimentary structures, bed thicknesses and alternations etc. CROSS-SECTIONS Representative cross-sections through the study area should accompany your report. Again you may produce them at a number of scales, and be careful about

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vertical exaggeration. The map plus cross-sections should together give an impression of the three dimensional geometry of the study area. You should always try to think about the 3-D structure when you are mapping, and so at frequent intervals during mapping and when you don't understand a particular geological relationship, try to draw sketch cross-sections. Don't leave the crosssections to the very end when you have left your mapping area! The cross-sections will certainly raise questions which may help your mapping. PHOTOGRAPHS Photographs provide a valuable record of your field observations. Take as many as possible. Remember to place a scale in the picture (hammer, notebook, coin, penknife etc.). Use a good SLR camera with a 50 mm or telephoto lens - wide angle lenses tend to distort angular relationships. Colour prints are probably the most suitable photographs, though slides are useful if you are planning on giving a presentation of your work. If you are photographing geological features in a mountain side or cliff, then it is always a good idea to make an accompanying annotated sketch in your field notebook. Dont use photography as a substitute for field observations - often what appears clear in the field does not show up well on the photograph. EQUIPMENT Camping equipment (tent, sleeping bag, cooking equipment). Rucksack (small day sack, if possible, as well), strong walking boots, spare laces, thick socks, waterproof clothing, sun hat, sunglasses, sun cream. Safety pack including survival bag, whistle, watch, torch, first aid-kit, emergency rations (chocolate bars etc.) Hard-hat Compass-clinometer (possibly one spare one between two people, in case one gets lost) Several strong surveying notebooks Mapping case large enough to take maps and photographs. The mapping case protects these from damage. Geological hammer (possibly a spare one between two people)

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Hand lens Barometer (can be useful for relative heights) Grain size scale Pencils (2H, HB), coloured crayons, pencil sharpener, rubber, tracing paper, graph paper. Two Rotring pens (.25 and/or .35) Ruler, set square, protractor Tape measure (30m and pocket 5m) Sample bags and waterproof markers Binoculars & Camera

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5. BACKGROUND NOTES FOR FIELD OBSERVATIONS

5.1 STRUCTURAL OBSERVATIONS

ORIENTATIONS OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES. One major object of geological mapping is the elucidation of the structural history of the region studied. With this in mind, measurements must be carried out of planar structures such as bedding and foliation, as well as of linear features such the trends of folds. Such measurements are carried out using a compass clinometer, which enables us to gain a three-dimensional picture of the structures in question. For planar structures the measurements taken are the strike and dip, and the direction of dip. The strike of a planar structure is defined as the direction in which a horizontal line can be drawn on the plane. The dip of a planar structure in the angle between the surface of the plane and the horizontal. N 40 45 Strike Dip

In the case above the horizontal line can be drawn on the plane 40 clockwise of north = strike, and the plane dips at 45 from the horizontal = dip. Thus, this plane would have a strike of 040 and a dip of 45. Finally, we need to specify the direction of dip because the horizontal line marking the strike also points 40 clockwise of south, which could equally be a strike of 220. Given that we know where north is we can see that the plane dips to the southeast and therefore we would record our reading as: 040 45SE

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Note that the strike is written as a three digit number (0-360)and the dip as a two digit number (0-90) to avoid all possibility of confusion between the two numbers in your notebook.

Figure 1. Illustration of the left hand rule for strike and dip It is also possible to specify a convention for measuring in which you always know where the dip is with respect to the measured strike. In the figure above the left hand rule is illustrated with the finger pointing to the direction of strike and the dip lies in the direction of the thumb. If such a convention is followed it is not necessary to record the direction of dip. If this is preferred great care much be taken to always follow the convention. It is recommended that the above convention is followed but with the safety net of a recorded dip direction as well.

DESCRIPTIVE TERMS FOR FAULTS AND FRACTURES. Horizontal faults Faults with a dip of about 0; if the fault has a dip between about 10 and 0 it is called subhorizontal. Faults that have a steep dip close to the Earths surface are and have a shallow dip at depth; because of the progressive decrease in dip with depth, listric faults have a curved profile that is concave up. Faults with dips between about 30 and 60. Faults with dips between about 10 and 30; these are also known as low-angle faults. Faults with dips between about 60 and 80; these faults are also called highangle faults.

Listric faults

Moderately dipping faults Shallowly dipping faults

Steeply dipping faults

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Vertical faults

Faults that have a dip of about 90; if the dip is between about 80 and 90 the fault can be called subvertical.

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Dip-slip faults Hanging-wall block

Hanging-wall block

Foot-wall block NORMAL Foot-wall block REVERSE

Strike-slip faults LEFT LATERAL (SINISTRAL)

RIGHT-LATERAL (DEXTRAL)

Oblique-slip faults SINISTRAL/REVERSE SINISTRAL/NORMAL

DEXTRAL/NORMAL

DEXTRAL/REVERSE

Pivot

SCISSORS FAULT

BLOCK DIAGRAM SKETCHES SHOWING THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF FAULTS.

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5.2

Sedimentary Rocks

SCHEME FOR THE DESCIPTION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. By following the following scheme you will be able to make and record observations systematically. Not all of the categories will be appropriate for the particular specimen that you are describing and some categories will have to be used several times for different constituents of the rock. You should always bear formative processes in mind and write these at the end as part of the interpretation. Description is aided if you are aware of the correct terms to use for a particular feature and the tables that follow will help you learn some of these. 1. Brief statement about the general appearance of the specimen, its broad rock category and its state of consolidation (you may need to amend this statement after you have completed a detailed description). e.g. a well indurated, laminated limestone, dark grey when fresh and weathering yellowish brownish. 2. Grain composition(s), abundance(s) and colour(s). 3. Grain-size and grain-size variations (e.g. sorting) 4. Grain shape (e.g. angularity, sphericity etc.) 5. Clast or particle to matrix ration, porosity and permeability, nature of grain contacts. 6. Sedimentary structures. 7. Fossil content (body fossils, trace fossils, orientation, degree of fragmentation, degree of bioturbation etc.) 8. Diagenetic features (cements, dolomitization, silicification, mineralization, concretions etc.) 9. Structural or metamorphic features (faults, joints, veins, cleavage etc.) 10. Weathering 11. Name(s) 12. Interpretation of depositional environment and any subsequent history of development.

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GENERAL DESCRIPTIVE TERMS. Table 1. Principal groups of sedimentary rocks (from Tucker, 1991) Siliciclastic sediments Conglomerates and breccias, sandstones and mudrocks Biogenic, biochemical, and organic sediments Limestones and dolomites, cherts, phosphates, coal and oil shale Chemical sediments Evaporites and ironstones Volcaniclastic sediments Ignimbrites, tuffs and hyaloclastites

Table 2. Qualitative terminology for induration (degree of consolidation). Modified from Graham (in Tucker, 1988). Unconsolidated Loose sediment Very friable Crumbles easily between fingers Friable Rubbing with fingers frees numerous grain; gentle blow with hammer disintegrates sample Indurated Grains can be separate from sample using a steel implement; breaks easily when hit with a hammer Well indurated Grains are difficult to separate with a steel implement; difficult to break with a hammer Very well indurated Sharp blow with a hammer needed to break sample; fracture occurs across most grains Table 3. Terminology for bed thickness Very thickly bedded 1 metre --------------- ---------------------------------------------------Thickly bedded 0.3 metres --------------- ---------------------------------------------------Medium bedded 0.1 metres --------------- ---------------------------------------------------Thinly bedded 0.03 metres --------------- ---------------------------------------------------Very thinly bedded 10 millimetres --------------- ---------------------------------------------------Thickly laminated

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3 millimetres --------------- ---------------------------------------------------Thinly laminated

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SILICICLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. These are dominated by silicate minerals and rock fragments. Table 4. Grain-size scale for sediments and sedimentary rocks, used particularly for siliciclastics (Udden-Wentworth) mm -----256 128 -----64 32 16 8 ----------4 2 1 0.5 0.25 0.125 -----0.062 0.031 0.016 0.008 --------------------------------------------------Phi -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 -------------------------------GRANULES ----------------- ---------------------------V. Coarse S A N D Coarse Med. Fine Sand, sandstone, arenites, & arenaceous sediments ----------Class terms BOULDERS ----------------COBBLES Gravel, rudite, ----------------- conglomerate, breccia & rudaceous sediments Terms implying grain size

PEBBLES

V. fine ----------------- ---------------------------Coarse S I Med. L Silt & siltstone T Fine

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------

0.004

------

------

------

V. fine ----------------- ---------------------------CLAY Clay, claystone & argillite

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MUDROCKS (ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS). Table 5. Scheme for nomenclature of fine-grained siliciclastic sedimentary rocks (from Graham, in Tucker, 1988). Common terms in bold. Breaking characteristics Grain Size General term Non-fissile Fissile Silt + clay Mudrock Mudstone Shale Silt >> clay Siltrock Siltstone Silt shale Clay >> silt Clayrock Claystone Clay shale SANDSTONES (ARENACEOUS ROCKS) There are five components that commonly make up a sandstone: quartz grains, feldspar grains, rock-fragments (lithic grains), matrix, and cement. The matrix, if present, comprises clay and silt-sized particles. Common cements are quartz and calcite; a red colouration is occasionally observed due to the presence of haematite. Sandstones are classified on the basis of percentage quartz (+ chert), feldspar, rock fragments, and matrix (as shown below). Figure 1. Classification of sandstones (Pettijohn et al., 1973).

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mudrocks wackes arenites quartzwacke 5 quartz arenite subarkose arkose lithic arkose sublitharenite arkosic arenite litharenite 50 0 15

QUARTZ
5 25 feldsp.lithic greywacke

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FELDSPAR

ROCK FRAGMENTS

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CONGLOMERATES AND BRECCIAS. Important features to note in conglomerates (rounded clasts) and breccias (angular clasts) are the types of clast present and grain-size distributions. Clasts may be intraformational (almost contemporaneous) or extraformational (from pre-existing rocks). There may be a variety of rock types present as clasts (polymictic) or just one type (oligomictic). Further features to note are whether the rock is clastsupported or matrix-supported and if the clast have any preferred orientation(s). LIMESTONES. Three components make up the majority of limestones: carbonate grains (allochems); micrtie (microcrystalline calcite) and sparite (very finely to very coarsely crystalline calcite cement). The main allochems are oids, peloids, bioclasts (skeletal grains) and intraclasts.

Table 6. Schemes for classification of limestones. A. Based on grain size Most grains: > 2 mm Calcirudite 2mm 62m Calcarenite < 62m calcilutite

B. Based on dominant constituent (Folk) Dominant constituent Oids Peloids Bioclasts Intraclasts Rock type Sparite cement Osparite Pelsparite Biosparite Intrasparite In situ growth: biolithite Micrite Omicrite Pelmicrite Biomicrite Intramicrite

C. Based on texture (Dunham) Textural features Carbonate mud absent Carbonate mud present GrainSupported Mud-supported (>10% grains) Mud-supported (<10% grains) Rock types Grainstone Packstone Wackestone (lime) mudstone

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Components organically bound

Boundstone

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ALL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. Table 7. Informal terms for describing rocks in which crystallinity is a key characteristic (Tucker, 1982). 2 mm Very coarsely crystalline 1 mm Coarsely crystalline 0.5 mm Medium crystalline 0.25mm Finely crystalline 0.125 mm Very finely crystalline 0.063 mm Microcrystalline 0.004 mm Cryptocrystalline Table 8. Common sedimentary structures. (Modified from Graham, in Tucker, 1988) Observed primarily as internal structures of beds in section: Cross-stratification Lamination Grading Soft sediment deformation Bioturbation (general burrowing) and trace fossils Stromatolites Pedogenic horizons, hardgrounds Cavities (mainly in limestones) Concretions (whole specimen may be a concretion) Styolites (dissolution) Observed primarily on bedding surfaces (i) Best seen on bottom surfaces (sole marks) Flute marks Tool marks Load casts Topographic infill above bedforms (ii) Best seen on top surfaces Bed forms (e.g. ripple, dunes, hummocks) Shrinkage cracks Sand volcanoes Raindrop impressions (iii) Seen on both top and bottom surfaces Trace fossils Primary current lineation

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5.3 Igneous Rocks

DESCRIPTION OF IGNEOUS ROCK HAND SPECIMENS. Make an examination taking account of the following features: (a) Grain size Phaneritic (Coarse) : crystals visible to the naked eye 1. coarse grain grains essentially > 5mm 2. medium grain grains 1-5mm 3. fine grain grains < 1mm Aphanitic (Fine): hand lens needed 1. Microcrystalline grains visible under the microscope 2. Cryptocrystalline not distinguishable microscopically but crystallinity indicated by such methods as X-ray 3. Glassy essentially amorphous no crystalline structure distinguishable This description should also include any detail about variations e.g. porphyritic textures etc. (b) Average colour Colour can also be defined according to a colour index, which is the volume percentage M of the mafic minerals present: M100-90: ultramafic; M90-65: Melanocratic; M65-35: Mesocratic: and M35-0: Leucocratic (c) Crystallinity Wholly, partly, or non-crystalline (may be glassy). This should also include a description of crystal shape and size, including variations, as well as the proportion of glass, if any, present. 1. 2. (d) Density Holocrystalline Hypocrystalline Holohyaline composed entirely of crystalline grains composed partly of crystalline grains and partly of glass (essentially a porphyritic glass) composed of glass

Low, medium or high. This is usually only a rough estimate from hefting the specimen in your hands. (e) Fabric Does the rock have any obvious arrangement or pattern of its constituent minerals? The rock may be streaky, layered, banded, laminated, lineated or contain inclusions. Characteristic textures of volcanic rocks are vesicular,

31

amygdaloidal, prophyritic, streaky, and graded (as in pyroclastics). Characteristic textures of intrusive rocks are equigranular, porphyritic, drusy, granophyric, pegmatitic, ophitic, layered, laminated, veined, xenolithic. (f) Mineralogy List all the minerals you can identify from cleavage, habit, colour, lustre, twinning, hardness etc., and estimate their relative amounts. 1. Primary Minerals those crystallizing directly from magma a. Essential Minerals minerals which determine the root name of the rock. b. Characterizing Accessory Minerals minerals whose presence modifies the root name. c. Minor Accessory Minerals minerals whose presence do not affect the name of the rock. d. Colour depends on both grain size and mineral content. The terms leucocratic, mesocratic and melanocratic are used for light, medium and dark coloured rocks. e. Texture mineral textures can often give the petrologist useful information: 1. zoning indicates change in fluid composition during mineral growth 2. exsolution indicates subsolidus exsolution of mineral phases during slow cooling 3. embayments indicates phenocryst not in equilibrium with fluid, common during volcanic eruptions 4. order of crystallisation worked out by studying which mineral encloses which. 2. Secondary Minerals minerals formed by the alteration of primary minerals, or deposited after solidification of the igneous body. Common types of Secondary processes: a. Kaolinization alteration of alkali feldspars to clay minerals b. Saussuritization alteration of calcic plagioclase to saussurite, a mixture of albite and epidote minerals. It is characterized by a greasy luster, green colour, and absence of cleavage and twinning c Chloritization alteration of Fe, Mg minerals to chlorite d. Serpentinization alteration of Fe, Mg minerals to serpentine e. Uralitization alteration of replacement of pyroxene to amphiboles (uralite) f. Silicification replacement of part of the rock by secondary silica g. Propylitization the formation is propylite, common to andesites, by the: 1. alteration of plagioclase to albite + epidote 2. alteration of Fe, Mg minerals to chlorite, calcite, Using your assessment of the points above classify the rock(s) according to your preferred scheme.

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Q
Quartzolite

PLUTONIC ROCKS (Phaneritic Texture)

90

Qtz-rich Granitoids 60

Gr a

ra n i te 1,

Granite

nod iori t

3 lit e na To

ld G

20
Qtz.-Alk-Feld. Syenite 1
Alk-Feld Syenite 1

A lk

- fe

t e/ iori o/ tz . D bbr t e Q z . Ga t hos i Q t A n or tz Q

Quartz Syenite Syenite Foid-bearing Syenite4

Fo

Quartz Monzonite Monzonite Foid-bearing Monzonite4

Quartz Monzodiorite / Quartz Monzogabbro

Mo nz od io rite / Mo nz og ab b ro

Diorite/ Gabbro/ Anort hosite

A
Foid-bearing Alk. Syenite1,4 10

P
Foid-bearing Diorite/ Gabbro4

Foid-bearing Monz odiorit e/ Monz ogabbro4

60 Foidolite5,8

F
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Specify alkali feldspar in each case (e.g. orthoclase granite) Alaskite may be used for light coloured alkali-feldspar granite Trondhjemite may be used for light-coloured tonalite that contains oligoclase or andesine Specify feldspathoid(s) present in each case (e.g. nepheline-bearing syenite Specify feldspathoid(s) present in each case (e.g. nepheline syenite) Essexite may be used for nepheline monzodiorite/ monzogabbro Theralite = nepheline gabbro / Teschenite = analcite gabbro Many special names exist (e.g. nepheline-rich foidolites include urtite & ijolite)
33

Fo id D i or

it e/

Q = Quartz A = Alkali feldspar P = Plagioclase F = Feldspathoids

Fo id

Foid Monzosyenite5

Foid Monzodiorite/ Foid Monzogabbro 5,6

Ga

bb ro 5

,7

S id n it ye e5

VOLCANIC ROCKS (Aphanitic, Glassy texture)

90

60

lit e

20
Qt Traz.-Alk chy ali te

A lk

al i R

hy o

Rhyolite1

Dacite 1

ic leiit T hoas alt B

Quartz Trachyte Trachyte

Quartz Latite Latite Foid-bearing Latite

Andesite
Andesite/ Basalt2,3

Alkali Trach yte5

P
(Alkali basalt/ Hawaiite)

Foid-bearing Alk. Syenite 1,4 10

Foid-bearing Trachyte

(Mugearite)

60

Phonolitic Tephritic Foidite (Basanitic) Foidite

Te p

90 Foidite

F
1. Rocks transitional between rhyolite and dacite are termed rhyodacites 2. Most but not all andesites fall in the field indicated 3. Basalts and andesites distinguished by basalts containing plagioclase compositions >An50 and pyroxene (augite or hypersthene) or olivine as the main mafic phases, whereas andesites have <An50 and hornblende or hypersthene as the main mafic phases 4. Basanite is used for rocks with >5% olivine 5. The root name is foidite but the feldspathoid(s) present must be specified (e.g. nephelinite). 34 If olivine-rich use olivine nephelinite etc.

hr it e

/B

Q = Quartz A = Alkali feldspar P = Plagioclase F = Feldspathoids

as a

Tephritic Phonolite

Phonolitic Tephrite

ni te 4

te oli on Ph

Plagioclase
Anorthosite

90

65
li te ct o Tro ori te

General modal classification and nomenclature of the Gabbroic rocks

Olivine gabbronorite

35

10 Plagioclase-bearing ultramafic rocks

Ga bb r on

Pyroxene Plagioclase
Anorthosite

Olivine

90
Modal classification and nomenclature of the orthopyroxene bearing Gabbroic rocks

65
ro bb ga

no rit e

gabbronorite

35

10 Plagioclase-bearing pyroxenites

orthopyroxene

Clinopyroxene
35

5.4

Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks are those transformed from other rocks, and are commonly also deformed. They have a history which must be deciphered. Therefore, they need to be described in several ways: - As metamorphic rocks, with a view to determining the conditions of metamorphism. - In terms of the original, pre-metamorphic rock type. - In terms of the deformation processes that in many cases accompany metamorphism. DESCRIPTION OF METAMORPHIC ROCK HAND SPECIMENS. Make an examination taking account of the following features: - Composition: by identifying minerals and estimating their relative proportions. - Structure and microstructure on the outcrop to microscopic (hand lens) scale: compositional layering, relict sedimentary or igneous textures, porphyroblasts, folding/microfolding, preferred orientations, penetrative or spaced cleavages. Doing this well requires skill and experience, but a good start is made by developing good technique with a hand lens and getting plenty of practice (e.g. on laboratory practical materials). Hand Lens Technique Which bit of the rock should I look at? Often the first impulse is to knock a bit off and look at a fresh surface. However, fresh, broken surfaces of metamorphic rocks are commonly dark and uniform in appearance, and none too helpful. The most informative surfaces are those which have undergone some surface weathering (which etches the rock, clouds feldspar, picks out cleavages, enhances colour and texture contrasts) but which have not become coated with lichen, algae or other encrustations. In coastal outcrop, the cleanest rock can generally be found near the high-water mark. On inland exposure, try looking at the more exposed edges of outcrops, or else down near the soil level.

36

What's the best way to use my hand lens? Using a hand lens efficiently means reconciling two partly conflicting aims: firstly, getting a comfortably large field of view, which means putting the lens and thus the sample close to your eye, and secondly, getting as much light as possible onto the sample. So, follow these tips, or you will find hand lens work frustrating: - Put the lens up close against your eye. If you wear glasses, it's usually best to take them off. - Position yourself with the light (direct sun, ideally) coming over your shoulder onto the specimen or outcrop (your right shoulder if using your right eye). Take your hat off, assuming it's safe to do so. Nothing should block the light. - Move the specimen towards your eye until it is in focus; or, move your head towards the outcrop - don't be ashamed to grovel in pursuit of petrographic information. Don't squint or strain: relax your eyes and focus as if you're looking into the distance - the lens will do the rest. More specific training in recognising features of metamorphic and structural interest was provided during the NW Scotland Field Course, particularly in assignments B and C. Norman Fry's Geological Society Handbook, The Field Description of Metamorphic Rocks, is quite comprehensive and is recommended.

TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING METAMORPHIC ROCKS Prefixes and Suffixes. Metaa metamorphic rock in which the original fabric, sedimentary or igneous, can still be recognised e.g. meta-greywacke, meta-basalt. Ortho - A metamorphic rock derived from an igneous parent e.g. orthogenesis. Para - a metamorphic rock derived from a sedimentary parent e.g. paragenesis. -fels - a term used, particularly in continental literature, to describe massive metamorphic rock lacking a foliation e.g. hornfels. In British literature rock is often used in this sense calcsilicate rock. Blasto - a residual texture or feature in a now metamorphosed rock e.g. blastophitic.

37

-blast

or blastic a texture or feature ehich is metamorphic in origin. Used to

qualify terms which might imply another mode of formation e.g. porphyroblasticporphyritic, xenoblastic-xenomorphic, granoblastic-granular. -clast or clastic a texture or feature of cataclastic origin e.g. porphyroclasticporphyritic. Metamorphic rocks are derived from igneous or sedimentary parents and may be described in terms of the chemical classes used for these rocks. 1. Quartzofeldspathic rocks. Sandstones (psammites) arenaceous rocks (coarse detritals, arkoses), some greywackes, cherts, acid to intermediate igneous rocks. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Pelitic rocks. Clays (argillaceous rocks), shales. Semipelite. Mixtures of sandstone and shale, many greywackes. Carbonate. Limestone and dolomites. Basic rocks. Marls, some greywackes, intermediate to basic igneous rocks. Magnesian rocks. Chlorite-rich shales, ultrabasic igneous rocks. Ferruginous and manganese rich rocks. Ferruginous and manganiferous

sediments. In contrast to Igneous or sedimentary rocks there are relatively few special names or rigid divisions in classifying metamorphic rocks. With this flexibility a name should convey some information about the rock in question. This information could include: The nature of the parent material The textures if the rock The mineral assemblage.

Megascopic Characters There are two fundamental types of metamorphic rock-foliated and massive. These can be further subdivided using grainsize, the presence or absence of porphyroblasts, colour, the nature of foliation etc. Other structural elements such as folding, lineation, two or more S planes, should also be recorded.

38

A slate is a fine-grained rock with perfect fissility (cleavage), independent of bedding, resulting from parallel orientation of micaceous minerals. It is a product of the regional or dynamic metamorphism of pelitic and semipelitic rocks. A phyllite is a rock resembling slate but coarser in grainsize. The coarser grainsize of the micaceous minerals imparts a lustrous sheen tot the cleavage surfaces. A schist is a foliated, and sometimes lineated rock coarser than slate and phylllite. The foliation is accentuated by the occurrence of a fine mineral lamination resulting from metamorphic differentiation. Both phyllites and schists are the products of regional metamorphism. A gneiss is a medium to coarse-grained rock consisting of mineralogically dissimilar laminae thicker than those of schists. The foliation tends to be ill-defined and discontinuous. Gneiss are products of regional metamorphism and/or migmatisation. A hornfels is a massive nonfoliated rock, generally fine-grained, composed of a mosaic of equidimensional grains (grano-blastic or decussate texture). It occurs almost exclusively, as the product of medium or high-grade contact metamorphism. Metamorphic Rock Nomenclature Many metamorphic rocks are defined in terms of a combination of fabric and mineralogy e.g., garnet-biotite schist; cordierite-andalusite hornfels; kyanite gneiss. Others are described by a nomenclature based on their igneous or sedimentary parentage e.g. pelite; semi-pelite; marble; metadolerite; metabasalt etc. Yet other massive or weakly foliated rocks of nominerallic or biminerallic composition are classified purely on a mineralogical basis e.g. amphibolite; garnet pyroxenite. Compared with igneous petrology, relatively few mineral assemblages have been assigned specific names. Blueschist; eclogite; charnockite, are examples of such rock types.

39

Textural features of hand specimens Foliation: a planar structure resulting from the parallel or subparallel arrangement of platy or fibrous minerals or from a mineralogical layering or from both of these. The term is equivalent to the S surface of structural geologists a plane of discontinuity within a rock. An initial subdivision of hand specimens of metamorphic rocks can be made on the basis of absence or presence or type (cleavage, schistosity, gneissic) of foliation. Three types of foliation: (a) (b) (c) Cleavage a perfect fissility defined by the parallel orientation of platy Schistosity a less perfect fissility defined by the parallel orientation of platy Gnessic foliation subparallel layers, streaks or plates of contrasting

minerals in fine grained rocks (slates, phyllites). materials in somewhat coarser grained, recrystallised rocks (schists). mineralogy (often consisting of lighter felsic layers and darker mafic layers) occurring in coarser grained rocks (gneisses). A single specimen may show traces of more than one S surface and these can be described as S1, S2, S3 etc. if their relationships can be deciphered. Lineation: a parallel arrangement of linear units within an S plane. Four types of lineation: (a) (b) (c) (d) parallel orientation of elongate minerals the intersection of two S surfaces minor folding or crumpling of an S surface elongation or grain aggregates into rods or pencils

Terms employed in describing the textures and mutual relations of metamorphic rocks. Crystallinity coarse, medium or fine grained as in igneous rocks. Crystoballatic a general term applied to the textures of rocks formed by

40

metamorphic recrystallisation. Idioblastic describes a grain in a metamorphic rock which shows crystal faces. Xenoblastic describes a grain in a metamorphic rock which shows no crystal faces. Granoblastic (granular) the texture of massive rocks when all minerals are about the same size c.f. fels. Mosaic texture a granoblastic texture resulting from sub-grain formation in which the sub-grain boundaries differ slightly in orientation. Sutured texture a granoblastic texture in which mutual grain boundaries have an irregular interlocking form. Lepidoblastic the parallel or subparallel arrangement of platy minerals (micas, chlorites, etc.). Nematoblastic the parallel or subparallel arrangement of fibrous minerals. Porphyroblastic a texture in which large crystalloblasts are set in a finer grained matrix (ground mass). Poikiloblastic a texture in which porphyroblastic minerals contain inclusions of another material. The descriptive term sieve texture is sometimes used. Trails the regular, often parallel arrangement of inclusions within a poikiloblast. Trails may sometimes be curved, folded or spiral-like. In the latter case they are described as rotational texture. The trails are often the trace of a foliation and in petrofabric studies are described as Si (international foliation), the foliation of the matrix being Se (external foliation). Foliated, schistose, cleaved parallel or laminated structures the detailed nature of which can de described from the thin section. Maculose or Spotted texture porphyroblastic minerals developed in a granoblastic (often hornfelsic) matrix.

METAMORPHIC SETTINGS: Contact Metamorphism Contact or thermal metamorphism occurs adjacent to igneous rocks. The dominant effect is that of temperature and the pressure effect is always subordinate if not

41

negligible. The steep temperature gradient, decreasing away from the hot igneous contact towards the unaltered country rock, characteristically gives rise to zones of metamorphic rocks which differ in their mineralogy and fabric. The zone of rocks affected by contact metamorphism is known as the contact aureole. The following rock names are frequently applied to contact metamorphic rocks:Spotted slate or schist partially recrystallised rocks from the outer zones of contact aureoles. The spots are porphyroblasts of minerals such as andalusite or cordierite or segregations of carbonaceous matter which appear to represent the incipient crystallisation of these minerals. Pencatite a rock consisting of calcite and periclase (and/or brucite) in approximately equal proportions. Formed by the metamorphism of dolomite. Predazzite a rock consisting of calcite together with smaller amounts of periclase and/or brucite. Formed by the metamorphism of dolomitic limestone. Ophicalcite a contact metamorphosed calcite-serpentine rock with a delicately mottled appearance due to the colour contrast between these minerals. Calc-flinta a very fine grained flinty calc-silicate rock produced by contact metamorphism. Often has a finely banded structure, or more rarely the minerals recrystallise in concentric fashion. Porcellanite a hard, very fine grained rock with a porcelain-like fracture and fabric. Porcellanites are formed by the baking of clays or shales at an igneous contact. Fritted or vitrified sandstone a hard massive rock in which quartz grains are set in a silica glass and/or tridymite matrix formed by melting. Buchite a partially fused hornfelsic rock, generally of sedimentary origin, found as xenoliths in igneous rocks. It is often characterised by alumina-rich minerals such as corundum, mullite, spinel, sillimanite and cordierite which, together with feldspars, pyroxenes and silica minerals, are set in a glassy matrix. Sanidinite a buchite-like rock containing sanidine in addition to the minerals listed. Dynamic Metamorphism

42

Dynamic (or cataclastic) metamorphism is the product of rock deformation, principally folding, faulting and thrusting. Mechanical crushing and/or shearing cause changes in the rock fabric, sometimes without significant recrystallisation. Other types of cataclastic rock include:Augen schist and augen gneiss porphyroclasts or eyes (augen) of original rock or original minerals set in a schistose or gneissose matrix. The term flaser rock has a similar meaning. Phyllonite or phyllite mylonite a rock of phyllitic appearance produced by the mylonitic breakdown of a coarser-grained rock as a result of differential movement on structural surfaces. The superimposition of shearing on older S surfaces gives a characteristic lenticular structure to the rock. Regional Metamorphism Metamorphic rocks which do not have the relatively localised distribution characteristic of contact or dynamic metamorphism, but which occur on a regional scale, are the products of regional metamorphism. The mineralogy and texture of regional metamorphic rocks generally reflect the influence of both pressure and temperature (regional dynamothermal metamorphism) and tend to be related to orogenesis. Another form of regional metamorphism bears little or no genetic relationship to orogenesis and is produced dominantly by load pressure with temperature playing a subordinate role (regional burial metamorphism). The following rock names are frequently applied to regional metamorphic rocks:Greenschist a schistose rock rich in green minerals such as chlorite, tremolite and epidote and hence the product of low grade regional metamorphism of pelitic or basic/ultrabasic rocks. Greenstone a massive rock rich in green minerals as above. Commonly derived from igneous rocks. Epidiorite a term thoroughly entrenched in British literature synonymous with amphibolite. Blueschist a schistose rock rich in glaucophane. Formed frompelitic, semipelitic and basic rocks in low grade regional metamorphism.

43

Charnockite - a rock of generally acid composition consisting of quartz, feldpar, hypersthene, garnet and ore. Formed in very high grade regional metamorphism. Eclogite a basic or ultrabasic rock characterised by the association garnetclinopyroxene (soda-rich omphacite) and in which feldspar, though present in the norm, is not stable. Metasomatism Metamorphism is normally regarded as being an iso-chemical process, i.e. on a gross scale the bulk composition of the rock undergoes no change in chemical composition other than dehydration (or decarbonation in the case of carbonates). When ions are added to or removed from the rock in sufficient quantity to create a significant change in bulk composition, the process is known as metasomatism. The following rock names are frequently applied to metasomatic rocks:Skarn - a Swedish mining term for the silicate matrix of ores found within limestones. The term is now used to describe rocks found at limestone-igneous rock contacts, where the skarn often shows a complex zonation and has a composition or compositions which contrast strongly with the compositions of the rocks on either side. Luxullianite a partially tourmalinised granite consisting of pheno-crysts of pink feldspar set in a ground mass consisting of tourmaline and quartz. Schorl a completely tourmalinised granite consisting of tourmaline and quartz. Adinole an albite-rich rock formed by contact metasomatism generally at shale/dolerite contacts. Greisen a quartz-mica (muscovite or lepidolite) rock occurring near the contacts of granite masses. Forms layers and veins which are gradational into unaltered granite. Contains topaz and a large range of accessory and ore minerals.

44

METAMORPHIC FACIES Certain minerals and assemblages of minerals are known to occur only under restricted conditions of temperature and pressure. A group of metamorphic mineral assemblages which is repeatedly associated in space and time, such that there is a constant relation between mineralogy and bulk chemical composition of the rock, defines a metamorphic facies. By investigating the limiting conditions under which diagnostic minerals and assemblages occur, using experimental mineralogy and petrology, it has proved possible to place approximate temperature and pressure limits on each metamorphic facies.

Metamorphic Facies Series Certain groups of facies frequently show similar spatial relationships in the field. These are known as facies series. Recognition of these facies and their spatial relationships enables metamorphic petrologists to make reasonably accurate estimates of the thermal and pressure history of an area. Taken in conjunction with structural geology studies, this permits the geological history of metamorphic areas to be unravelled.

45

Mineral Identification In the Field- Survival Guide! Recognition of minerals in hand specimen is a skill which develops in parallel with increasing field experience. The following gives properties of common minerals encountered in the field and hopefully should assist you towards an identification: General Rock-Forming Minerals Quartz: White to pale grey; will not scratch knife blade i.e. hardness of quartz=7; it usually has a glassy appearance not opaque except in veins where it can be milky. Calcite: White and cleaved ; hardness of ~3 and easily scratched this helps differentiate from quartz; fizzes with dilute HCl. Dolomite: yellowish brown, hardness ~3.5. fizzes with dilute HCl only when powdered. Feldspars: Hardness Usually plagioclase is white and potassium feldspar (orthoclase) is pink. Easy to distinguish from quartz as they are usually opaque not glassy like quartz. They maybe replaced by epidote (especially plagioclase) which imparts an apple green colour. Pyroxene: Hardness of 5-6; Typically dark green-black in colour. forms prismatic crystals. two cleavages at 90 degrees if you can see them. Amphiboles : Hardness 5-6 easy to confuse with pyroxene but have two cleavages at 120 degrees. Hornblende the most commonly encountered may be green or black often forms long prisms or needles. Epidote: Hardness 6; green colour usually in veins or replacing feldspar. Serpentine: Hardness 4-6. It has a waxy lustre and occurs in structureless masses i.e. it is massive in hand specimen. Formed in the marble from hydration of olivine var. forsterite. Chlorite: Hardness ~2; Pale to dark green; found on fault planes and as an alteration of mafic silicates. Micas: Hardness 2.5 easily scratched - Biotite (dark brown) and Muscovite (silvery grey) are most commonly encountered. Two of the easiest to identify in the field. Metamorphic Minerals Garnet: Hardness 6-7.5; Reddish to dark brown. usually forms equant grains. Andalusite: Hardness 7. Pink or white in colour. Elongate prisms with square looking basal sections. Sillimanite: Hardness 7. White with pearly lustre. Sometimes occurs as bundles of fibres (fibrolite) several mm across. Cordierite: Hardness 7. Porphyroblasts up to 2 cm across can be sometimes observed- cordierite is commonly pinitised.

46

Staurolite: Hardness 7. Golden brown prisms in pelites. This list is not comprehensive but should help for the most common minerals.

47