Shell Exploration & Production

P180 Development & Operation of Production Systems Rotating Equipment Engineering Machinery Basics
Copyright: Shell Exploration & Production Ltd.

David Moore

3/18/2005

File Title

Driven Machines and Drivers

DRIVERS
TRANSMISSION

DRIVEN UNIT

Please click on notes

Machinery, also known as Rotating Equipment or (less often) Running Equipment, is vital to E&P production operations. Rotating Equipment may be divided into two broad categories: 1. Driven machines. 2. Drivers.

Driven Unit
DRIVERS
TRANSMISSION

DRIVEN UNIT

PUMP COMPRESSOR GENERATOR

The driven machines used in E&P are generally pumps, compressors and generators. Pumps and compressors are required in various parts of the production process to increase the pressure of oil, gas, water or some other process fluid. Generators are required to provide electrical power at remote locations, or to back up mains supplies in an emergency.

Drivers
DRIVERS
TRANSMISSION

BASEPLATE ENCLOSURE LUBRICATION COOLING VENTILATION AIR INTAKE ETC

DRIVEN UNIT

GAS TURBINE ELECTRIC MOTOR DIESEL ENGINE GAS ENGINE

Drivers, or prime movers, provide the energy input to the driven unit. They may be categorised as either fired or unfired. Fired drivers are machines which burn fuel to produce energy. In E&P the main examples of this type of driver are gas turbines, gas engines and diesel engines. The main type of unfired driver in E&P is the electric motor: this does not burn fuel, but converts electrical energy into mechanical power.

Transmission
DRIVERS
TRANSMISSION

DRIVEN UNIT

GEARBOX CLUTCH FLUID COUPLING FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS

A transmission is required to connect the output of the driver to the input of the driven machine. This transmission may be a simple drive shaft connecting one machine to the other. However, the rotation speeds of the driver and driven equipment are often not ideally matched and a speed changing device, a gearbox, has to be placed between the two units..

Machinery Package
DRIVERS
TRANSMISSION

BASEPLATE ENCLOSURE LUBRICATION COOLING VENTILATION AIR INTAKE ETC

DRIVEN UNIT

GAS TURBINE ELECTRIC MOTOR DIESEL ENGINE GAS ENGINE

GEARBOX CLUTCH FLUID COUPLING FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS

PUMP COMPRESSOR GENERATOR

Most major equipment used in E&P applications is procured as Packages, consisting of driver, driven machine and transmission as well as support systems and auxiliaries. The Package is procured from a Lead Vendor who is made responsible for the many interfaces involved in successfully specifying a machinery package. The principal variable in driver package supply is the quality of accessories, these are the legitimate concern of a user to specify proper quality for his application. This means precise application of the Shell DEPs

Main Classes of Fluid Machine

Turbomachines:

Centrifugal Axial

Displacement Machines:
Reciprocating Rotary

The two major classifications of fluid machinery are: 1. Turbomachines, also known as Rotodynamic machines or just Dynamic machines 2. Displacement machines, also known as Positive Displacement machines. These two classifications apply to machines handling any fluid, whether it is a gas or a liquid: the same basic principles apply. However, the working principles of Turbomachines and Displacement machines are radically different. Turbomachines work by putting kinetic energy into the fluid and then converting that kinetic energy into pressure. Displacement machines work by enclosing fluid in a moving part of the machine and transporting both fluid and machine part from inlet to outlet. The difference may be likened to two ways of carrying water to put out a fire: we could either fill buckets with water and then throw the water toward the fire (the turbomachine), or we could fill the bucket, carry it to the fire and empty it (displacement machine).

Turbomachinery Working Principle

A high speed rotating component - the ROTOR or IMPELLER - adds kinetic

energy to the fluid The fluid then flows into a static component - the STATOR or DIFFUSER in which the kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy diffuser: a flow duct whose cross sectional area increases in the Bernouillis equation: downstream direction p + V2 = constant p = pressure as flow area increases, fluid velocity = density decreases V = velocity as fluid velocity decreases, pressure increases

Turbomachines work by putting kinetic energy into the fluid and then converting that kinetic energy into pressure. The kinetic energy is put into the fluid by a rotor, usually known as the impeller. The kinetic energy is converted to pressure by reducing velocity. This is done by increasing the flow area after impeller discharge and hence reducing the velocity so that velocity is converted into pressure in accordance with Bernouillis equation. Flow through a turbomachine is continuous. There is a direct flow path between the suction and discharge of the machine: if it stops rotating the fluid will flow back through the machine.

Turbomachine Rotors

Centrifugal Impeller

Axial Impeller

The rotor or impeller of a turbomachine may be either centrifugal or axial. In the centrifugal impeller, the fluid at inlet moves parallel to the axis of rotation. The inlet of a centrifugal impeller is known as the eye of the impeller. Fluid is then accelerated and is discharged from the outer diameter of the rotor with high radial and tangential (whirl) velocity. In the axial impeller, the fluid is not accelerated radially. The general motion of the fluid is parallel to the axis of rotation and the acceleration is tangential, that is whirl velocity increases. Turbomachine rotors may be a mixture of these two types in which the outlet fluid flow has radial, tangential and axial velocity: these rotors are known as mixed flow impellers. Axial turbomachines are used for low pressure, high volume applications. Centrifugal machines are used for low flow, high pressure applications.

Turbomachine stators: diffusers

AXIAL (BOWL) DIFFUSER

SCROLL DIFFUSER

RADIAL DIFFUSER

As stated earlier, the stator of a turbomachine is a flow duct whose cross sectional area increases in the direction of flow. This increase in area will decrease the velocity of the fluid and increase its pressure. The stator actually has three functions - the three Cs 1. Collect: all the fluid discharged by the rotor. 2. Convert: decrease the fluid velocity and increase its pressure, in other words, convert Kinetic energy to Pressure. 3. Convey: the fluid to where it is required next - either the outlet connection of the machine, or the next component in the machine. In principle, a stator can be any arbitrary three dimensional shape as long as it does these three things, and the shape chosen depends on the overall design of the machine. There are a few generic types of stator or diffuser. The simplest type is the scroll diffuser, or volute, which is essentially a length of pipe bent around the outlet of the impeller. Fluid enters the volute through a slot on its inside diameter. The diffuser has a flow area very much greater than that of the impeller outlet and the fluid velocity is converted to pressure. the scroll is arranged in a sort of helix around the impeller, and the outer end also serves as a connection to the discharge pipeline. The radial diffuser consists of a solid ring in which tapered tangential slots have been cut. These slots widen outward from the impeller discharge hence causing the velocity decrease and pressure increase required. The radial diffuser is most frequently combined with a volute type stator. The previous types of stator have been in the same plane as the impeller. However the bowl diffuser is arranged axially. Here the fluid discharges radially and is turned into a direction parallel with the axis of rotation, while the flow area increases. Discharge from this stator can be taken into the eye of another impeller to form a multistage machine.

Turbomachine Performance Curve

Pressure

Increasing Speed, Diameter, Density

Flow

All turbomachines have the same generic pressure - flow characteristic. For a given design of machine, the following relationships with impeller speed and diameter hold: Flow is proportional to speed and diameter. Pressure is proportional to fluid density, speed squared and diameter squared. Power absorbed is proportional to fluid density, speed cubed and diameter cubed. (Strictly, these relationships hold for geometrically similar rotors.) There is a practical limit to the pressure that can be generated by a simple turbomachine: for higher outputs it is common to build a machine with a series of impellers in the same casing.

Displacement Machines: Reciprocating

CONNECTIN G ROD

In a displacement machine, discrete volumes of fluid are moved from suction to discharge and there is no direct connection at any time between the suction and discharge pipes. In the reciprocating displacement machine, a rotating crank converts the rotary motion of the drive motor into reciprocating motion through the connecting rod. The connecting rod is attached to the piston rod at the crosshead bearing which ensures that the end of the piston moves linearly. The piston moves inside the cylinder and physically moves the fluid to and fro. When the piston moves so as to increase the enclosed volume, the suction valve opens and fluid enters the cylinder while the discharge valve remains shut. When the piston moves so as to decrease the enclosed volume, the suction valve is pushed shut while the discharge valve opens. When both sides of the piston are used as shown, the machine is said to be double acting. When only one side of the piston and cylinder are used, the machine is single acting. In the reciprocating pump or compressor, the suction and discharge flow are intermittent.

Video clip: Reciprocating machine.

This clip shows how the rotary motion of an engine or motor is converted to reciprocating motion by the slider crank mechanism. As the piston moves toward the end of the cylinder it pushes fluid out, the discharge valve opens and the suction valve shuts. As the piston moves away from the cylinder end the suction valve opens, fluid is pulled into the cylinder, and the discharge valve shuts.

Displacement Machines: Rotary

THREE LOBE PUMP

As with reciprocating machines, discrete volumes of fluid are moved from suction to discharge. However, rotary machines do not use valves. Instead, the design of the rotors and casing are such that direct communication between suction and discharge ports is prevented. Suction and discharge flow are continuous. There are many designs of rotary machine but all work on this principle.

Video clip: Rotary machine

In this video clip of a rotary machine flow enters at the top and is discharged at the bottom. You can see that volumes of fluid are enclosed between the lobes of the rotors and the casing, then displaced from suction to discharge. By meshing together, the rotors prevent backflow from the discharge. NOTE: The variation in rotation speed is for illustration purposes only! These machines normally operate at a steady speed.

Displacement Machine: Performance Curve

PRESSURE

FLOW

Unlike turbomachines, displacement machines are essentially constant flow devices and are insensitive to fluid density. The pressure:flow characteristic is steep, however it is not vertical due to: 1. internal leakage. 2. compressibility (in the case of gas compressors).

System Resistance Curve

Reservoir
Pressure = Pr

Machine
Process resistance curve

Pr
Flow

Real machines are integrated into systems and the question arises: how do machine and system inter-relate? We need to consider the characteristics of the system into which the machine delivers its flow. The system resistance curve shows the pressure required at the inlet to a system in order to sustain a given flow rate. The curve is the sum of two parts: 1. Static resistance at zero flow (eg a fixed height in a pumping installation or a large reservoir of pressure in a gas lift application). This static resistance has to be overcome regardless of whether the machine is operating at extremely low flow, or maximum flow. 2. Frictional resistance, which is proportional to the square of the fluid flow rate. Frictional resistance increases with: pipe length number of bends changes in flow area number of valves number of branches

Pressure required

Machine and System: Operating Point

30
DISPLACEMENT MACHINE PERFORMANCE LINE SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVE

25

20 PRESSURE
DISPLACEMENT MACHINE OPERATING POINT TURBOMACHINE OPERATING POINT

TURBOMACHINE PERFORMANCE CURVE

15

10

0 0 100 200 300 FLOW 400 500 600

The operating point is found by plotting, on the same diagram, the machine performance curve and the system resistance curve. The operating point is where the two curves intersect - this is where the machine produces enough outlet pressure to balance the losses in the system at the given flow rate. The diagram shows the operating point for both a turbomachine in a given system, and a displacement machine in the same system the same rule applies to both types.

Flow Regulation by Speed Control Turbomachines

30
SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVE

25

20 PRESSURE

15
INCREASED SPEED

10

NOMINAL SPEED REDUCED SPEED

5
CONTROL RANGE

0 0 100 200 300 FLOW 400 500 600

It was stated earlier that the pressure output of a turbomachine increases with increasing speed. Therefore, varying the speed of the machine provides a method of controlling or regulating flow in the system and the machine. The rule that the operating point is defined by the intersection between the machine curve and the system resisitance curve still applies as shown above. Hence there will be a variation of system pressure as well as flow.

Flow Regulation by Speed: Displacement Machines

30
SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVE

25

20 PRESSURE

15

10

5
CONTROL RANGE

0 0 100 200 300 FLOW 400 500 600

Varying the speed of a displacement machine will vary the output flow of the machine: in fact the flow is directly proportional to speed. As with the turbomachine, the operating point is determined by the intersection of machine performance curve and system resistance characteristic, hence a variation in speed will cause variation of both flow and pressure.

Flow Regulation by System Control Valve

30
DISPLACEMENT MACHINE PERFORMANCE LINE CONTROL RANGE

25

20 PRESSURE

15

10

TURBOMACHINE PERFORMANCE CURVE

0 0 100 200 300 FLOW 400 500 600

Since the operating point is determined both by the machine and system characteristics, flow may also be regulated by varying the system resistance. This is achieved by installing a control valve somewhere in the system to give a variable resistance to flow. Notice that, with a displacement machine, which has an essentially constant flow for a given speed, varying the system resistance has little or no effect on flow. Flow control valves are therefore not used to regulate displacement machines.

Flow Regulation by Recycle

FLOW CONTROL VALVE BYPASS FLOW

NET FLOW TO SYSTEM

MACHINE FLOW

The flow delivered into a system by a machine may also be regulated by recycle (also known as bypass or spillback). In this case, the flow through the machine itself may remain constant. The amount of flow delivered into the system is controlled by a flow control valve which varies the amount of fluid which is recycled to the suction of the machine. Net system flow = Machine flow bypass flow. In principle, recycle control may be used to vary flow from maximum to zero. This method of regulation is inefficient in energy terms because the full flow is pressurised and then part of it is depressurised again. If a large bypass flow is continuously recycled through a high-energy machine, it will heat up. To limit the temperature achieved, either the flow should be recycled to a large capacity suction vessel or cooling should be provided somewhere in the system. In some cases, where the fluid being handled is safe, non-toxic and cheap, the bypass may be an open cycle. For instance, in seawater pumping, the bypass may be routed to an overboard dump and returned to sea. In air compression, surplus air may be discharged back to the atmosphere.

Machines in Parallel and Series

Machines in Parallel
SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVE

Pressure

TWO PUMPS ONE PUMP TWO PUMPS

Machines in Series
SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVE

Pressure

Flow

ONE PUMP

Flow

When more than one machine is installed so that each has a common suction and a common discharge they are said to be in parallel. When the discharge of one machine is connected to the suction of another, they are said to be in series. Let us consider the case of two identical pumps installed in parallel and in series (go to next slide).

Machines in Parallel
Machines in Parallel
SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVE

Pressure

TWO PUMPS ONE PUMP TWO PUMPS

Machines in Series
SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVE

Pressure

Flow

ONE PUMP

Flow

For the two pumps in Parallel, at a given pressure the flow from the two pumps combined is twice the flow from a single pump at the same pressure. We can therefore construct the performance curve of two pumps working together by adding the flows of the individual pumps at a series of different pressures. The operating point of the pair of pumps is where this combined performance curve crosses the system resistance curve. The operating point of each individual pump will be at the same pressure as the intersection point but half the flow. Note that, although we have twice the number of pumps, neither the pressure generated against the system, nor the flow are doubled. In principle the same procedure can be used to generate a combined performance curve for two pumps of different performance characteristics. In practice it is unusual to operate dissimilar machines in parallel. More than two machines may be installed in parallel: it is not unusual to find up to seven or eight pumps, or three or four compressors in parallel.

Machines in Series
Machines in Parallel
SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVE

Pressure

TWO PUMPS ONE PUMP TWO PUMPS

Machines in Series
SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVE

Pressure

Flow

ONE PUMP

Flow

For the two pumps in Series, the pressure at a given flow is the sum of the pressures of the individual pumps. Again, a combined performance curve can be constructed at a series of different flows and the operating point is where this curve intersects the system resistance curve. Once again, although we have twice the number of pumps, neither the pressure generated against the system, nor the flow through the system have doubled. It is normal for dissimilar machines to be installed in series and the procedure described above can be used to construct the combined performance curve. In pumping installations, a small booster pump is frequently used to provide higher suction pressure to a larger main pump. In compressor applications, a series of compressors may be used to achieve the required pressure and these compressors may be of different types, for example: centrifugal and reciprocating.

End of Machinery Basics.