STRUCTURAL DESIGN ANGUS J MACDONALDStructural Design for Architecture Angus |. Macdonald » Architectural Press [Architectural Press 225 Wildwood Avenue, Wobum, MA.01801-204 ‘An imprint of Butterworth-Heinemann Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd QA member ofthe Reed Elsevier ple group OXFORD BostON JoMaNesaLRG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI SINGAPORE First published 1997 Reprinted 1998 © Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd 1997 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic ‘means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Lid, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England WIP 9HE. Applications for the copyright holder's written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publi Macdonald, Angus J. Structural design for architecture 1, Architectural design 2. Structural design L Title m2 tion Data ISBN 0 7506 30906 Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Macdonald, Angus, 1945- Structural design for architecture/Angus J. Macdonald. pcm. Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0 7506 3090 6 1, Buildings. 2. Structural Design. 3. Architectural design. 1. Title THB46.M33 97-27237 624.177 1-de21 cP Composition by Scribe Design, Gillingham, Kent Printed and bound in Great Britain LANT A REForeword vii Preface ix Acknowledgements xi Structure and architecture | 1.1 The role of structure in architecture 1 1.2 Structural requirements 4 1.3 Structure types 5 1.4 Structural materials 11 15 Structural design 17 Structural design for architecture 22 2.1 Introduction 22 2.2 The relationship between structural design and architectural design 24 2.3 Selection of the generic type of structure 34 2.4 Selection of the structural material 40 2.5. Determination of the form of the structure 41 2.6 Conclusion 47 Steel structures 49 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 The architecture of steel ~ the factors which affect the decision to select steel asa structural material 49 3.3: The properties and composition of steel 61 3.4 Structural steel products 63 3.5 Performance of steel in fire 72 3.6 Structural forms 73 Reinforced concrete structures 99 4.1 Introduction 99 4.2 The architecture of reinforced concrete the factors which affect the decision to select reinforced concrete as a structural material 100 a Contents 4.3 A brief introduction to concrete technology 118 44 Structural forms for reinforced concrete 130 5 Masonry structures 5.1 Introduction 147 5.2 The architecture of masonry — factors which affect the decision to use masonry as a structural material 147 5.3 The basic forms of masonry structures 147 164 6 Timber structures 179 6.1 Introduction 179 6.2 Timber and architecture 180 63 The material, its properties and characteristics 190 64 Properties of timber 192 65 Grading of timber 196 66 Timber components 198 6.7 Structural forms for timber 215 Selected bibliography 232 Appendix 1; The relationship between structural form and structural efficiency 235 Appendix 2: Approximate methods for allocating sizes to structural elements 239 A2.1 Introduction 239 A22 Structural analysis 239 A2.3 Element-sizing calculations A24 Steel structures 258 A25 Reinforced concrete structures A2.6 Masonry structures 263 A2.7 Timber structures 263 249 262 Index 265Angus Macdonald states that this book is primarily for architects. in my view it is also an extremely good reference book on architectural structures for students and practising structural engineers. He stresses that buildings are designed as a collaborative task between architects and engineers and that the earlier in the design. process this happens, the better the result Current teaching ideas in many universities are, at last, acknowledging the benefits of joint student working and it has certainly been my experience that close working produces the best product. The early part of the book covers the history, technology and structural philosophy of numerous buildings and building types and has a very comprehensive review of structural systems with excellent examples of seminal buildings and their structures. It also covers the history of structural material development. ‘The section on structure in relation to architecture: structure ignored, accepted, pa Foreword symbolised and high tech (i.e. celebrated or expressionist) is apt but contentious and could result in some lively discussion between architect and engineer The book then divides into sections on the major structural materials — steel, concrete, masonry and timber. Each of these sections follows a similar pattern and includes properties, advantages and disadvantages, common structural forms, ete. Structural Desig for Architecture is a comprehensive and up-to-date work on the relationship of structure to architecture and will form an extremely useful reference work for both students and practitioners of architecture and engineering. | highly recommend it and look forward to having a copy in our office library. Professor Tony Hunt Chairman Anthony Hunt Associates, June 1997 Previous page is blankThe architect who considers him or herself to be an artist, dealing through the medium of built form with the philosophical preoccupa- tions of the age in which he or she lives, is surely engaged in a titanic struggle. One aspect of that struggle is the need to deter- mine building forms which are structurally viable. All artists must acquire mastery of the technology of their chosen medium but few face difficulties which are as formidable as those who choose buildings as their means of expression, The sculptor has to contend with similar structural problems but his or her diffi- culties are trivial by comparison with those of the architect. The difference is one of scale ~ the size of a building, compared to that of a work of sculpture, means that the technical hurdle which must be surmounted by the architect is of a different order of magnitude to those which are faced by most other artists ‘The structure of a building is the armature which preserves its integrity in response to load. It is a bulky object which is difficult to conceal and which must somehow be incorp- orated into the aesthetic programme. It must therefore be given a form, by the building's designer, which is compatible with other aspects of the building's design. Several funda- mental issues connected with the appearance of a building including its overall form, the pattern of its fenestration, the general articula- tion of solid and void within it and even, pos- sibly, the range and juxtaposition of the textures of its visible surfaces are affected by the nature of its structure. The structure can also influence programmatic aspects of a build- ing’s design because the capability of the struc- ture determines the pattem of internal spaces which is possible. Its span potential will deter- Preface mine the maximum sizes of the internal spaces and its type affects the extent to which the sizes and shapes of the spaces can be varied both within an individual storey and between storeys, The relationship between structure and architecture is therefore a fundamental aspect of the art of building. it sets up conflicts between the technical and aesthetic agendas which the architect must resolve. The manner in which the resolution is carried out is one of the most testing criteria of the success of a work of architecture This book is concerned with structural design for architecture. It complements my previous volume, Structure and Architecture, and discusses the selection of structure type, the selection of structural material and the deter- mination of structural form. It deals primarily with the development of the idea of the struc- ture for a building - that first stage in the structural design process which is concerned with the determination of the elementary form and arrangement of the structure, before any structural design calculations are made. It is intended primarily for architects and it is hoped that it will enable students and members of the profession to gain a better understanding of the relationship between structural design and architectural design. The basic structural layouts and approximate element sizes which are given in Chapters 3 to 6 should, however, also allow building design- efs to use the book as an aid to the basic planning of structural forms. ‘Angus Macdonald Edinburgh Previous page July 1997 is blankI would like to thank the many people who. have assisted me in the making of this book. These are too numerous for all to be mentioned individually, but special thanks are due to the following: Stephen Gibson for his excellent line drawings, the staff of Architectural Press for their hard work in producing the book, particularly Neil Warnock- ‘Smith, Zo8 Youd and Sarah Leatherbarrow. | would also like to thank the staff and students of the Department of Architecture at the University of Edinburgh for the many helpful discussions which ! have had with them on the topics covered in this book. illustrations, other than those commissioned especially for the book, are individually credited in their captions. Thanks Bee a Acknowledgements are due to all those who supplied illustrations and especially to the Ove Arup Partnership, George Balcombe, Sir Norman Foster and Partners, Paul H. Gleye, Pat Hunt, Tony Hunt, the late Alastair Hunter, jill Hunter, Denys Lasdun Peter Softley and Associates, Ewan and Fiona McLachlan, Dr Rowland |. Mainstone and the Maritime Trust. | am also grateful to the British Standards Institution for permission to reproduce tables. Finally, | should like to thank my wife Patricia Macdonald for her encouragement and support and for her valuable contributions to the preparation of the manuscript and illustrations. ‘Angus Macdonald Previous page is blank xi1.1 The role of structure in architecture The final form which is adopted for a work of architecture is influenced by many factors ranging from the ideological to the severely practical. This book is concerned principally with the building as a physical object and, in Chapter 1 reas Structure and architecture particular, with the question of the structural support which must be provided for a building in order that it can maintain its shape and integrity in the physical world, The role of the building as an aesthetic object, often imbued with symbolic meaning, is, however, also central to the argument of the book; one strand of this argument considers that the Fig. 1.1. Offices, Dufours Place. London, England, 1984. Erith and Terry, archi having a function the ing are the loadbearing hich carry the weights of the floors and roof. Photo: E. & F. McLachlan}Structural Desi for Architectur Fig. 1.2 Crown Hall, IT, Chicago, USA, 1952-56 Mies van der Rohe, architect. This building h Frame s The glass walls are entirely non-s ctu contribution of the structure to the achieve ment of higher architectural objectives is always crucial. Technical issues are accordingly considered here within a wider agenda which encompasses considerations other than tho of practicality The relationship between the structural and the non-structural parts of a building may vary widely, In some buildings the space-enclasing elements - the walls, floors and roof - are also structural elements. capable of resisting and conducting load (Fig, 1.1). In others, such as buildings with large ar exterior walls, the structure c separate from the space-enclosing elements (Fig, 1.2). In all cases the structure forms the basic carcass of the building ~ the armature to which all non-structural elements are attached. The visual treatment of structure can be subject to much variation. The structural system of a bu n be given great prom- nence and be made to form an important part of the architectural vocabulary (Fig 1.3). At the other extreme, n be visually played down with the structural elements contributing little to the appearance of the building (Fig, 1.4), Between these extremes lies an infinite variety of possibilities (see Section 2.2), In all cases, however, the structure, by virtue of the significant volume which it occupies in a building, affects its visual charac- 10 some extent and it does so even if it is not directly visible. No matter how the struc- ture is treated visually, however, the need for technical requirements to be satisfied must always be ackno uuctural constraints ding ts presenceStructure and, architecture Partners Fig. 1.4 Staatsgaleric, Stuttgart. Germany,Structural Design for Architecture therefore exert a significant influence, overt or hidden, on the final planning of buildings. ‘This book is concerned with the program- matic aspects of the relationship between architecture and structure, Chapter 2, in par- ticular, deals with the process by which the form and general arrangement of structures for buildings are determined — with the design of architectural structures, in other words Information on basic forms of structure ~ the range of structural possibilities — is essential to the success of this process: this is provided in subsequent chapters which deal separately with the four principal structural materials of steel, reinforced concrete, masonry and timber. More general aspects of the topic are reviewed briefly here. a 1.2 Structural requirements The principal forms of loading to which build- ings are subjected are gravitational loads, wind pressure loads and inertial loads caused by seismic activity. Gravitational loads, which are caused by the weight of the building itself and of its contents, act vertically downwards; wind and seismic loads have significant horizontal components but can also act vertically. To perform satisfactorily a structure must be capable of achieving a stable state of static equilibrium in response to all of these loads ~ to load from any direction, in other words. This is the primary requirement; the form and general arrangement of a structure must be such as to make this possible. The distinction between the requirements for stability and equilibrium is an important one and the basic principles are illustrated in Fig. 1.5, Equilibrium occurs when the reactions at the foundations of a structure exactly balance and counteract the applied load; if it ‘were not in equilibrium the structure would change its position in response to the load. Stability is concerned with the ability of a structural arrangement which is in equilibrium to accommodate small disturbances without suffering a major change of shape. The first of the beamvcolumn frameworks in Fig. 1.5 is ina Whey Fig. 1.3. The first of the frameworks here is capable of achieving equilibrium under the loading shown but is, unstable, The insertion of the diagonal element in the second framework renders it capable of achieving stable equilibrium state of static equilibrium but is not stable and will collapse if subjected to a small lateral displacement. The insertion of a diagonal bracing element in the second framework prevents this and renders the system stable Most structural arrangements require bracing for stability and the devising of bracing systems is an important aspect of structural design. As the simple diagrammatic structure in Fig, 1.6 illustrates, the structural elements of a building provide the link between the applied loads and the foundation reactions in order that equilibrium can be achieved. To be effec tive the elements must be of adequate strength. The strength of an element depends on the strength of the constituent material and the area and shape of its cross-section. The stronger the material and the larger the cross- section the stronger will be the element. It is possible to produce a strong element even though the constituent material is weak by specifying a very large cross-section. In the case of a particular structure, once the requirements for stability and equilibrium have been met, the provision of elements with adequate strength is a matter firstly of deter- mining the magnitudes of the internal forces which will occur in the elements when the peak load is applied to the structure. Secondly, a structural material of known strength must be selected and thirdly, the sizes and shapes of cross-sections must be chosen such that each element can safely carry the internal force which the load will generate. Calculations arean essential aspect of this process and ate required both to determine the magnitudes of the forces in the individual elements ~ an activity known as structural analysis ~ and then to calculate the required sizes of the element cross-sections. A fourth property which a structure must possess, in addition to the requirements of equilibrium, stability, and strength, is adequate rigidity. All structural materials deform in response to load and it is necessary that the overall deflection of a structure should not be excessive. As with strength, the rigidity of the structure depends on the properties of the material and the sizes of the cross- sections, which must be large enough to ensure that excessive deflection does not occur. Like strength. rigidity is checked and controlled through the medium of calculations. To summarise, the basic requirements of the structure (the firmness element of the archi Non-loadbe: partition wall Structure and architecture Fig. 1.6 Force system in a building's structure, The gravi tational load on the roof is conducted, via the roof truss and the walls, to the founda- tions where it is balanced by reactions ftom the substrata. The same i imposed on the floors which are transmitted by the floor structural elements and walls to the foundations. The roof and floor elements yng enough to “| carty the internal forces gener ated by the load tectural shopping list of firmness’, ‘commod- ity’ and ‘delight’) are the ability to achieve equilibrium under all possible load conditions, geometric stability, adequate strength and adequate rigidity. Equilibrium requires that the structural elements be properly configured, stability is ensured by the provision of a bracing system; and adequate strength and rigidity are provided by the specification of structural elements which are of sufficient size, given the strengths of the constituent materials SREP ERS 1.3 Structure types 1.3.1 Post-and-beam structures Most architectural structures are of the post- and-beam type and consist of horizontal spanning elements supported on vertical columns or walls. A cha