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BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS

A computer as shown in Fig performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective of their size and make. These are 1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input, 2) it stores data, 3) it can process data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in the form of output, and 5) it controls all operations inside a computer. We discuss below each of these operations. 1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.
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2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions. The storage unit performs the following major functions: 1 2 All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing. Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit. 4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.

5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations in side the computer. 2.4 FUNCTIONAL UNITS In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the task between its various functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate units for its operation. They are 1) arithmetic logical unit, 2) control unit, and 3) central processing unit. 2.4.1 Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored. 2.4.2 Control Unit (CU) The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computers peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output. Therefore it is the manager of all operations mentioned in the previous section. 2.4.3 Central Processing Unit (CPU) The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the operations.

FLOW CHART
A flowchart is a common type of diagram, that represents an algorithm or process, showing the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting these with arrows. This diagrammatic representation can give a step-by-step solution to a given problem. Data is represented in these boxes, and arrows connecting them represent flow / direction of flow of data. Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields. A typical flowchart from older Computer Science textbooks may have the following kinds of symbols: Start and end symbols Represented as circles, ovals or rounded rectangles, usually containing the word "Start" or "End", or another phrase signaling the start or end of a process, such as "submit enquiry" or "receive product". Arrows Showing what's called "flow of control" in computer science. An arrow coming from one symbol and ending at another symbol represents that control passes to the symbol the arrow points to. Processing steps Represented as rectangles. Examples: "Add 1 to X"; "replace identified part"; "save changes" or similar. Input/Output Represented as a parallelogram. Examples: Get X from the user; display X. 2

Conditional or decision Represented as a diamond (rhombus). These typically contain a Yes/No question or True/False test. This symbol is unique in that it has two arrows coming out of it, usually from the bottom point and right point, one corresponding to Yes or True, and one corresponding to No or False. The arrows should always be labeled. More than two arrows can be used, but this is normally a clear indicator that a complex decision is being taken, in which case it may need to be broken-down further, or replaced with the "pre-defined process" symbol. A number of other symbols that have less universal currency, such as:

A Document represented as a rectangle with a wavy base; A Manual input represented by parallelogram, with the top irregularly sloping up from left to right. An example would be to signify data-entry from a form; A Manual operation represented by a trapezoid with the longest parallel side at the top, to represent an operation or adjustment to process that can only be made manually. A Data File represented by a cylinder.

Flowcharts may contain other symbols, such as connectors, usually represented as circles, to represent converging paths in the flowchart. Circles will have more than one arrow coming into them but only one going out. Some flowcharts may just have an arrow point to another arrow instead. These are useful to represent an iterative process (what in Computer Science is called a loop). A loop may, for example, consist of a connector where control first enters, processing steps, a conditional with one arrow exiting the loop, and one going back to the connector. Off-page connectors are often used to signify a connection to a (part of another) process held on another sheet or screen. It is important to remember to keep these connections logical in order. All processes should flow from top to bottom and left to right.

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Characteristics of computer
Now-a-days computer is playing a main role in everyday life it has become the need of people just like television, telephone or other electronic devices at home. It solves the human problems very quickly as well as accuratly. The important characteristics of a computer are described below: 1. Speed The computer is a very high speed electronic device. The operations on the data inside the computer are performed through electronic circuits according to the given instructions. The data and instructions flow along these circuits with high speed that is close to the speed of light. Computer can perform million of billion of operations on the data in one second. The computer generates signals during the operation process therefore the speed of computer is usually measure in mega hertz (MHz) or gega hertz (GHz). It means million cycles units of frequency is hertz per second. Different computers have different speed. 2. Arithmetical and Logical Operations A computer can perform arithmetical and logical operations. In arithmetic operations, it performs the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division on the numeric data. In logical operation it compares the numerical data as well as alphabetical data. 3. Accuracy In addition to being very fast, computer is also very accurate device. it gives accurate output result provided that the correct input data and set of instructions are given to the computer. It means that output is totally depended on the given instructions and input data. If input data is in-correct then the resulting output will be in-correct. In computer terminology it is known as garbage-in garbage-out. 4. Reliability The electronic components in modern computer have very low failure rate. The modern computer can perform very complicated calculations without creating any problem and produces consistent (reliable) results. In general, computers are very reliable. Many personal computers have never needed a service call. Communications are also very reliable and generally available whenever needed. 5. Storage A computer has internal storage (memory) as well as external or secondary storage. In secondary storage, a large amount of data and programs (set of instructions) can be stored for future use. The stored data and programs are available any time for processing. Similarly information downloaded from the internet can be saved on the storage media. 6. Retrieving data and programs The data and program stored on the storage media can be retrieved very quickly for further processing. It is also very important feature of a computer. 7. Automation A computer can automatically perform operations without interfering the user during the operations. It controls automatically different devices attached with the computer. It executes automatically the program instructions one by one. 8. Versatility 5

Versatile means flexible. Modern computer can perform different kind of tasks one by one of simultaneously. It is the most important feature of computer. At one moment your are playing game on computer, the next moment you are composing and sending emails etc. In colleges and universities computers are use to deliver lectures to the students. The talent of computer is dependent on the software. 9. Communications Today computer is mostly used to exchange messages or data through computer networks all over the world. For example the information can be received or send throug the internet with the help of computer. It is most important feature of the modern information technology. 10. Diligence A computer can continually work for hours without creating any error. It does not get tired while working after hours of work it performs the operations with the same accuracy as well as speed as the first one. 11. No Feelings Computer is an electronic machine. It has no feelings. It detects objects on the basis of instructions given to it. Based on our feelings, taste, knowledge and experience: we can make certain decisions and judgments in our daily life. On the other hand, computer can not make such judgments on their own. Their judgments are totally based on instructions given to them. 12. Consistency People often have difficulty to repeat their instructions again and again. For example, a lecturer feels difficulty to repeat a same lecture in a class room again and again. Computer can repeat actions consistently (again and again) without loosing its concentration: To run a spell checker (built into a word processor) for checking spellings in a document. To play multimedia animations for training purposes. To deliver a lecture through computer in a class room etc. A computer will carry out the activity with the same way every time. You can listen a lecture or perform any action again and again. 13. Precision Computers are not only fast and consistent but they also perform operations very accurately and precisely. For example, in manual calculations and rounding fractional values (That is value with decimal point can change the actual result). In computer however, you can keep the accuracy and precision upto the level, you desire. The length calculations remain always accurate.

Classification of Computer
There are three main types of computers based on working. Digital computer Analog computer Hybrid computer Digital Computer: A digital computer operates directly decimal digits that represent discrete data. It takes input and gives output in the form of numbers. It used for business and scientific and data processing. It is useful for evaluating arithmetic expression and manipulation data. 6

Analog computer: Analog computer measures continuous electrical or physical magnitude like voltage, pressure etc,. It accepts inputs which vary with time and intensity and directly applied to various devices. The output from the system in the form graph reduced by plotting by pen or traced by cathode tube. Hybrid computer: It is a combination of analog and digital computer. Hybrid computer is a digital computer that accepts analog signals, converts them to digital and processes them in digital form. This integration is obtained by digital to analog and analog to digital converter. A hybrid computer may use or produce analog data or digital data. It accepts a continuously varying input, which is then converted into a set of discrete values for digital processing. Ex: In a hospital an intensive care unit (ICU) having analog devices may measure a patient heart function, temperature and other quantities. This measurement may convert into numbers and supplied to a digital computer. This computer monitors gives the patients vital signs. It highlights the signals whenever an abnormal detected.

Types of Computer (Based on Size)


1. Main frame computer: A main frame computer system is largest, fast operating and one of the most expensive computer systems. These computers have word-length ranging form 32 bits to 64 bits. They have large memory and support both multitasking and multi user capabilities. They are capable of handling large number of peripherals (I/O devices). The processing speed range in between 1 to 10 million instructions per second (MIPS). This computer supports 100 users at a time. The cost of this computer ranges from few lakhs to 50 lakhs of rupees. The main frames are generally used to support wide database management system for commercial applications. They are designed to handle complex scientific and engineering task. 2. Mini computer: Mini computers are medium size, multi user computer system. They are UNIX operating system to support 16 to 20 users at a time. These are slower than main frame computer. These computers have word length ranging form 8 bits to 32 bits. The cost range from 50,000 to 1.5 lakhs. Mini computers are suitable for research laboratories, small factories, engineering colleges. They have the capacity of processing one million instructions per second. These are computers which support multi user capabilities. They have more storage capacity compared to a micro computers These are suitable for small scale business data processing and accounting problems. 3. Micro computer: They have limited input, output capabilities little software and little storage capacity. Early micro computer had word length of 8 bits. At presents micro computer had word length 16 bit to 32 bit. 7

Micro computer were first developed and introduced by IBM (International Business Machine) in the early 80s. Due to their small size and commendable processing speed they were given the name personal computer (PC). They are cheap and easy to use. Micro computer have a wide range of application. These computers are used in general purpose calculation, home applications, commercial applications, office automation. 4. Super computer: Super computer are much faster and more powerful than main frame computers. These computers have word length ranging form 64 bits to 96 bits. A super computer contain a number of CPUs which operate in parallel to make it faster. They are used for solving very sophisticated problem. They are also used in weapons, whether forecasting, research and development, automatic nuclear and plasma physics. These are suitable for astrological computations, which involves complex mathematical computations various assumptions and parameters. Super computer have limited market because of their high cost. Computer Generations: We have five generations of computer and duration of each generation is around one decayed (10 Years). First Generation (1940 1955) Computer were extremely large, these computers typically used about 10 to 15 thousand vacuum tubes. A vacuum tube has shorter life and limited reliability. Large amount of heat produced by Vacuum tubes and they were bulky. These tubes consume lot of power while in operation. Lot of space was required. These computers had limited internal storage capacity and they were very slow. These computer were program in machine language i.e., instructions to the computer were in the form zeros and ones. Punch cards were used to enter data into the computers. Ex: IBM-650 Second Generation (1956-1965) Transistors made up of germanium semi-conductors as switching electronics device were used in this generation. Transistors were smaller, faster and more reliable. Power consumption was less as compare to vacuum tubes. Computers were smaller in size and occupied less space. These computers are cheaper than vacuum tubes. Magnetic core memories were used for internal storage. Internal storage capacity of computer was increased to about 100k byte. A no. of high level language were developed during this period. Ex: FORTAN, COBOL. Ex: IBM-7090 Third Generation (1966-1975) 8

These computers were built using integrated circuits. A IC is a circuit consisting of transistor, resistors and capacitors assembled on a single chip on silicon. Computers were built using both small scale integrated circuits (10 transistor/chip) and medium scale ICs (100 transistor/chip). The size of internal storage (main memory) increased to 4 mega bytes. Improved magnetic disk technology fully replaced magnetic tapes as secondary memory (external memory). Power consumption and size of a computer is reduced. Multi-processing, Multi programming concepts are introduced. Ex:- IBM-360/91 Fourth Generation (1976-1985) Fourth generation of computers user microprocessors or a large scale IC that would perform various functions like arithmetic, logical and other control operations. Personal computers were introduced, cost of these computers become very less. Interactive graphics I/O devices were developed. Networking computer system has been introduced. Memory and size are reduced. Ex : IBM PC. Fifth Generation (1985 Onwards) These computers are under development stage. A chip contains million of components in a single ICs. The input and output information for these computers will be in the form of speech and graphic images. Computer will able to receive speech commands. Computer will be able to see its surroundings. Computers will use Intelligence software (Artificial Intelligence).

INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES:
The CPU of a microcomputer cannot do anything until it has data with which to work. All data that enters the CPU for processing originally comes from devices located outside the box that houses the CPU. These devices are called input devices because their function is to get data into the computer. Input devices can consist of such things as the keyboard, a floppy or hard disk, a mouse, another computer, or a laboratory instrument. Figure 6 illustrates some common input devices. In order to know what the CPU is doing, we must be able to view its operation. In order to do this, data must be sent out of the CPU to output devices. These may consist of printers, plotters, and video monitors. Output can also be stored for later viewing by sending it to floppy or hard disks. Data that are entered into the computer must be stored while waiting to be processed by the CPU. Data must also have someplace to go after being processed. The area of the computer that holds data is called the memory. All of the electronic and mechanical components of a microcomputer system are collectively known as the hardware. 9

In summary, a microcomputer (PC) consists of a central processing unit that accepts data from an input device, processes the data, and then sends it to an output device. During the processing, data are stored in the computer's memory. A typical microcomputer configuration is shown in below Figure 1.

Figure 1: Typical Microcomputer Hardware When a microcomputer (PC) is first turned on, its memory is empty. Before it can begin processing any of your data, you must somehow get your data into the memory of the microcomputer. The four most common methods of entering data into a computer are shown below. 1. Information is typed in from the keyboard. 2. Data are read in from secondary storage devices like floppy disks, hard disks, or tape drives. 3. Data are collected and entered into the computer from interface devices such as analog-todigital converters. 4. Information is entered into the computer from drawing or pointing devices such as a digitizer (a type of drawing pad), a mouse, a joystick, or a scanner. Most information that is processed by a computer originally gets into the computer by being typed in from a keyboard. Figure 2 is a diagram of a standard PC keyboard.

Figure 2: Standard PC Keyboard and QWERTY Keys

Early devices

Punched card

KEYBOARD:
The keyboard is divided into three sections. The main section looks much like a standard typewriter keyboard. It contains all the letters of the alphabet, standard punctuation symbols, the numbers zero through nine, and several special purpose keys. The arrangement of the keys in the main section is referred to as a QWERTY format, which comes from the order of the first six keys in the second row. The keys across the top are called special function keys (or just function keys). When you press a function key depends on what software you are running. On the right side of the keyboard is the numeric keypad. The keys in this section are arranged like those on a calculator and are designed to speed the entry of numeric data.

Types:

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Standard: Standard keyboards, such as the 101-key US traditional keyboard 104-key Windows keyboards, include alphabetic characters, punctuation symbols, numbers and a variety of function keys. The internationally-common 102/105 key keyboards have a smaller 'left shift' key and an additional key with some more symbols between that and the letter to its right (usually Z or Y). Gaming and multimedia: Keyboards with extra keys, such as multimedia keyboards, have special keys for accessing music, web and other oft-used programs, a mute button, volume buttons or knob and standby (sleep) button. Gaming keyboards have extra function keys, which can be programmed with keystroke macros. For example, 'ctrl+shift+y' could be a keystroke that is frequently used in a certain computer game. Shortcuts marked on color-coded keys are used for some software applications and for specialized for uses including word processing, video editing, graphic design and audio editing. Thumb-sized: Smaller keyboards have been introduced for laptops, PDAs, cellphones or users who have a limited workspace. Numeric: Numeric keyboards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and several function keys (e.g. End, Delete, etc.). They are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller keyboard-equipped laptops or with smaller keyboards that do not have a numeric keypad. MOUSE: A pointing device is any human interface device that allows a user to input spatial data to a computer. In the case of mice and touch screens, this is usually achieved by detecting movement across a physical surface. Analog devices, such as 3D mice, joysticks, or pointing sticks, function by reporting their angle of deflection. Movements of the pointing device are echoed on the screen by movements of the cursor, creating a simple, intuitive way to navigate a computer's GUI. Another popular input device is the mouse. A mouse is a device used to control the motion of the cursor (the object on the screen that shows where the next user action will take place) on the video display. The outside and inside of a typical two-button mouse are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 A Typical PC Mouse

Imaging and Video input devices


Video input devices are used to digitize images or video from the outside world into the computer. The information can be stored in a multitude of formats depending on the user's requirement. Webcam Image scanner Fingerprint scanner Barcode reader 3D scanner Laser rangefinder 11

Audio input devices


In the fashion of video devices, audio devices are used to either capture or create sound. In some cases, an audio output device can be used as an input device, in order to capture produced sound. Microphone MIDI keyboard or other digital musical instrument

Visual Display Unit


A visual display unit, often called simply a monitor or display, is a piece of electrical equipment which displays images generated from the video output of devices such as computers, without producing a permanent record. Most new monitors typically consist of a TFT LCD, with older monitors based around a cathode ray tube (CRT). Almost all of the mainstream new monitors being sold on market now are LCD. Screen Size: The size of a display is typically given as the distance between two opposite screen corners. Ex: 15 (15 inches), 17 & 21. Imaging Techniques: As with television many different hardware technologies exist for displaying computer-generated output: Liquid crystal display (LCD). TFT LCDs are the most popular display device for new computers. o Passive LCDs produce poor contrast, slow response, and other image defects. These were used in most laptops until the mid 1990s. o Thin Film Transistor LCDs give much better picture quality in several respects. Nearly all modern LCD monitors are TFT. Cathode ray tube (CRT) o Raster scans computer monitors, which produce images using pixels. These were the most popular display device for older computers. o Television sets were used by most early personal and home computers, connecting composite video to the television set using a modulator. Resolution and image quality were strongly limited by the display capabilities of television. Plasma display Video projectors use CRT, LCD or many other technologies to send light through the air to a projection screen. Front projectors use screens as reflectors to send light back, while rear projectors use screens as diffusers to refract light forward. Rear projectors are often integrated into the same case as their screen. Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED) Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display Penetron military aircraft displays

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):


A comparison of a 21" CRT TV monitor with a 17" CRT PC monitor The CRT is the picture tube of a monitor. The back of the tube has a negatively charged cathode. The electron gun shoots electrons down the tube and onto a charged screen. The screen is coated with a pattern of phosphor dots that glow when struck by the electron stream. Each cluster of three dots, one of each color, is one pixel. The image on the monitor's screen is usually made up from at least tens of thousands of such tiny dots glowing on command from the computer. The closer together the pixels are, the sharper the image on 12

screen can be. The distance between pixels on a computer monitor screen is called its dot pitch and is measured in millimeters. Most monitors have a dot pitch of 0.28 mm or less. There are two electromagnets around the collar of the tube which deflect the electron beam. The beam scans across the top of the monitor from left to right, is then blanked and moved back to the lefthand side slightly below the previous trace (on the next scan line), scans across the second line and so on until the bottom right of the screen is reached. The beam is again blanked, and moved back to the top left to start again. This process draws a complete picture, typically 50 to 100 times a second. The number of times in one second that the electron gun redraws the entire image is called the refresh rate and is measured in hertz (cycles per second). It is common in television or very early computer equipment, to use a technique called interlacing, in which all the odd-numbered lines of an image are traced, and then all the even-numbered lines; the circuitry of such an interlaced display need be capable of only half the speed of a non-interlaced display. An interlaced display, particularly at a relatively low refresh rate, can appear to some observers to flicker, and may cause eyestrain.

Comparison:
CRT Advantages: Very high contrast ratio (20,000:1 or greater, much higher than many modern LCDs and plasma displays.) High speed response Excellent Additive color, wide gamut and low black level limited only by external environment. Can display natively in almost any resolution and refresh rate Near zero color, saturation, contrast or brightness distortion. Excellent viewing angle. No input lag A reliable, proven display technology. Disadvantages: Large size and weight (a 40" unit weighs over 200lbs) Geometric distortion in non-flat CRTs Older CRTs are prone to burn-in. Greater power consumption than similarly sized displays, such as LCD. Screened devices are prone to more effect at highest resolution (does not apply to triple-tube projection) LCD Advantages: Very compact and light Low power consumption No geometric distortion Disadvantages: Low contrast ratio. Limited viewing angle. This causes color, saturation, contrast and brightness to vary, even within the intended viewing angle from mere variations in posture. Uneven backlighting in some monitors can cause brightness distortion, especially toward the edges. Slow response times, which cause smearing and ghosting artifacts (although many modern LCDs have response times of 8ms or less). Only has one native resolution. Displaying other resolutions requires a video scaler, which degrades image quality at lower resolutions. Fixed bit depth, many cheaper LCDs are incapable of truecolor. Somewhat more expensive than CRT 13

MEMORY SYSTEM IN A COMPUTER


There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and secondary. Primary memory is accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of primary memory. As soon as the computer is switched off the contents of the primary memory is lost. You can store and retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to secondary memory. Secondary memory such as floppy disks, magnetic disk, etc., is located outside the computer. Primary memory is more expensive than secondary memory. Because of this the size of primary memory is less than that of secondary memory. We will discuss about secondary memory later on. Computer memory is used to store two things: i) instructions to execute a program and ii) data. When the computer is doing any job, the data that have to be processed are stored in the primary memory. This data may come from an input device like keyboard or from a secondary storage device like a floppy disk. As program or the set of instructions is kept in primary memory, the computer is able to follow instantly the set of instructions. For example, when you book ticket from railway reservation counter, the computer has to follow the same steps: take the request, check the availability of seats, calculate fare, wait for money to be paid, store the reservation and get the ticket printed out. The programme containing these steps is kept in memory of the computer and is followed for each request. But inside the computer, the steps followed are quite different from what we see on the monitor or screen. In computers memory both programs and data are stored in the binary form. You have already been introduced with decimal number system, that is the numbers 1 to 9 and 0. The binary system has only two values 0 and 1. These are called bits. As human beings we all understand decimal system but the computer can only understand binary system. It is because a large number of integrated circuits inside the computer can be considered as switches, which can be made ON, or OFF. If a switch is ON it is considered 1 and if it is OFF it is 0. A number of switches in different states will give you a message like this: 110101....10. So the computer takes input in the form of 0 and 1 and gives output in the form 0 and 1 only. Is it not absurd if the computer gives outputs as 0s & 1s only? But you do not have to worry about. Every number in binary system can be converted to decimal system and vice versa; for example, 1010 meaning decimal 10. Therefore it is the computer that takes information or data in decimal form from you, convert it in to binary form, process it producing output in binary form and again convert the output to decimal form. The primary memory as you know in the computer is in the form of ICs (Integrated Circuits). These circuits are called Random Access Memory (RAM). Each of RAMs locations stores one byte of information. (One byte is equal to 8 bits). A bit is an acronym for binary digit, which stands for one binary piece of information. This can be either 0 or 1. You will know more about RAM later. The Primary or internal storage section is made up of several small storage locations (ICs) called cells. Each of these cells can store a fixed number of bits called word length. Each cell has a unique number assigned to it called the address of the cell and it is used to identify the cells. The address starts at 0 and goes up to (N-1). You should know that the memory is like a large cabinet containing as many drawers as there are addresses on memory. Each drawer contains a word and the address is written on outside of the drawer. Memory can be classified into two types 14

Primary memory Secondary memory

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Capacity of Primary Memory You know that each cell of memory contains one character or 1 byte of data. So the capacity is defined in terms of byte or words. Thus 64 kilobyte (KB) memory is capable of storing 64 _ 1024 = 32,768 bytes. (1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes). A memory size ranges from few kilobytes in small systems to several thousand kilobytes in large mainframe and super computer. In your personal computer you will find memory capacity in the range of 64 KB, 4 MB, 8 MB and even 16 MB (MB = Million bytes). The following terms related to memory of a computer are discussed below: 1. Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory directly store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of the memory as the first address. It is also called read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the primary storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off. The memories, which loose their content on failure of power supply, are known as volatile memories .So now we can say that RAM is volatile memory. 2. Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory in computer, which is called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to operate the personal computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that examines and initializes various equipment attached to the PC when the switch is made ON. The memories, which do not loose their content on failure of power supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory. 3. PROM There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or erase programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store your program in PROM chip. Once the programmes are written it cannot be changed and remain intact even if power is switched off. Therefore programs or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be erased or changed. 4. EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which over come the problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by erasing the information stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip for some time ultraviolet light and it erases chip is reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When the EPROM is in use information can only be read. 5. Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory. To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and Main memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called CACHE memory. CACHE memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM. It is used to store programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used by the CPU. So each memory makes main memory to be faster and larger than it really is. It is also very expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its size is normally kept small. 6. Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed, there is also movement of data between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer the processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a number of special memory units called registers. They are not part of the main memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directed by the control unit. SECONDARY/AUXILIARY MEMORY: It is used as parentally data storage device. Secondary memory access rate is slow. 16

It stores system programs, data files, software, audio and video file. Cost is less. Information is stored here is first transferred to the main memory and then processed by the CPU. Secondary memories are magnetic memory like magnetic tape, hard disc, floppy disc etc.,

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