LONG-TERM MONITORING OF DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF A TALL BUILDING FOR PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND LOADING CHARACTERISATION

James Brownjohn University of Sheffield UK

James.brownjohn@sheffield.ac.uk

Abstract
Dynamic response of a 280m building in Singapore has been tracked during construction from 1994 to 1995 and since then during normal operation. Initial measurements were of modal parameters for FE model updating and the system has developed into a monitoring system for characterising the load and response mechanisms via the validated FE model. The decade of monitoring has enveloped the era of rapid developments in output-only system identification and these are explained in the context of application in the building study. The nature of response to different dynamic loads is presented together with the long term drift in modal properties.

Structural health and performance monitoring

Structural health monitoring (SHM) for civil infrastructure includes the systems not only for detection/diagnosis of progressive or sudden damage, but also for performance monitoring to identify load/response relationships either as a baseline for the structure itself or for calibration of a loading model or code. The words health and performance are both used in defining SHM systems and are synonymous, and a major activity for civil infrastructure monitoring is geared towards a long term evaluation of what is normal structural performance or health. The monitoring exercise reported in this paper, conducted over the period from late 1993 to 2004, began as manual readings of strain gauges and has evolved into a system to provide information about the various forms of environmental loading (wind, tremors and temperature) via measurable responses (stress, strain, acceleration and displacement). Along the way it has been used as a tool to study a variety of monitoring technologies including operational modal analysis. As well as manual monitoring of embedded static gauges during construction, natural frequencies of the building were tracked as construction progressed. A modal survey of the completed but empty building used the conventional frequency domain identification tools of the time and was followed by installation of a bi-axial acceleration recorder which developed into a complete system for recording of wind speed signals together with accelerations from roof and basement levels. The most recent development has been the installation and extended evaluation of a dualrover GPS system integrated with the existing monitoring systems and the ambient response data have been revisited using more sophisticated analysis tools.

Building configuration

A full description of this 280m Republic Plaza office tower is provided by the architect [1]. Fig. 1 shows a perspective view of the building. The octagonal reinforced concrete (RC) central core wall maintains a plan area approximately 22m square for almost the full height of the building and the

perimeter of the building comprises eight large and eight small steel tube columns filled with concrete up to level 49 and marking out a square of side 45m at ground level. Plan area reduces with height, tapering sections bring first the large columns then the small columns back towards the core wall. Double-storey mechanical equipment (M&E) floors are located above the tapering sections where outriggers are installed to enhance the rigidity of the building frame under lateral loads. A horizontal steel framing system is pinned at the core and rigidly fixed at the columns and supports a Bondek-formed office slab. Caisson founds, down to 60m ensure rigid base fixity. 2.1 Construction sequence

Foundation construction began in late 1991 and work on the superstructure began in early 1993 with installation of first static instruments by Shimizu in the core wall at level 18, followed by first readings on 30th October 1993. The main structural system was completed in March 1995 and completion of the curtain wall took a further 80 days. Water storage tanks were installed at M&E floors (rooftop and levels 28, 47 and 65) in mid June 1995 totalling 1.5% of the total structural dead load and interior finishing works and installations by tenants continued even up to the end of 1996 including the lavish fitting out of the executive club at levels 62 and 63.

Tracking natural frequencies during construction

By mid June 1994 a portable acceleration recorder was available and was used to record horizontal accelerations in orthogonal symmetry axes (labelled A and B) aligned with the low-rise and highrise lift lobbies respectively. Pairs of first mode frequency values were obtained from SDOF curve fitting to auto-spectra of the signals regularly up to the end of 1995 when a formal modal survey [2] was undertaken, between 20th November and 1st December 1995. The variation of period for fundamental modes in each direction i.e. A1 and B1 during construction is shown in Fig. 2 where it is clear that while B develops into the stiffer direction, frequencies were originally identical. The difference would be due to the changing arrangement of the core wall as higher levels feature a large opening previously enclosing low-rise lift shafts. From the final stages of construction there was no evidence that curtain wall affected either stiffness or damping characteristics of the structure.

Ambient vibration testing [2]: 1980s technology

As this conference demonstrates, the last decade has seen a revolution in ambient vibration testing (AVT) or operational modal analysis (OMA). Until then customary AVT (as it was then known) used peak-picking, which works on the frequency domain ratio of response signals through consideration of a common relationship with an unknown input. Specifically, for a specific (angular) frequency the ratio of acceleration response X j ( ) at level j to force input Pk ( ) at level k on a building is defined as the inertance form of the frequency response function (FRF):
H ij ( ) X j ( ) Pk ( ) .

1)

By considering the equations of motion it can be shown [3] that

H jk ( ) = H r r j rk
r =1 N

2)

where

H r ( ) =

2 2 + r2 + 2i r r

3)

is the dynamic amplification factor and r j rk is the modal constant containing information about mode shapes r and mass distribution for one of N possible modes r having natural frequency and damping ratio r , r . For AVT of a building it is assumed that unmeasured forces Pk ( ) are applied simultaneously at
all m possible levels k, so the response at level j is
X j ( ) = Pk ( ) H r ( ) r j rk = Pk ( ) H r ( ) r j rk .
k r =1 k r =1 N N

4)

Also it has to be assumed that the input force is not a function of frequency but has a spectrum with constant (stationary) mean value at each frequency. This is hardly true for wind but, compared to the fast changing H r ( ) , the auto spectral density of wind force per storey is only a weak function of frequency. The net effect of the distributed load is obtained by summing over the levels k while taking into account the lack of coherence between loading at different levels, leading to an approximate distributed effect C and response depending on level j i.e.
X j ( ) = C H r ( ) r j .
r =1 n

5)

The spectral approach to predicting dynamic response due to wind is described in detail in other references [4]. For excitation by ground motion similar analysis can be used except that the effective forces at each storey are coherent and proportional to ground motion. (FFTs) are formed into a vector of complex FFTs written here as { X ( )} to remind that is it a vector of functions in the frequency domain. From all combinations of products of these vectors is created a three-dimensional matrix of cross-spectral density functions. In practice an average is usually made over a recording divided into M frames of 2n samples using the Welch method [5], where windowing and overlapping may be applied. Hence From measured time series of acceleration response x j ( t ) , the scalar discrete Fourier transforms

S XX ( ) = E

({ X ( )}{ X ( )} )
H

6)

is the experimentally derived matrix of cross-spectral densities containing at row p and column q the complex scalar cross-spectral density:
* S qp = E ( X p ( ) X q ( ) )

7)

The area under the single-sided CSD or ASD plots provide mean square values of acceleration and the square root of ASD is commonly used, having units acceleration/Hz1/2.

4.1

Peak-picking and operating deflection shapes (ODS)

Usually the mode shape is estimated by varying p while keeping a reference q constant and reading off the values down a column of the CSD matrix at a resonant frequency identified as a

peak in the spectrum. These values contain phase and amplitude information normalised to a value of 1 with angle zero by dividing by the ASD of the chosen reference signal. This is called 'peakpicking' and is evaluated from the ratio of CSD between positions p and q to ASD at position q:

S qp ( ) S qq ( )

* E ( X p ( ) X q ( ) ) * E ( X q ( ) X q ( ) )

X p r o = E X q r o

( ) ( )

8)

At a specific natural frequency ro the contribution of mode ro to response dominates over all the other modes hence: X p r o E X q r o N r C H r ro p CH ro ro p = E r =1 . N CH ro roq r C H r ro q r =1

( ) ( )

( )

( )

9)

Hence as all but H ro are negligible at ro ,

S qp ro S qq
ro

( ) ( )

ro

p q

ro

10)

This recovers the approximate ratio of modal ordinates between two locations. In fact it provides the operating deflection shape (ODS), which is an approximation to mode shape. Further, the ASD S qq ( ) around the resonance can be used for estimation of frequency and damping ratio through curve-fitting. Spectral estimates in ASDs and CSDs are subject to variance errors in inverse proportion to the number of averages used in the Welch procedure and at least part of these errors carry over to mode shapes through equation 10). Damping, and to a lesser extent frequency, are subject to bias and variance errors according to parameters such as type of window used, number of averages and width of the resonant peak in relation to frequency resolution. For civil structures with low damping, very long periods of measurement are required and it is (or needs to be) assumed that the loading spectrum is Gaussian and the modal parameters are stationary (constant) for the duration

4.2

1995 Ambient vibration test procedure

The procedure for the AVS data collection used in the 1995 test used a reference accelerometer q at the same location (one corner of the highest -65th-level close to the core wall) and while moving three rover accelerometers p to different locations throughout the height of the building and applying equation (10) at recurrent spectral peaks. Signals were sampled, at 15Hz, for as long as possible while keeping accelerometers aligned in one direction, before rotating them all by 90, measuring again, then shifting the three accelerometers to new floors. The sequence was repeated over several days to map modal ordinates throughout the whole building in A and B directions with respect to a vertical line through the height of the building at the corner of the core wall. As the measurements progressed it became clear that modes did not divide exactly into expected A and B directions, rather that the principal axes of movement were rotated unknown angles with respect to these obvious symmetry axes. Also, there was evidence of significant torsional response even in the translational modes, so a set of four measurements was made, one at each of floors 18,

32, 46 and 65 referenced to one of the locations in the vertical roving of accelerometers, to identify the unknown angles and mode shapes in horizontal planes using the set of four accelerometers arrayed at four corners. The resulting pieces of mode shapes have been glued together to generate a complete set of twelve modes numbered A1 through A4 for modes closest to the A direction, B1 through B4 for modes aligned closest to B direction and T1 through T4 for modes of almost pure torsion. Modes A1, A2, A3 and T1 are illustrated in Fig. 3 together with a typical non-dimensional auto-spectrum of acceleration.

Finite element model updating

Using the experimental modal parameters identified in the 1995 AVT, a complete set of drawings and information from the contactor concerning mass loadings, a thorough study of the building structure was been undertaken via a model updating exercise [6]. The procedure used a combination of the SAP2000 code and an expert system shell to search a progression of model variants for a reasonable match between experimental and analytical natural frequencies and mode shapes. Further validation has since been provided by comparing simulated and measured response to measured ground motions [7].

Acceleration recording system

From October 1996 to the present, acceleration signals have been recorded and analysed with a few breaks due to data download, hardware faults or maintenance. In the initial installation, two accelerometers were placed in a telecoms riser cabinet with the acquisition system used for the modal survey and left recording continuously for two weeks as part of the learning experience to track the levels of normal response. During that period the response caused by a strong (Ms6.3) and relatively close (epicentral distance 700km) earthquake that occurred in Indonesia in October 1996 was recorded, being the first time series recording of building structural response in Singapore. From early 1997, the acceleration recording system component of the monitoring system comprised two pairs of accelerometers, attached to the corner of the core wall at basement level (B1) and top M&E floor (65) and connected by signal cable to the four channel signal conditioner comprising power supply, low pass filter, accelerometer offset adjust and amplification used in the AVT. The accelerometers are Quartz-flex QA-700 servo accelerometers that have noise threshold of around 1 micro-g, can be run noise-free on very long cables and generate current proportional to total (static+dynamic) acceleration that is dropped across a user supplied load resistor to provide adjustable gain. Acceleration signals have been sampled in frames of 4096 samples acquired either at 7.5Hz (before 11/2001) or 8Hz (after 11/2001). A triggering system has been evolved to capture the few % of records that have strong or interesting response, for example a one-off strong signal occurring during a quiet period (at night) indicating an earthquake. The 1995 AVT was too short and signal to noise rations too low to identify reliably building response at the very low floors, but from an ensemble of large amplitude response time histories since collected during strong winds it has been possible to identify to good accuracy the mode shape ordinates at basement, normalised to unity at the roof. For the first three modes these values are 0.006, -0.010 and 0.016. As this shows the foundation to be very rigid, it has been argued that the basement performance is a good representation of local ground movement hence, with the sensitive mode 2 trigger the building works as a sensitive seismometer.

Operational modal analysis [8]: 1990s technology

With ten years of acceleration response data it was useful to apply some of the newly developed operational modal analysis technology to study the mode frequencies and damping, together with orientation in detail based on the four channels of roof and basement signal. For this purpose the natural excitation technique (NExT) was used together with the eigensystem realization algorithm (ERA) and supplemented by the existing vibration test procedures.

7.1

NExT: Natural Excitation Technique

Procedures are now available to improve the accuracy and ease of AVT data analysis and the ability to discriminate close modes. One valuable contribution is NExT [9] that can obtain a set of frequencies, damping ratios and true mode shapes.. NExT may use ERA [10] applied to a set of impulse response functions (IRFs) which can be obtained either through cross-covariance functions of the original time series or the inverse Fourier transforms of their frequency domain equivalent, the cross-spectral densities (CSDs). In the applications described here the combined procedure is termed NExT/ERA. A discretised structural system is represented as having mass, damping and stiffness M, C and K. For a stick model of a building having one lumped mass at each floor and one spring element (column) between floors, the storey or level displacements form a time-varying vector x. The equations of motion are then written as
Mx + Cx + Kx = p .

11)

These are transformed to the state space form of first order equations
z = Az + Bp

12)

M 1C M 1 K M -1 x where, for example, A = z = and B = . 0 x I 0

The frequencies and damping ratios of the MCK system of equation (11) appear as conjugate pairs of eigenvalues of A:

A = i 1 2

13)

and the eigenvectors of A are also the eigenvectors of equation (11) for free vibration. Hence once a form of A representing a discretised modal model of the true structure can be found from test data, the modal parameters can be 'realised'. ERA recovers a candidate A from IRFs that represent the multi-mode behaviour described by equations (11) and (12). The IRFs can be shown to be equivalent (except for a common scale factor) and contain the same information when recovered from: a) Directly measurement of free decay in time domain b) Inverse FFTs of frequency response functions such as given in equation 1) c) Cross-covariance functions of random responses to a common (Gaussian) excitation d) Inverse FFTs of cross-spectral densities such as given in equation 7) for common (Gaussian) excitation channels Fig. 4 shows the time series of basement (channel 1) and level 65 (channel 3) response resulting from weak ground motions due to a tremor some 600km distant. The spectrograms show the

broadband character of the ground motion and resonant amplification at the upper floors. These are used to generate cross-covariance functions R11, R13, R31 and R33 that form a square matrix or 2x2 matrix or block Xi . Hence A is a covariance block Hankel matrix and the method is termd CBHM. These are obtained directly from the short sequence of the data of Fig. 4 and represent case c) above. Wind-induced response is similarly broad band but there is no basement response. R13, R31 are mirror images of each other if negative (time) lags are included. Equivalent plots could be obtained as in case d) by inverse FFT of CSDs either from a single measurement or from averaging over many records (e.g. obtained during strong winds). The examples are for scalar or square forms of Xi . A third and more usual case is where IRFs, FRFs, cross-covariance functions or CSDs are formed between a group of n signals and a common reference; in this case Xi is a nx1 column vector.

7.2

ERA: Eigensystem Realisation Algorithm

With Xi representing as a scalar, vector or matrix the cross-covariance or impulse response function (IRF) at the ith time sample, a matrix is constructed by stacking the Xi :
X0 X H (0) = 1 Xb X1 X2 Xb +1 Xa X a +1 Xa +b

14)

This form is called the Hankel matrix 'at time 0' and the sequence of Xi at discrete times i are known as the Markov parameters. As H(0) contains IRFs which represent the vibration characteristics, it also contains information about the mode shapes, frequencies and decay rates. As more rows and columns are added the rank grows until, in theory, it reaches a limit according to number of vibration modes contributing. A minimum rank form of H is reconstructed and a state matrix A is recovered from it. The procedure of ERA is described very thoroughly elsewhere [10].

7.3

Variations of modal parameters

The efficient NExT/ERA procedure is useful for examining variations of natural frequencies, since some researchers have considered them to be directly or indirectly useful as damage/degradation sensitive parameters for SHM. Data from 15 days of continuous recording of wind-induced response were analysed frame by frame (case c) above), with a degree of overlap, to extract modal parameters. Fig. 5 shows the results for mode A1; the bars indicate by height (z-axis, labeled msv) and lightness of shading the strength of a mode identified at a time and frequency located in the horizontal plane of the figure. In order to judge the repeatability of the estimates using ERA, different sizes of H were used, equivalent to different numbers of lags in the cross-covariance functions constructed from overlapping pieces of the 1Hz sampled time series (decimated from the original 8Hz). The two solid lines plot (with arbitrary scaling) variations of mode A1 RMS amplitude (lower line) and ambient temperature value (upper line). The ambient temperature variations would certainly differ from the structure core temperatures but there is a clear diurnal effect, with no convincing effect of mode amplitude.

Fig. 6 plots the variation of mode A2, B2, A3 and B3 frequencies over a period of 6 years,. identified using the simple auto-power SDOF curve fitting technique. The frequencies drop on average 0.65% per annum but there is considerable scatter, in part due to the variability of the identification method and in part due to the type of systematic variation evident in Fig. 5. Other methods of system identification based only on output measurements have been used. The transmissibility (frequency response) function measured between roof and basement shows clearly the characteristic of a lightly damped multi-degree of freedom system and is amenable to frequency domain curve fitting techniques usually applied to frequency response functions from forced vibration. Fig. 7 shows the real and imaginary parts of the transmissibility function using cross-powers averaged over a set of earthquakes, and the resulting circle fit for mode A2. Using single events works only for certain tremor signals, while averaging broadens the peaks (as the characteristics are not stationary), but this does demonstrate the possibilities of appropriate signal processing.

Global positioning system

With a proven track record in recording dynamic structural deflections in suspension bridges [11], the global positioning system (GPS) offers possibilities of absolute position measurement for resonant, dynamic non-resonant and static responses. Hence, in 1999 the acceleration and wind recording system was upgrade to integrate a dual rover GPS system. The system at Republic Plaza was designed to operate in both RTK and off-line post-processing modes. RTK solutions output at 1Hz for each sample as text data are immediately converted to analog signals that are supplied to and recorded by additional channels on the existing data acquisition system. Hence GPS would provide displacement data from DC to 0.5Hz while acceleration data would also provide, by integration, absolute displacements down to approximately 0.2Hz. The initial GPS data appeared very noisy and not to correlate with other signals, hence it was difficult to believe what the data represented. In fact validating the GPS data was a major issue, as the signals are subject to various forms of error such as multi-path, cycle-slip, random noise and systematic noise. Also, the total movement of the building, expected to be of the order of +/-0.1m, is expected to comprise components of dynamic and static response to wind as well as static response to temperature changes in and around the building. As well as using Direct evidence of system operation by physically moving the antenna, oscillatory displacements at least 5mm amplitude induced by strong winds were compared with acceleration data. Response during strong winds shows a clear modal response, but the best evidence so far is from low frequency ground movements generated by the Aceh earthquake of 26/12/2004; oscillations of around 2cm amplitude were observed, relative to the base station receiver. Unlike accelerometers, which provide absolute displacements, RTK GPS provides relative displacement information. Displacement relative to building foundation is available by integrating acceleration data at basement as well as roof, but is likely to be different motion relative to a building some distance away due variations in ground motion. Figure 8 (left) compares GPS eastings from both rovers (first two rows) with double-integrated accelerations. There are differences, in part due to the uncertain base station movement but there is clear correspondence. More evidence is provided in the right hand plot that shows modes identified using the CBHM approach on the time series, taking different number of blocks (d). The modes and damping ratios are perfectly in line with those from accelerometer data.

So far, due to the high stiffness and small movements, GPS has been unable to identify clearly and convincingly the slowly varying movement of the building during wind, but this is largely due to relatively benign conditions. As always, an extreme event (wind storm) would provide valuable data for evaluating not only the building but the GPS itself.

Conclusions

A range of output-only identification procedures have been applied to data from both accelerometers and GPS to show not only the power of the techniques but also to learn in detail about the modal properties of the building, which have allowed for the building to be used as a giant load cell and seismometer for ambient loads.

10 References
[1] Teh HS, Lai HP, Structural aspects of Republic Plaza. Proc Seminar on Tall Buildings Design and Construction, Singapore, The Institution of Engineers Singapore., 1997 [2] Brownjohn JMW, Pan TC and Cheong HK, 'Dynamic response of Republic Plaza , Singapore.' The Structural Engineer, London, 76(11), 221-226, 1998. [3] Maia NMM, Silva JMM, He J, Lieven NAJ, Lin RM, Skingle GW, To W, Urgueira APV Theoretical and Experimental Modal Analysis, Research Studies Press Ltd, 1997. [4] Simiu E, Scanlan RH, Wind Effects on Structures. Wiley, Third Edition, New York, 1996. [5] Welch PD, 'The use of fast Fourier transform for the estimation of power spectra: A method based on time averaging over short, modified periodograms', IEEE Transactions, AU-15, 7073, 1967. [6] Brownjohn JMW, Pan TC and Deng XY, Correlating dynamic characteristics from field measurements and numerical analysis of a high-rise building. , Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 29(4), 523-543, 2000. [7] Pan TC, Brownjohn JMW, You X,. Correlating measured and simulated dynamic response of a tall building to long-distance earthquakes. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 33(5), 543-668, 2004. [8] Brownjohn, JTC [9] James GH, Carne TG, Lauffer JP, The natural excitation technique (NExT) for modal parameter extraction from operating structures, Journal of Analytical and Experimental Modal Analysis, 10 (2), 260-277, 1995. [10]Juang J-N, Pappa RS, An eigensystem realisation algorithm for modal parameter identification and model reduction, AIAA Journal of Guidance, 8(5), 620-627, 1985 [11]Ashkenazi V, and Roberts GW, Experimental monitoring of the Humber Bridge using GPS. Civil Engineering, Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 120 177-182, 1007.

Figure 1 View of top of Republic Plaza building Figure 3 (below), clockwise from top left: mode A1, mode A2, mode A3, mode T1. Bottom right, auto spectral density of acceleration response in A-direction

Figure 2 (below) variation of principal axis fundamental vibration mode (A1, B1) frequencies with building construction
70 7
N N

60 storeys, mass/106kg 50

6 mode period/sec 5

40

30

3
N N

20

10

0 0 200

days

400

0 600

core w all CFT Column mode A1

core Slab curtain Wall mode B1

office Slab mass

qk11 1 5

qk11

ch 1 (mm/sec )

0.5

ch 3 (mm/sec )

-0.5

400

500

600 t/sec qk11

700

800

-5

400

500

600 t/sec qk11

700

800

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 400 500 600 t/sec 700 800 ch 3 f/Hz ch 1 f/Hz

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 400 500 600 t/sec 700 800

Figure 4 Time series and spectrogram for basement (ch1) and roof (ch3) acceleration signals recorded resulting from regional (Indonesian) earthquake Figure 5 Block-by-block application of NExT/ERA to free-vibration (wind-induced) building response over 17 days, showing scatter of mode A1 and B1 frequencies and limited pattern.

Figure 6 (left) variation of mode A3 and B3 frequencies over 6 years

Figure 7 (below): left: real and imaginary parts of ensemble average of (nondimensional transfer functions for a collection of tremor signals right: circle fit of same data showing clear SDOF system identification

R: ch3 vs ch1 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 f /Hz 0.7 0.8 0.9

cpsf nsemble ch3/ch1 1/mod=0.6059 =167.9 f=0.1822Hz = 1.19%

e

-10

-20

-30

I: ch3 vs ch1 60 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60

-40

-50

-60

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5 0.6 f /Hz

0.7

0.8

0.9
Mod(RE)=i.j/T[m]

Real
Mod(TF)=i.[m]./T[m] = iL / M

Figure 8 Displacement time series from GPS during Aceh earthquake and ERA results
xv_aceh_disps_rotated ch 1 (mm) 20 0 -20

increase d, keep Poles same

ch 3 (mm)

/%

20 0 -20

0.5

0 200 150 100 50

8 10 12 minutes 14 16 18

ch 5 (mm)

20 0 -20

0.2 0.19 0 0.17 0.18 Frequency /Hz

Imaginary