CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Conventional dc motors are highly efficient and their characteristics make them suitable for use as servomotors. However, their only drawback is that they need a commutator and brushes which are subject to wear and require maintenance. When the functions of commutator and brushes were implemented by solid-state switches, maintenance-free motors were realized. These motors are now known as Brushless DC motors (PMBLDC motor).

1.1 Comparison of Conventional and Brushless DC motors

Although it is said that PMBLDC motor and conventional DC motors are similar in their static characteristics, they actually have remarkable differences in some aspects. When we compare both motors in terms of present-day technology, a discussion of their differences rather than their similarities can be more helpful in understanding their proper applications. Table1.1 compares the advantages and disadvantages of these two types of motors. When we discuss the functions of electrical motors, we should not forget the significance of windings and commutation. Commutation refers to the process which converts the input direct current to alternating current and properly distributes it to each winding in the armature. In a conventional dc motor, commutation is undertaken by brushes and commutator in contrast, in a brushless dc motor it is done by using semiconductor devices such as transistors.

Table 1.1: Comparison of conventional DC Motor and Brushless DC Motor

Conventional DC Motor Field magnets on Stator Mechanical Structure

Brushless DC Motor Field magnets on Rotor similar to AC synchronous motor and or easy

Distinctive feature

Quick response and excellent Long Lasting Controllability maintenance Ring Connection The Simplest connection.

The highest grade:

Winding Connection Commutation Method Detecting Method of rotor Position Reversing Method

Y-connected three phase connection.

Mechanical contact between Electronic Switching using brushes and commutator transistor Automatically brushes detected by Hall element, encoder etc. optical logic

By a reversal of terminal Rearranging Voltage sequencer

PMBLDC motor drives are becoming widely used in various consumer and industrial systems, such as servo motor drives, home appliances, computer peripherals, and automotive applications. Consequently, many machine design and control schemes have been developed to enhance the performance of PMBLDC motor drives. In general, the overall system consists of three parts: (a) power conversion PWM inverters, (b) PMBLDC motor and load, and (c) speed, torque, and current controllers. Therefore, exact understanding of each part is a prerequisite for analysis and prediction of the overall system operation. This work proposed a simulation model for an entire PMBLDC motor drive and its actual implementation. In this model the trapezoidal back EMF waveforms are

modeled as a function of rotor position, so that position can be actively calculated according to the operating speeds. Moreover, the switching function concept is adopted to model the PWM inverter. This in turn results in obtaining the detailed voltage and current waveforms of the inverter and calculating the design parameters, such as average/rms ratings of components. The developed model can produce a precise prediction of drive performance during transient as well as steady-state operation. Therefore, the mechanism of phase commutation and generation of torque ripple can be observed and analyzed in this model. In particular, the proposed model is made into several functional modular blocks, so that it can be easily extended to other ac motor applications with a little modification, such as the induction motor, the permanent magnet ac motor, and the synchronous reluctance motor. Therefore, it can be expected that the developed simulation model can be an easy-to-design tool for the development of PMBLDC motor drives including control algorithms and topological variations with reduced computation time and memory size. Several simulation results are shown to confirm the performance and the validity of the proposed model. The model based on system-level simulation makes the simulation faster while it is able to provide greater details of the PMBLDC motor drive system.

CHAPTER 2

OPERATION OF PMBLDC MOTOR

2.1 Construction
A PMBLDC motor is a permanent magnet synchronous motor that uses position detectors and an inverter to control the armature currents. The PMBLDC Motor is sometimes referred to as inside out dc motor because its armature is in the stator and the magnets are on the rotor and its operating characteristic resemble those of a dc motor. Instead of using a mechanical commutator as in the conventional dc motor, the PMBLDC motor employs electronic commutation which makes it a virtually maintenance-free motor. There are two main types of PMBLDC motors: Trapezoidal type an Sinusoidal type. In the trapezoidal motor the back EMF induced in the stator windings has a trapezoidal shape and its phases must be supplied with quasi-square currents for ripple free torque operation. The sinusoidal motor on the other hand has a sinusoidal shaped back EMF and requires sinusoidal phase currents for ripple free torque operation. The shape of the back EMF is determined by the shape of the rotor magnets and the stator winding distribution. The sinusoidal motor needs a high resolution position sensor because the rotor position must be known at every time instant for optimal operation. It also require more complex software and hardware. The trapezoidal motor is a more attractive alternative for most applications due to its simplicity, lower price and higher efficiency. PMBLDC motor exist in many different configuration but three phase motor is most common type due to its efficiency and low torque ripple. This type of motor also
4

offers a good compromise between precise control and number of power electronic devices needed to control the stator currents. Fig.2.1 shows a transverse section of a BLDC motor. Position detection is usually implemented using three Hall-effect sensors that detect the presence of small that are attached to the motor shaft.

Fig.2.1: BLDC Motor Transverse Section

2.2 Operation
The three phase PMBLDC motor is operated in a two phase on fashion, i.e. the two phases that produce the highest torque are energized while the third phase is off. Which two phase are energized depends on the rotor position. The signals from the position sensors produce a three digit number that changes every 60 (electrical degrees) as shown in Fig.2.2 (H1, H2, H3). The figure also shows ideal current and back emf waveforms. Fig.2.3 shows a cross section of a three-phase star-connected motor along with its phase energizing sequence. Each interval starts with the rotor and stator field lines 120
5

apart and ends when they 60 apart. Maximum torque is reached when the field lines are perpendiculars. Current commutation is done by a six-step inverter as shown as bipolar junction transistors but MOSFET switches are more common. Table 2.1 shows the switching sequence, the current direction and the position sensor signals.

Fig.2.2: Ideal Back-EMFs, Phase Currents, and Position Senor Signals

Table 2.1: Switching Sequence

Switching interval 0 -60 60 -120 120 -180 180 -240 240 -300 300 -360

Sequence number 0 1 2 3 4 5

Position Sensor H1 H2 H3 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

Switch Closed Q1 Q4 Q1 Q6 Q3 Q6 Q3 Q2 Q5 Q2 Q5 Q4

Phase current A B C + Off + Off Off + + Off Off + Off +

Fig.2.3: BLDC Motor Cross-section and Phase Energizing Sequence

Fig.2.4: Simplified BLDC Drive Scheme

2.3 Important Features and Applications

Due to the absence of brushes and commutator, PMBLDC motor have a number of advantages compared to conventional DC motors. They require practically no maintenance, have long life, high reliability, low inertia and friction, and low radio frequency interference and noise. Due to low inertia and friction, they have faster acceleration and can be run at much higher speeds up to 100000 rpm and higher are common. Because armature winding are on the stator, cooling is much better, i.e. higher specific outputs can be obtained. These motors have high efficiency, exceeding 75% whereas wound field motors of low power ratings have much lower efficiency. The disadvantage compared to conventional DC motors are high cost and low starting torque. The size of a PMBLDC motor is nearly the same as of conventional DC motor. The PMBLDC motor finds applications in turn table drives in record players, tape drive for video recorders, spindle drives in hard disk drives for computers, and low cost and low power drives in computer peripherals, instruments and control systems. They also have applications in the fields of aerospace, e.g. gyroscope motors, and biomedical like cryogenic coolers and artificial heart pumps. They are also used for driving cooling fans for electronics circuits and heat sinks.

CHAPTER 3

HALL EFFECT SENSORS

The Hall effect was discovered by Dr. Edwin Hall in 1879 while he was a doctoral candidate at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. Hall was attempting to verify the theory of electron flow proposed by Kelvin some 30 years earlier. Dr. Hall found when a magnet was placed so that its field was perpendicular to one face of a thin rectangle of gold through which current was flowing, a difference in potential appeared at the opposite edges. He found that this voltage was proportional to the current flowing through the conductor, and the flux density or magnetic induction perpendicular to the conductor. Although Halls experiments were successful and well received at the time, no applications outside of the realm of theoretical physics were found for over 70 years. With the advent of semiconducting materials in the 1950s, the Hall effect found its first applications. However, these were severely limited by cost. In 1965, Everett Vorthmann and Joe Maupin, MICRO SWITCH Sensing and Control senior development engineers, teamed up to find a practical, low-cost solid state sensor. Many different concepts were examined, but they chose the Hall effect for one basic reason: it could be entirely integrated on a single silicon chip. This breakthrough resulted in the first low-cost, highvolume application of the Hall effect, truly solid state keyboards. MICRO SWITCH Sensing and Control has produced and delivered nearly a billion Hall effect devices in keyboards and sensor products.

3.1 Theory of The Hall Effect

Fig.3.1: Hall Effect Principle, no magnetic field

When a current-carrying conductor is placed into a magnetic field, a voltage will be generated perpendicular to both the current and the field. This principle is known as the Hall effect. Fig.3.1 illustrates the basic principle of the Hall effect. It shows a thin sheet of semiconducting material (Hall element) through which a current is passed. The output connections are perpendicular to the direction of current. When no magnetic field is present, current distribution is uniform and no potential difference is seen across the output. When a perpendicular magnetic field is present, as shown in Fig.3.2, a Lorentz force is exerted on the current. This force disturbs the current distribution, resulting in a potential difference (voltage) across the output. This voltage is the Hall voltage (VH). VH IB (3.1)

The interaction of the magnetic field and the current is shown in equation form as equation (3.1). Hall effect sensors can be applied in many types of sensing devices. If the

10

quantity (parameter) to be sensed incorporates or can incorporate a magnetic field, a Hall sensor will perform the task. The Hall voltage is proportional to the vector cross product of the current (I) and the magnetic field (B). It is on the order of 7 mv/Vs/gauss in silicon and thus requires amplification for practical applications. Silicon exhibits the piezoresistance effect, a change in electrical resistance proportional to strain. It is desirable to minimize this effect in a Hall sensor. This is accomplished by orienting the Hall element on the IC to minimize the effect of stress and by using multiple Hall elements. Figure 2-3 shows two Hall elements located in close proximity on an IC. They are positioned in this manner so that they may both experience the same packaging stress, represented by DR. The first Hall element has its excitation applied along the vertical axis and the second along the horizontal axis. Summing the two outputs eliminates the signal due to stress. MICRO SWITCH Hall ICs use two or four elements.

Fig.3.2: Hall Effect Principle, Magnetic field presents

11

Fig.3.3 Hall Element Orientation

3.2 Basic Hall Effect Sensors

The Hall element is the basic magnetic field sensor. It requires signal conditioning to make the output usable for most applications. The signal conditioning electronics needed are an amplifier stage and temperature compensation. Voltage regulation is needed when operating from an unregulated supply. Fig.3.4 illustrates a basic Hall effect sensor.

12

Fig.3.4: Basic Hall Effect Sensors

If the Hall voltage is measured when no magnetic field is present, the output is zero . However, if voltage at each output terminal is measured with respect to ground, a non-zero voltage will appear. This is the common mode voltage (CMV), and is the same at each output terminal. It is the potential difference that is zero. The amplifier shown in Fig.3.4 must be a differential amplifier so as to amplify only the potential difference the Hall voltage. The Hall voltage is a low-level signal on the order of 30 microvolts in the presence of a one gauss magnetic field. This low-level output requires an amplifier with low noise, high input impedance and moderate gain. A differential amplifier with these characteristics can be readily integrated with the Hall element using standard bipolar transistor technology. Temperature compensation is also easily integrated. As was shown by equation 3.1 , the Hall voltage is a function of the input current. The purpose of the regulator in Fig.3.4 is to hold this current constant so that the output of the sensor only reflects the intensity of the magnetic field. As many systems have a regulated supply available, some Hall effect sensors may not include an internal regulator.

13

CHAPTER 4

CONTROL OF BLDC MOTOR

4.1 Inverter
An Inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. An inverter is essentially the opposite of a rectifier. Static inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries. The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to AC.

In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through a centre tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit. The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to

14

the opposite stationary contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly back and forth. This type of electromechanical inverter switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was once used in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo guns. As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and various other types of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter circuit designs.

Fig.4.1Single Phase Inverter

The switch in the simple inverter described above, when not coupled to an output transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its simple off and on nature as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC power supply. Using Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an infinite series of sine waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the original waveform is called the fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonics, that are included in the series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.

15

The quality of the inverter output waveform can be expressed by using the Fourier analysis data to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD). The total harmonic distortion is the square root of the sum of the squares of the harmonic voltages divided by the fundamental voltage:

The quality of output waveform that is needed from an inverter depends on the characteristics of the connected load. Some loads need a nearly perfect sine wave voltage supply in order to work properly. Other loads may work quite well with a square wave voltage.

There are many different power circuit topologies and control strategies used in inverter designs. Different design approaches address various issues that may be more or less important depending on the way that the inverter is intended to be used.

The issue of waveform quality can be addressed in many ways. Capacitors and inductors can be used to filter the waveform. If the design includes a transformer, filtering can be applied to the primary or the secondary side of the transformer or to both sides. Low-pass filters are applied to allow the fundamental component of the waveform to pass to the output while limiting the passage of the harmonic components. If the inverter is designed to provide power at a fixed frequency, a resonant filter can be used. For an adjustable frequency inverter, the filter must be tuned to a frequency that is above the maximum fundamental frequency.

16

Since most loads contain inductance, feedback rectifiers or anti parallel diodes are often connected across each semiconductor switch to provide a path for the peak inductive load current when the switch is turned off. The anti parallel diodes are somewhat similar to the freewheeling diodes used in AC/DC converter circuits.

Fourier analysis reveals that a waveform, like a square wave, that is anti symmetrical about the 180 degree point contains only odd harmonics, the 3rd, 5th, 7th etc. Waveforms that have steps of certain widths and heights eliminate or cancel additional harmonics. For example, by inserting a zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections of the square-wave, all of the harmonics that are divisible by three can be eliminated. That leaves only the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc. The required width of the steps is one third of the period for each of the positive and negative steps and one sixth of the period for each of the zero-voltage steps.

Changing the square wave as described above is an example of pulse-width modulation (PWM). Modulating, or regulating the width of a square-wave pulse is often used as a method of regulating or adjusting an inverter's output voltage. When voltage control is not required, a fixed pulse width can be selected to reduce or eliminate selected harmonics. Harmonic elimination techniques are generally applied to the lowest harmonics because filtering is more effective at high frequencies than at low frequencies. Multiple pulse-width or carrier based PWM control schemes produce waveforms that are composed of many narrow pulses. The frequency represented by the number of narrow pulses per second is called the switching frequency or carrier frequency. These control schemes are often used in variable-frequency motor control inverters because they allow

17

a wide range of output voltage and frequency adjustment while also improving the quality of the waveform.

Multilevel inverters provide another approach to harmonic cancellation. Multilevel inverters provide an output waveform that exhibits multiple steps at several voltage levels. For example, it is possible to produce a more sinusoidal wave by having split-rail direct current inputs at two voltages, or positive and negative inputs with a central ground. By connecting the inverter output terminals in sequence between the positive rail and ground, the positive rail and the negative rail, the ground rail and the negative rail, then both to the ground rail, a stepped waveform is generated at the inverter output. This is an example of a three level inverter: the two voltages and ground.

Fig.4.2 Three Phase Inverter

Three-phase inverters are used for variable-frequency drive applications and for high power applications such as HVDC power transmission. A basic three-phase inverter consists of three single-phase inverter switches each connected to one of the three load
18

terminals. For the most basic control scheme, the operation of the three switches is coordinated so that one switch operates at each 60 degree point of the fundamental output waveform. This creates a line-to-line output waveform that has six steps. The six-step waveform has a zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections of the square-wave such that the harmonics that are multiples of three are eliminated as described above. When carrier-based PWM techniques are applied to six-step waveforms, the basic overall shape, or envelope, of the waveform is retained so that the 3rd harmonic and its multiples are cancelled. To construct inverters with higher power ratings, two sixstep three-phase inverters can be connected in parallel for a higher current rating or in series for a higher voltage rating. In either case, the output waveforms are phase shifted to obtain a 12-step waveform. If additional inverters are combined, an 18-step inverter is obtained with three inverters etc. Although inverters are usually combined for the purpose of achieving increased voltage or current ratings, the quality of the waveform is improved as well.

Since early transistors were not available with sufficient voltage and current ratings for most inverter applications, it was the 1957 introduction of the thyristor or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) that initiated the transition to solid state inverter circuits. The commutation requirements of SCRs are a key consideration in SCR circuit designs. SCRs do not turn off or commutate automatically when the gate control signal is shut off. They only turn off when the forward current is reduced to below the minimum holding current, which varies with each kind of SCR, through some external process. For SCRs connected to an AC power source, commutation occurs naturally every time the polarity of the source voltage reverses. SCRs connected to a DC power source usually
19

require a means of forced commutation that forces the current to zero when commutation is required. The least complicated SCR circuits employ natural commutation rather than forced commutation. With the addition of forced commutation circuits, SCRs have been used in the types of inverter circuits described above. In applications where inverters transfer power from a DC power source to an AC power source, it is possible to use ACto-DC controlled rectifier circuits operating in the inversion mode. In the inversion mode, a controlled rectifier circuit operates as a line commutated inverter. This type of operation can be used in HVDC power transmission systems and in regenerative braking operation of motor control systems.

Another type of SCR inverter circuit is the current source input (CSI) inverter. A CSI inverter is the dual of a six-step voltage source inverter. With a current source inverter, the DC power supply is configured as a current source rather than a voltage source. The inverter SCRs are switched in a six-step sequence to direct the current to a three-phase AC load as a stepped current waveform. CSI inverter commutation methods include load commutation and parallel capacitor commutation. With both methods, the input current regulation assists the commutation. With load commutation, the load is a synchronous motor operated at a leading power factor. As they have become available in higher voltage and current ratings, semiconductors such as transistors or IGBTs that can be turned off by means of control signals have become the preferred switching components for use in inverter circuits.

20

4.2 Controller

4.2.1 PI Controller
In control engineering, a PI Controller (proportional-integral controller) is a feedback controller which drives the plant to be controlled with a weighted sum of the error difference between the output and desired set-point) and the integral of that value. It is a special case of the common PID controller in which the derivative (D) of the error is not used.

Fig.4.3: Basic block of a PI controller.

The controller output is given by

where

is the error or deviation of actual measured value (PV) from the set-point (SP). = SP - PV.

A PI controller can be modelled easily in software such as Simulink using a "flow chart" box involving Laplace operators:
21

where G = KP = proportional gain G / = KI = integral gain

Setting a value for G is often a trade off between decreasing overshoot and increasing settling time.

Finding a value for

Finding a proper value for is an iterative process.

1) Set a value for G from the optimal range.

2) View the Nichols plot for the open-loop response of the system. Observe where the response curve crosses the 0dB line. This frequency is known as the cross-over frequency fc.

3) The value of can be calculated as: = 1 / fc

4) Decreasing quicker.

decreases the phase margin, however it eliminates the steady-state errors

22

Advantages and disadvantages

The integral term in a PI controller causes the steady-state error to reduce to zero, which is not the case for proportional-only control in general.

The lack of derivative action may make the system more steady in the steady state in the case of noisy data. This is because derivative action is more sensitive to higher-frequency terms in the inputs.

Without derivative action, a PI-controlled system is less responsive to real (nonnoise) and relatively fast alterations in state and so the system will be slower to reach set point and slower to respond to perturbations than a well-tuned PID system may be.

4.2.2 Fuzzy logic

Fuzzy logic is a part of artificial intelligence (AI), which is an important branch of computer science or computer engineering. Recently, AI techniques are making a serious impact in electrical engineering, particularly in the area of power electronics and motor drives. AI is basically computer emulation of human thinking (called computational intelligence). Neurobiologists have taken a bottom-up approach to understand the brain structure and its functioning, and the psychologists and psychiatrists have taken the topdown approach to understanding the human thinking process. The goal of AI is to mimic human intelligence so that a computer can think like a human being. However complex the human thought process is, there is no denying the fact that computers have adequate

23

intelligence to help solve problems that are difficult to solve by traditional methods. Today, the AI techniques are used in many areas that include power electronics and motor drives. Fuzzy Logic (FL) is another class of AI. According to George Boole, human thinking and decisions are based on yes/no reasoning, or 1/0logic. It has been argued that human thinking does not always follow crisp yes/no logic, but is often vague, qualitative, uncertain, imprecise, or fuzzy in nature. For example, in term of yes/no logic, a thinking rule may be IF it is not raining AND outside temperature is less than 80 THEN take a sightseeing trip for more than 100 miles

In actual thinking, it might be IF weather is good AND outside temperature is mild THEN take a long sightseeing trip Based on the nature of fuzzy human thinking, Lotfi Zadeh, a computer scientist at the University of California, Berkeley, originated the fuzzy logic, or fuzzy set theory in 1965. The general methodology of reasoning in FL and ES by IF THENstatement or rules is the same; therefore, it is often called fuzzy expert system. FL can help to supplement an ES, and it is sometimes hydride with the latter to solve complex problems. FL has been successfully applied in process control, modeling, estimation, identification, diagnostics, military science, stock market prediction, etc.

4.2.3 Fuzzy Logic Controller

24

The control algorithm of a process that is based on FL or a fuzzy inference system, is defined as a fuzzy control. Fuzzy control does not strictly need any mathematical model of the system. A fuzzy control system essentially embeds the experience and intuition and it is very easy to apply. Fuzzy control is basically an adaptive and nonlinear control, which gives robust performance for a linear or nonlinear system with parameter variation. In fact, fuzzy control is possibly the best adaptive control among all AI techniques. The general structure of a fuzzy feedback control system is shown in Fig.7.1. The loop error E and change in Error CE signals are converted to the respective per unit signals e and ce by dividing by respective scale factors, that is, e= E/GE and ce=CE/GC. Similarly, the output system control signal U is derived by multiplying the per unit output by the scale factor GU, that is DU = du.GU, and then summed to generate the U signal.

Fig.7.1: Structure of Fuzzy Control in Feedback System

The advantage of fuzzy control in terms of per unit variables is that the same control algorithm can be applied to all the systems of the same family. Besides, it becomes convenient to design the fuzzy controller. The scale factors can be constant or

25

programmable; programmable scale factors can control the sensitivity of operation in different regions of response loop. control or the same control strategy can be applied in similar

4.3 Open Loop Control of PMBLDC Motor

Fig.4.4 Open Loop Control of BLDC Motor

Fig.4.4 explain the open loop control of BLDC motor drive. For open loop control of a BLDC motor system has following part: a) b) c) d) e) Three Phase Supply Source Rectifier Filters Inverter Hall Sensors

The output of three phase supply source is rectify with help of bridge rectifier and the output of rectifier is a uncontrolled DC voltage. LC filter has been used to reduce

26

harmonics. Now DC voltage is a input for a three phase Inverter to get controlled AC at BLDC motor input terminal. The output of Inverter is controlled by a gate pulse which are generated according to the Hall signals coming from hall sensor. Simulation results of above model are shown below. Initially back emf is zero so motor rotates negative for some very small duration. Afterward speed starts increase in positive direction and motor current too. At steady state speed back emf becomes constant but motor has pulsating current and torque.

Fig.4.5: Inverter Input Voltage(V)

Fig.4.6: Hall Signals from Hall Sensors

27

Fig.4.7: Gate Pulses for Inverter

Fig4.8: Back-emf for Phase A (V)

Fig.4.9: Current for Phase A (A)

28

Fig.4.9 shows the current wave form for phase A. Current waveform is not ideal trapezoidal waveform because of switching delay for same phase switches

Fig.4.10: Motor Speed (rpm)

Fig. 4.10 shows motor speed. Initially motor speed is negative because of low/no BackEMF in starting of motor.

Fig.4.11: Motor Torque Te (Nm)

29

4.4 Closed Loop Control of PMBLDC Motor

Fig.4.12: Closed Loop Control Drive for BLDC Motor

Fig.4.12 explain the closed loop control of PMBLDC motor drive. The main difference between closed loop and open loop is of feedback loop. The motor speed signal is feedback and compared with reference speed. According to difference, between reference speed and actual speed, inverter input voltage changed. This make change in current, speed and torque. A PI controller is used for speed regulation. To explain closed loop operation a step load torque has given to the motor, i.e. initially load torque is 5 which get double at 0.2 sec. Increase in torque will decrease the speed. Change in speed will changed the output of PI controller and this makes the change in input voltage of inverter. Simulation results of above model are shown below.

30

Fig.4.13: Inverter Input Voltage (V) k

Fig.4.14: Back-emf for Phase A (V)

Fig. 4.13 & Fig. 4.14 shows Inverter input voltage and back EMF for BLDC motor. During simulation at 0.2 sec load torque changes and this change make change in Inverter input voltage but not in Back EMF. After sudden dip in voltage Back EMF, it again reaches to its steady state value within 0.02 sec.

31

Fig.4.14: Current for Phase A (A)

Fig.4.15: Motor Speed (rpm)

Same as, at 0.2 sec load torque changes and this change make change in motor current but not speed. After sudden dip in speed it again reaches to its steady state value within 0.02 sec.

32

Fig.4.16: Motor Torque Te (Nm)

To have a constant speed operation, motor increase its current and torque with increase in load torque. This is shown by Fig.4.14 and Fig.4.16.

33

CHAPTER 5

MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE PMBLDC MOTOR

Fig.5.1 shows the overall system configuration of the three-phase PMBLDC motor drive. The pwm inverter topology is a six-switch voltage-source configuration with constant dc-link voltage (Vd), which is identical with the induction motor drives and the permanent magnet ac motor drives. The analysis is based on the following assumption for simplification : a) The motor is not saturated. b) Stator resistances of all the windings are equal, and self- and mutual inductances are constant.

c) Power semiconductor devices in the inverter are ideal. d) Iron losses are negligible. Among the above-mentioned assumptions, the iron loss can be approximated using empirical equations, and the dynamic characteristics of the switching devices need to be considered for the investigation of transient state behavior.

Fig.5.1: Configuration of BLDC Motor Drives System

34

Under the above assumptions, a BLDC motor can be represented as

+

+ (5.1)

where ea, eb, and ec are trapezoidal back EMFs. The electromagnetic torque is expressed as wr Te = TL + J + B wr (5.2) where TL is load torque, J is inertia, and B is damping. The PWM three-phase inverter operation can be divided into six modes according to the current conduction states as shown in Fig.5.2. The detailed switching states and conduction sequence are described in Fig.5.3.

Fig.5.2: Back EMF and Phase Current Waveform of BLDC Motor Drives

35

Fig.5.3: Switching States and Conduction Sequence according to the Operation Modes

36

The three phase currents are controlled to take a type of quasi-square waveform in order to synchronize with the trapezoidal back EMF to produce the constant torque. This task is performed by the speed/torque control loop in cooperation with the rotor position sensor and hysteresis current controller as shown in Fig.5.4.

Fig.5.4: Block Diagram of Control Scheme of BLDC Motor Drive

37

CHAPTER 6

MODELING AND IMPLEMENTATION

In this section the modeling process is explained and the actual implementation using MATLAB/Simulink is described. Fig.6.1. shows the overall block diagram of the developed model for BLDC motor drives. As shown in Fig.6.1 the proposed model consists of seven functional blocks: back EMF block, load current block, hysteresis current control block, pwm inverter block, diode rectifier block, pure switch and diode current-generating block, and speed/torque controller block.

Fig.6.1: Overall Block Diagram of The Developed Model for BLDC Motor Drive System

38

6.1 Back EMF Block

As shown in Fig.6.1 the back EMF is a function of rotor position ( r) and has the amplitude E = Ke
r

(Ke is the back EMF constant). In this work the modeling of the

back EMF is performed under the assumption that all three phases have identical back EMF waveforms. Based on the rotor position, the numerical expression of the back EMF can be obtained as equations (6.1) and it is implemented as shown in Fig.6.2. Therefore, with the speed command and rotor position, the symmetric three-phase back EMF waveforms can be generated at every operating speed:

 6 / T U r  2 ec !  6 /T U  8 r 

 6 / T U r  4 eb !  6 / T U  10 r 

6 / T U r ea !  6 / T U r  6  6 / T U r  12

0 U r T / 6 T / 6 U r 5T / 6 5T / 6 U r 7T / 6 , 7T / 6 U r 11T / 6 11T / 6 U r 2T / 6 0 U r T / 2 T / 2 U r 5T / 6 5T / 6 U r 9T / 6 , 9T / 6 U r 11T / 6 11T / 6 U r 2T 0 U r T / 6 T / 2 U r T / 2 T / 2 U r 7T / 6 . 7T / 6 U r 9T / 6 9T / 6 U r 2T

(6.1)
39

In practical situations, due to manufacturing imperfection, deterioration of permanent magnets, or unbalanced stator windings, the back EMF waveforms become unbalanced. In this case the real back EMF could be modeled using finite element analysis (FEA). Consequently, the back EMF block can be modified by the FEA program. In the next step, these data will be fed into the S-Function Block in MATLAB/Simulink, which passes the program written in M, C, or Fortran to the MATLAB workspace. Therefore, it is noted that the proposed model can be applied not only to the ideal back EMF case, but also to the practical case.

Fig.6.2: Back EMF Generating Block from Rotor Positions

40

6.2 Speed and Torque Control Block

Speed and torque characteristics of the BLDC motor can be explained with equation (5.2), neglecting the damping factor as

[r !

1 1 Tc  TL dt ! j Ta  Tb  Tc  TL dt j
(6.2)

Therefore, the speed and torque control circuit can be implemented as shown in Fig.6.3.

Fig.6.3: Speed and Torque Control Block

41

6.3 Hysteresis Current Control Block

In the PMBLDC motor drive, duty-cycle controlled voltage pwm technique and hysteresis current control technique can be regarded as the main current control strategies. In this work bipolar hysteresis current control is used for obtaining the fast dynamic responses during transient states. This current control method is explained based on the case of phase A. As shown in Fig.4.4 (a), current control for phase A can be divided into each four-period following the polarity of the current:

1. Case I: Ia > 0 y y y y Period 1: Ia < Lower Limit (LL) Period 2: Ia > Upper Limit (UL) Switch S1 is turned on. Switch S1 is turned off and D4 is conducted. S1 is turned on. Switch S1 is turned off and D4 is

Period 3: LL < Ia < UL and dIa/dt > 0

Period 4: LL < Ia < UL and dIa/dt < 0 conducted.

2. Case II: Ia < 0 y y y y Period 1: Ia > UL Period 2: Ia < LL Switch S4 is turned on. Switch S4 is turned off and D1 is conducted. S4 is turned on. Switch S4 is turned off and D1 is

Period 3: LL < Ia < UL and dIa/dt < 0

Period 4: LL < Ia < UL and dIa/dt > 0 conducted.

42

(a)

(b)
Fig.6.4: (a) Detailed Investigation of Hysteresis Current Control for phase A and (b) Its Implementation

43

This hysteresis current control logic is realized in a function block fa(u) in cooperation with the measured phase A current Ia, current reference I max, and rotor position r as shown in Fig.6.4 (b), such as

 (6.3)

where u[1] is the measured Ia, u[2] is the previous value of Ia, u[3] is the maximum value of current reference (I max), u[4] is the rotor position ( r), u[3]*0.9 is the lower limit, and u[3]*1.1 is the upper limit. From the hysteresis block, the switching function SF1 a, SF1 b, and SF1 c are determined to model the operation of the pwm inverter. The switching function concept is a powerful tool in understanding and optimizing the performance of the static power converters/inverters . Using the switching function concept, the power conversion circuits can be modeled according to their functions, rather than circuit topologies. In this model the switching function SF1 is used to generate the inverter line-to-line voltages. Also, it is modified to SF2 for obtaining the

44

pure switch and diode currents according to the switching states. Consequently, using switching functions (SF1 and SF2), the detailed inverter operation under hysteresis current control can be effectively expressed.

6.4 PWM Inverter, Load Current, and Pure Switch/Diode Current Blocks
As shown in Fig.5.3, only the two phases are excited through the conduction operating modes. Therefore, the three-phase currents are considered in terms of the line-to-line voltages. From Fig.6.5, the following voltage and current equations can be obtained:
vab ! R i1  L  M v ! R i  L  M  2 bc v ! R i  L  M LL 3 LL ca

di1  eab , dt di2  ebc , dt di3  eca , dt

where RLL is the line-to-line resistance and equals 2R (L M)LL is the line-to-line inductance and equals 2(L M) eab, ebc, and eca are the line-to-line back EMFs, eab = ea eb, ebc = eb ec, eca = ec ea

(6.4)

45

Fig.6.5 Voltage and Current Parameters in There-phase BLDC Motor

ia = i1 i3 ib = i2 i1 ic = i3 i2 (6.5) Using switching function SF1 a,b,c, which is obtained from hysteresis block, vao, vbo, and vco can be calculated as vao= (Vd/2)SF1_a = vbo= (Vd/2)SF1_b = vco= (Vd/2)SF1_c =

(6.6)

46

Then the inverter line-to-line voltages can be derived as vab= vao-vbo = (Vd/2)(SF1_a - SF1_b) vbc= vbo-vco = (Vd/2)(SF1_b - SF1_c) vca= vco-vao = (Vd/2)(SF1_c - SF1_c) (6.7) Next, the three-phase currents are obtained solving equations (6.4) and (6.5). From the calculated phase currents, the detailed pure switch and diode currents are derived using switching function SF2. Each phase has two switching functions of SF2, such as SF2 S1 and SF2 S4 for switches S1 and S4, respectively, with the following definition: SF2_S1= SF1_a > 0 SF2_S2= SF1_a < 0 (6.8) Based on equation (4.8) and Fig.4.4 (a), the switch and diode currents for phase A are calculated as IS1_ S = (Ia > 0) SF2_S1, IS1_D = (Ia < 0) SF2_S1, IS4_S = (Ia < 0) SF2_S4, IS1_D = (Ia > 0) SF2_S4, (6.9)

47

where IS1_ S and IS1_D are pure switch and diode currents of switch S1 as IS1 = IS1_SIS_ D IS_ S and IS4_D are pure switch and diode currents of switch S4 as IS4 = IS4_SIS4_D. Also, the inverter input current (Iin) can be obtained by Iin = IS1 + IS3 + IS5 (6.10)

Finally, the average and rms values of current parameters can be expressed by the vector forms such as equations (4.11) and (4.12) and can be calculated in the MATLAB workspace by getting the data from Fig.4.1:

I SI . S . avg !

1T 1 I SI . S t ! 2T T0

I k  I k  1
SI . S SI . S k !1

(6.11)

I SI . S . avg

1T 2 1 ! I SI . S t ! 2T T0

I k  I k  1
2 SI . S 2 SI . S k !1

(6.12) The implementations of the above-explained numerical pwm inverter voltage and current equations are shown in Fig.4.6, and 4.7. Consequently, from the inverter, load current, and switch/diode blocks, all voltage and current variables of the pwm inverter can be obtained.

48

Fig.6.6: Inverter line-to-line Voltage Generating Block using Switching Function

Fig.6.7: Implementation of Three-phase Current Block

49

6.5 Design of Fuzzy Logic Controller Block (FLC)

The block diagram of FLC with two inputs (e1, e2) and one output (u) is shown in Fig.6.8. The error is calculated by subtracting the reference speed from the actual rotor speed as follows: e1[n]= wref [n]-wr [n] (6.13) where e1 [n] is the error, wref [n] is the reference speed, and wr[n] is the actual motor speed. The change in error is calculated by Equation (16), where e1 [n 1] is the previous error value. e2[n]= e1 [n]-e2 [n-1] (6.14) In the fuzzy logic control system, two normalization parameters (Ne1, Ne2) for input and one denormalization parameter ( Nu) for output are defined. In normalization process, the input values are scaled between (-1, +1) and in the denormalization process, the output values of fuzzy controller are converted to a value depending on the terminal control element.

Fig.6.8: Structure of Fuzzy Logic Controller

50

The fuzzy values obtained from fuzzy inference mechanism have to be converted to crisp output value (u) by defuzzifier process. For this purpose, the triangle fuzzy membership function is defined for each input and output values by seven clusters. Fig.6.9 illustrates the membership function used to fuzzify two input values (e1, e2) and defuziffy output (u) of the fuzzy controller. For seven clusters in the membership functions, seven linguistic variables are defined as: Negative Big (NB), Negative Medium (NM), Negative Small (NS), Zero (Z), Positive Small (PS), Positive Medium (PM), and Positive Big (PB).

Fig.6.9: Membership Functions of Fuzzy Controller

A sliding mode rule base used in FLC is given in Table 8.1. The fuzzy inference operation is implemented by using the 49 rules. The min-max compositional rule of inference and the center-of-gravity method have been used in defuzzifier process. If e1 is NB and e2 is NB Then u is NB, If e1 is NB and e2 is NM Then u is NB, If e1 is NB and e2 is NS Then u is NM, If e1 is NB and e2 is Z Then u is NM, and go on for all inputs.

51

MATLAB/Fuzzy Logic Toolbox is used to simulate FLC which can be integrated into simulations with Simulink. The FLC designed through the FIS editor is transferred to MATLAB-Workspace by the command Export to Workspace. Then, Simulink environment provides a direct access to the FLC through the MATLAB-Workspace in BLDC motor drive simulation.
Table 6.1: Rule base of fuzzy controller

Inpute1 NB NM NS Z PS PM PB

Input-e2 NB NB NB NM NM NS NS Z NM NB NM NM NS NS Z PS NS NM NM NS NS Z PS PS Z NM NS NS Z PS PS PM PS NS NS Z PS PS PM PM PM NS Z PS PS PM PM PB PB Z Ps PM PM PM PB PB

Fig.6.10: Simulink Diagram of Fuzzy Logic Controller

52

CHAPTER 7

SIMULATION RESULTS
Table 7.1 shows the PMBLDC motor specification to examine the performance of the proposed model.
Table 7.1: Motor Specification

Motor Specification (LL: line-to-line) Kt Ke_LL J TL 0.21476 Nm 0.21486 V/(rad/sec) 8.2614e-5 kgm2 0.662 Nm RLL (L-M)LL Power Rated speed 1.5 6.1 mH 1 HP 3500 rpm

Fig.7.1 shows the generated back EMF from the rotor position and the phasecurrent waveforms according to operating speed, 3,500 rpm. As shown in Fig.7.1 and Fig.7.2, the three-phase symmetric back EMF waveforms are actively calculated and generated from the rotor position. At 3,500 rpm, the electric cycle is 0.0171 s, and the amplitude is 39.36 V. Also, the actual phase currents are successfully obtained by the hysteresis control algorithm, and they are well synchronized with their counterpart back EMF waveforms as explained above.

53

Fig.7.1: Rotor Position

Fig.7.2: Switching function SF_a for phase A

54

Fig.7.3: Back-emf for Phase A

Fig.7.4: Phase Current for Phase A

Fig.7.5: Imax Current

55

Fig7.6 and Fig.7.7 shows the responses of the speed and torque controller, which is designed as shown in Figure 6.9. With the help of the PI controller, the real speed reaches the command value in 0.03s and with FLC in 0.24s. Also, from the generated constant torque reference, the maximum current reference value (Imax) is calculated, and then it is used in the hysteresis control block. The average values of torque and the maximum current reference value are calculated as about 0.7 Nm and 3.3 A, respectively for FLC.

Fig.7.6: Response of Speed for BLDC Motor for FLC and PI

Fig.7.7: Response of Torque for BLDC Motor for FLC and PI

56

CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION
In this work an advanced simulation model for PMBLDC motor drives was designed, and the performance and feasibilities have been examined by the informative simulation verification. From the investigation of the developed simulation model, it is expected that the dynamic characteristics as well as the steady state can be effectively monitored and predicted, so that the performance of a developed system can be more precisely analyzed according to the variation of the control algorithm and topology. A comprehensive analysis of brushless DC drive system has been performed by using fuzzy logic controller also. The simulation model which is implemented in a modular manner under MATLAB/simulink environment allows that many dynamic characteristics such as phase currents, voltages, rotor speed, and mechanical torque can be effectively considered. Furthermore, the control algorithms, FLC and PI have been compared by using the developed model. It is seen that the desired real speed and torque values could be reached in a short time by FLC controller. The results show that MATLAB paired with simulink is a good simulation tool for modeling and analyze Fuzzy Logic Controlled PMBLDC motor drives.

57

REFERENCES
[1] Mehmet and Omer, Realization of fuzzy logic controlled brushless DC motor Drive Using MATLAB/Simulink, Mathematical and Computational Applications, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 218-229, 2010. B.K. Lee and M. Ehsani, Advanced Simulation Model for Brushless DC Motor Drives, Electric Power Components and Systems 31, pp. 841868, 2003. J. Figueroa, C. Brocart, J. Cros, and P. Viarouge, Simplified simulation methods for polyphase brushless DC motors, Mathematics and Computers in Simulation 63, pp. 209224, 2003. CK. Lee and WH. Pang, A Brushless DC Motor Speed Control System Using Fuzzy Rules, IEEE Power Electronics and Variable Speed Drives, pp.101-106, 1994. P. D. Evans and D. Brown, Simulation of brushless DC drives, Proc. of the IEEE, vol. 137, no. 5, pp. 299308, September 1990. P. Pillay and R. Krishnan, Modeling, simulation, and analysis of permanent-magnet motor drives, part II: the Brushless DC motor Drive, IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications 25, pp. 274279, 1989 E. P. Wiechmann, P. D. Ziogas, and V. R. Stefanovic, Generalized functional model for three phase PWM inverter/rectifier converters, Proc. of the IEEE Industry Application Society Annual Meeting IAS85, pp. 984 993, 1985. Bimal K Bose, Modern Power Electronic and AC Drives, Prentice Hall, pp 483-495, [Book] Edition 2002. T.J.E. Miller, Brushless Permanent-Magnet and Reluctance Motor Drives, Clarendon Press Oxford, pp 1-17 & 54-85,[Book] Edition 1989. S. N. Sivanandam, S. Sumathi and S. N. Deepa, Introduction to Fuzzy Logic using MATLAB, [Book] Edition 2007.

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

58