1 2009 Geological Field Report

2 Acknowledgements We thank Mr. Sikandar Mirza Baig, Mr. Saif Ur Rehman, Mr. Kashif Yaqoob, Mr. Fai lsal, and Mr. Fahad Ullah for making us able to write this field report. Geological Field Report

3 Submitted To: Mr. Sikandar Mirza Baig Submitted By: Muhammad Imran Muhammad Fakhar Ud Din Saadat Ullah Nadeem BS. Geol ogy Semester 4th 02 19 20 Date: 14 December 2009 Geological Field Report

4 Muhammad Imran Fakhar Ud Din Geological Field Report

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS: Chapter 1 Introduction to Field Trip Chapter 2 Physiography Chapter 3 Stratigrap hy Chapter 4 Economic Geology 7-10 11-16 17-59 60-65 Geological Field Report

6 Figures Fig. 1 Khewra Gorge in eastern salt range Fig. 2 Dor River Abbottabad Fig. 3 Bha ndar Kas Gypsum Member of Salt Range Formation Fig. 4 Sahwal Marl Member of Salt Range Formation Fig. 5 contact between sahwal marl member and Khewra sandstone Fig. 6 Chert Nodules in Sakesar limestone Fig. 7 Cross Bedding in Khewra Sandsto ne. Fig. 8 Ripple Marks in Khewra Sandstone. Fig.9 Contact between Wargal and Ch hidru Formation. Fig.10 Nummolites in Mianwalli Formation Fig.11 Cross Bedding i n Landa Member in Tredian Formation Fig. 12 contact between Kussak Formation and Jutana Formation Fig. 13 Salt Pseudomorph in Baghanwala Formation. Fig. 14 cont act between Baghanwala formation and Tobra formation Geological Field Report

7 Chapter No. 1 Geological Field Report

8 Ten Days Field Work in Salt Range and in Hazara Range Department of Earth Sciences University of Sargodha arranged a field trip of ten days for BS-4 on June 8th to 18th June 2009.The field trip was related to the s ubject of Stratigraphy and paleontology. The objectives for that field trip were to study and observe the Lithology, depositional condition, sedimentary structu res, rock types, contacts and fossils of these areas. Another objective of our f ield trip was to enhance our knowledge and to strong our grip on Stratigraphy su bject, especially to concentrate on geology of salt range and hazara range and t o study the structures, Lithology, depositional environments, rock types and eco nomical importance of different formations. The areas were easily accessible and we went there through university bus. The j ourney was pleasant and smooth. The field which we visited was unsteady; rocky a long the mountains We field along Chua sadden shah road section on the very firs t day and stayed at night in youth hostel katas. There were seven historical tem ples and katas lake in katas. There was also a school of mining in katas which i s very famous in the country. Next day we visited the Khewra gorge and Khewra sa lt mine. We observed salt range formation of pre-cambrian age and some formation Jehlum group of Cambrian age. The climate was hot in the Khewra Gorge. A saline water stream was passing through the gorge. After this we visited Khewra mine w hich is the second largest salt mine in the world. Third day we went to Nammal g orge Mianwalli in western salt range. there we observe and recognize different r ock units. Limestone was mining for different purposes. A sulpher water stream w as running. Next three days we spend in Islamabad and field at Ramli area of Mar gala hills and Changla Gali road section. There we observe Jurassic, cretaceous and tertiary rocks of hazara range. Geological Field Report

9 We spent our next two days in Abbottabad where we observed the Tanawal formation and Mansehra granite and other rocks of hazara range. Last two days we spend in Taxila where we visited Khanpur dam and Taxila museum. Geological Field Report

10 (CHAPTER NO. 2) Geological Field Report

11 2.1 Physiography of salt range 2.1.1Relief Central salt range is moderately relief area. Sakesar peak is the hi ghest peak in the area. 2.1.2 Lakes Five beautiful lakes are present in salt ran ge. The Khabeki Lake and Jahlar Lake are present in central salt range. A large lake is known as Uchhali lake is located in central salt range. This lake acts a s local base level for streams draining central and southern hilly terrain of ma pped area. The streams of northern most part are drained in to tributaries of So an River. The Nammal Lake is present in western salt range. The Kalar Kahar Lake is present in eastern salt range. 2.1.3 Drainage The drainage is mostly dendrit ic to parallel and generally controlled by structure. These run along the conjug ate shear features that strike N30W to N60W and N40E to N50E. 2.1.4 Soils Two ty pe of soil is present in the salt range i.e. Soil at hill tops Soil in depressio ns. Soil at the hill top is formed due to in-situ weathering and provides levele d soil patches for cultivation of different crops. Whereas soil present in syncl inal depressions is carried physically by water in the form of alluvium. The all uvium soil is main source for cultivation. 2.1.5 Vegetation The area is vegetate d and contains many types of crops for both the summer and also in the winter se asons. The vegetation of salt range comprises both legumes and non legumes. Legu mes have the capacity to capture nitrogen from the soil atmosphere; this allows pastures and crops to maintain productivity without depletion of soil nitrogen a nd some times can grow under situations where soil nitrogen levels are very low and where growth of other plant would not be possible. Further more, when legume plants die, its organic matter is broken down; there is usually a net gain in o rganic nitrogen to the soil. PLANT DIVERSITY AT KUFRI SOONE VALLEY, PAKISTAN 995 2.1.5.1 Leguminous species Acacia modesta Phulai Mimosaceae Acacia nilotica Kikar Mimosaceae Dalbergia siss oo Shisham Papilionaceae Medicago denticulata Maina Papilionaceae Geological Field Report

12 2.1.5.2. Non leguminous species Achyranthes aspera Puthkanda Amarantaceae Capparis decidua Karir Capparidaceae D odonaea viscosa Sanatha Sapindaceae Buxus papileosa Papper Buxaceae Gymnosporia royleana Kander Celastraceae 2.1.6 Rainfall and Climate The average yearly rainfall is 70-80mm for salt range . This area lies within limits of monsoons and receive maximum rainfall in July and August. In December, January and February there is little rainfall month of April, November and October are almost show the dryer season of that area. The c limate of area is semi humid and sub tropical with hot to moderate summers and s evere winters. Due to the higher altitude and presence of SAKAESR PEAK to the we st temperature is usually less in summers as compare to adjoining plain areas an d rarely exceed 44C. During winters temperature usually remains between 0C to 23 C. Weather data for salt range, Pakistan Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high C (F) Average low C (F) Precipitation (inches) 20 22 27 33 38 40 36 34 35 33 28 21 31 (68) (72) (81) (91) (100) (104) (97) (93) (95) (91) (82) (70) (87) 5 8 12 18 22 26 26 25 23 17 10 6 16 (41) (46) (54) (64 ) (72) (79) (79) (77) (73) (63) (50) (43) (62) mm 34 50 60 36 32 52 (1.3) (2) (2.4) (1.4) (1.3) (2) 237 221 78 12 10 30 71 (9.3) (8.7) (3.1) (0.5) (0.4) (1.2) (32.2) 2.1.7 Geomorphic Features Observed In Salt Range 2.1.7.1 Gorge Gorge is a deep narrow passage with steep rocky sides. We observed Khewra gorge in eastern salt range and Nammal gorge in western salt range. 2.1.7.2 Lake A lake is a large inland body of fresh water or salt water. We observe Nammal Lake in western salt range. Geological Field Report

13 Geomorphic features observed in Salt Range and in Hazara Range Fig:01 Khewra Gorge in eastern salt range Fig: 02 Dor River Abbottabad Geological Field Report

14 2.2Physiography of Hazara Area 2.2.1 Geography and climate Hazara is bounded on the north and east by the North ern Areas and Azad Kashmir. To the south are the Islamabad Capital Territory and the province of Punjab, whilst to the west lies the rest of the North-West Fron tier Province. Because it lies immediately south of the main Himalaya Range, and is exposed to moist winds from the Arabian Sea, Hazara is the wettest part of P akistan. At Abbottabad, annual rainfall averages around 1,200mm (47 inches) but has been as high as 1,800mm (70 inches), whilst in parts of Mansehra District su ch as Balakot the mean annual rainfall is as high as 1,750mm (68 inches). Due to its location on the boundary between the monsoonal summer rainfall regime of Ea st Asia and the winter-dominant Mediterranean climate of West Asia, Hazara has a n unusual bimodal rainfall regime, with one peak in February or March associated with frontal southwest cloudbands and another monsoonal peak in July and August . The driest months are October to December, though in the wettest parts even th ese months average around 40mm (1.6 inches). 2.2.2 Population The population of the Hazara region was estimated to be over 4.5 million in 2005 . The total area of Hazara is 18013 km: See table below. Hazara region: Statistics District Abbottabad Batagram Haripur Kohistan Mansehra Area (km) 1802 1310 1763 7 581 5957 Population (Millions) 1 0.5 0.7 0.6 1.4 Geological Field Report

15 2.2.3 Main Tribes of Hazara The tribes in Hazara are Gujjar, Awan, Turk, Durrani, Tanoli, Dhund Abbasi, Syed , Jadoon, Karlal, Kashmiri, Khan Khel, Qureshi, Gakhar, Swati, Tareen, Mughal, M ashwani, Tahirkheli, Dilazak, Panni, Bib, Sarrara, Utmanzai, Hassanzai and Nusra t Khel [Bakhshi khil]. Afghan refugees, although predominantly Persian (includin g the Ghilzai and Durrani tribes), and other smaller groups are found throughout the Division. There is a considerable presence of Tajiks, Uzbeks (Mazar-e-Shari f Restaurant) and Hazara (Afghan) in the area. The population of Hazara was esti mated to be over 4.5 million in 2005. The University of Hazara provides higher e ducation to people of the region. 2.2.4 Transport Hazara lies close to the crossroads formed by the river Indus and the Grand Trun k Road. The Karakoram Highway begins at the town of Havelian and goes north thro ugh the division towards China via the Northern Areas. 2.2.5 Geomorphic Features in Hazara Area 2.2.5.1 Braided River A braided river is one of a number of channel types and has a channel that consi sts of a network of small channels separated by small and often temporary island s called braid bars. We observed Dor River in Abbottabad. Geological Field Report

16 Chapter No.3 Geological Field Report

17 3.1 Stratigraphy of Salt Range 3.1.1 Introduction The Salt Range is the south-facing scarp of the Potwar Plateau. Salt range runs east to west between the Soan and Jehlum rivers from the Grand Trunk Road, near Jehlum city to the River Indus, near Kala Bagh. Rocks of Salt range was uplifted by a thrust fault called Salt Range thrust, which emplace older rocks of salt r ange upon younger rocks of less deformed tertiary rocks of Jehlum plain. The inc line of the strata in the central part is around 10, and in the western, eastern, and northern parts it is up to 45. It derives its name from extensive deposits o f rock salt that form one of the richest salt fields in the world; they are of P recambrian age and range up to more than 1,600 feet (490 m) in thickness. The ra nge is approximately 186 miles (300 km) long from east to west, and its width, i n the central and eastern parts, is from 5 to 19 miles. Its average height is 2, 200 feet, and its highest altitude, at Sakesar mountain, is 4,992 feet (1,522 m) . In addition to the salt deposits, mined from ancient times, the Salt Range con tains coal, gypsum, and other minerals. Map of Salt Range Pakistan Geological Field Report

18 The Salt Range exposes a good sedimentary succession but has a long gap between the Cambrian and the Upper Carboniferous, and short gaps below the Upper Jurassi c, below the Eocene, and below the Upper Oligocene. List of Observed Formations in the Salt Range The following formations were observed in the salt range during our field work. 1. Salt range formation 2. Khewra sandstone 3. Kussak formation 4. Jutana format ion 5. Baghanwala formation 6. Tobra formation 7. Dondot formation 8. Wargal lim estone 9. Chhidru formation 10. Mianwali formation 11. Tridian formation 12. Kin griali formation 13. Datta formation 14. Samana Suk formation 15. Hungu formatio n 16. Patala formation 17. Sakesar formation Geological Field Report

19 3.1.2 Previous Work In the past, the Salt Range has attracted geologists from all over the world to study Cambrian Stratigraphy, the Permian-Triassic boundary, and Lower Tertiary f oraminiferal biostratigraphy. Of particular note is the pioneering work of E.R. GEE (1935, 1945), who dedicated almost his entire geological career to the study of the Salt Range. His initial work related to solving the controversy regardin g the age of the "Saline Series", a burning topic of that time, and he made a gr eat contribution by producing a geological map (more recently six sheets on a sc ale 1:50,000 have been published by the Geological Survey of Pakistan excluding the Trans-Indus Surghar Range). DAVIES and PINFOLD (1937) completed a comprehens ive study of Lower Tertiary larger foraminifera of the Salt Range. WAAGEN (18821885, 1895) worked on the brachiopods of the Permian of the Salt Range and FATI MI (1973) studied the ceratitids of the Triassic of the Salt Range and Trans-Ind us Surghar Range. He also worked on Stratigraphic nomenclature on the Salt Range as did SHAH (1977). KUMMEL and TEICHERT (1966, 1970) illustrated Permian brachi opods and described the detailed staratigraphy of the Permian rocks while GRANT (1966) described trilobites. HAQUE (1956) described the smaller foraminifera fro m the Tertiary formations of the western Nammal Gorge, Salt Range. AFZAL (1997) completed his doctoral thesis on the planktonic foraminifera of the Paleogene an d established a planktonic biostratigraphy for the Patala Formation of the Salt Range and Surghar Range (AFZAL & von DANIELS, 1991; AFZAL & BUTT, 2000). SAMEENI (1997) completed his doctoral thesis on the Paleogene biostratigraphy of the Sa lt Range under UNESCO IGCP-286, headed by Prof. Lukas HOTTINGER of Basel Univers ity, Switzerland, and established an alveolinid biostratigraphy for the Eocene s uccession of the Salt Range (SAMEENI & BUTT, 1996, 2004; SAMEENI & HOTTINGER, 20 03). ASHRAF and BHATTI Geological Field Report

20 3.1.3 Stratigraphic Notes Precambrian Rocks Salt Range Formation Wynne (1878) named and describe the formation as Saline Series . Gee (1945) call ed the same unit as Punjab saline series . The name salt range formation was giv en by Asrarullah (1967). Khewra gorge in eastern salt range is designated as its type section. Formation is divided into three members by Asrarullah. (1) Billia nwala salt member (a)Dull red marl beds with some salt seem and 10m thick gypsum bed on top. (b)Bright red marl with irregular gypsum, dolomite beds and Khewra trap: (3-100m) (2)Bhander kas gypsum member Massive gypsum with minor beds of do lomite and clay; (more than 80 m) (3)Sahwal marl member Ferruginous red marl wit h thick seems of salt; (more than 650 m) The thickness of the formation in the K hewra gorge is more than 830 m. The upper contact of the formation with Khewra s and stone is normal and conformable. The base of the formation is almost unknown and is only known from karampur well where the formation overlies metamorphic r ocks. The age of the formation has long been a controversial topic. The overlyin g Khewra sandstone is of early Cambrian age, therefore the salt range formation is assigned an Early Cambrian to Late Precambrian age Geological Field Report

21 Cambrian Rocks Lithalogically Cambrian of salt range mainly composed of sandstone, shale and do lomite beds with early to middle Cambrian fauna. The following formations belong to Cambrian system in Salt Range of Pakistan. 4. Baghanwala Formation 3. Jutana Formation 2. Kussak Formation 1. Khewra Sandstone The Cambrian rocks of salt ra nge consist of sandstone, shale, dolomite with glauconitic interbeds and were es sentially deposited in shallow marine water, except lower most and upper most fo rmation which represent transgessive and regressive sequence respectively. Khewra Sandstone Wynne (1878) uses the name Purple sandstone series and Noetling (1894) called Kh ewra group to the rocks of this formation. Now the name Khewra sandstone is form alized by staratigraphic Committee of Pakistan. The type locality is near Khewra village in Khewra Gorge in eastern Salt Range. The formation consists predomina ntly of purple to brown, yellowish brown, fine grained sandstone. The lower most part of the formation contains red flaggy shale. Sedimentary features such as r ipple marks and mud cracks are common in the formation. The thickness at the typ e locality is 150 meters and in western salt range its thickness is 200 meters. It is distributed throughout salt range. The contact of Khewra Sandstone with un derlying Salt Range formation is controversial due to which problem of age arous ed. Sahni (1947) regarded age of formation Tertiary and postulated a thrust at t he contact between Salt Range formation and Khewra sandstone. Gee (1945) mapped the entire salt range and concluded that the contact between Khewra sandstone wi th underlying formation is sedimentary. The upper contact with Kussak formation is conformable. Khewra Sandstone has been observed in Khewra Gorge during our fi eld work. Sand grains of medium size have been observed at the type locality. Se dimentary features such as cross bedding are observed in Khewra gorge. The lower contacts with sahwal marl member of salt range formation have been observed gra dational. Geological Field Report

22 The formation contains only few trace fossils which has been interpreted as tril obite trails by Schindewolf and Seilacher (1955) and are not indicative of parti cular age. Sahni (1947) regarded age of the formation Tertiary but the age of Kh ewra sandstone is early Cambrian because overlying Kussak formation is not older than late early Cambrian. Kussak Formation Wynee (1878) applied the name Obolus beds or Siphonotreta beds to predominantly greenish grey, glauconitic, micaceous sandstone and siltstone. Waagen (1895) cal led the same beds Neobolus beds . Noetling (1894) proposed the name Kussak group and finally the Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan formalized the name of unit Kussak formation The type locality is near Kussak fort in eastern part of Salt Range. At the type locality formation is composed of greenish grey, glauconitic, micaceous sandstone, greenish grey siltstone interbedded with light grey dolost one and some oolitic, arenaceous dolomite. Numerous layers of intraformational c onglomerate are present. Pink gypsum lenses are present near the top. The format ion contains 5 to 25 cm long thin lenses of fossil asphalt (gilstone) observed b y present author. The thickness of Kussak formation is different at different pl aces. The formation is widely distributed throughout the salt range, with the be st exposures in eastern part. The thickness at type locality is 70 meters but va ries from 6 to 53 meter at other places. The upper and lower contacts of the for mation are conformable. The Kussak formation has been observed at its type local ity in Khewra Gorge during our field work. The formation contains following faun a: Neobolus warthi, Botsfordla granulate, Lingulella wanniecki, Lfuhsi, Hyolithe s wynnei, Redlichta noetlingi. The age of the formation is therefore either late Early or early Middle Cambrian. Jutana Formation Fleming (1853) named this unit magnesium sandstone .Noetling (1894) called it as Jutana stage . The Stratigraphic committee of Pakistan formalized the name of t his unit as Jutana Formation . The type locality is near Jutana village in easte rn Salt Range. At the type locality the lower part of the formation consists of light green, hard, massive partly sandy dolomite and upper part is composed of l ight green to dirty white massive dolomite. In the upper part, brecciated dolomi te is also present with matrix and fragments consisting of the Geological Field Report

23 same rock. The thickness at type locality is 80 meters. It is not present in wes tern salt range. However in farther west, in Khisor range, the formation is conf ormably overlain by Khisor formation which is equivalent to Baghanwala Formation of the Eastern Salt Range. In eastern salt range the lower contact with Kussak formation and upper contact with Baghanwala formation are conformable. Jutana fo rmation was observed along Chua Saidan shah road during our field work. It was c reamish dolomite. Schindewolf and Seilacher (1964) collected some fossils includ ing Botsfordia granulate, Redlichia noetlingi and also a gastropod identified as Pseudotheca cf. subrugosa. The age of formation is described as late Early Camb rian to early Middle Cambrian Baghanwala Formation The name Baghanwala Formation is now given to the rocks of the Pseudomorph Salt Crystal zone of Wynee (1878) and the Baghanwala Group of Noetling (1894). Hollan d (1926) called these beds salt Pseudomorph beds and Pascoe (1959) named them Ba ghanwala Stage . The type locality is near Baghanwala Village in the eastern Sal t Range. The formation is composed of red shale and clay, alternating with flagg y sandstone exhibits several colours including pink grey or blue green, especial ly in the lower half of the formation. Numerous pseudomorph casts of salt crysta ls which are found along he bedding planes are the diagnostic feature of the for mation. The thickness at eastern salt range is 40 meters. The contact of the Bag hanwala formation with overlying Tobra Formation is unconformable, whereas the l ower contact with the Jutana Formation is conformable. The section observed in s alt range at Chua Sadden shah road. We observed salt pseudomorph at bedding plan es, which is a distinguishable criterion of the formation. The formation contain s trace fossils. The age of formation is early middle Cambrian because of it is conformably overlain by Jutana formation which is of the same age. Geological Field Report

24 Fig: 03 Bhandar Kas Gypsum Member of Salt Range Formation Fig: 04 Sahwal Marl Member of Salt Range Formation Fig: 05 contact between sahwal marl member and Khewra sandstone Geological Field Report

25 Permian Rocks The Lithology of rocks of Permian system in salt range is Shale, Sandstone and L imestone and having thickness of several hundred meters. The following formation s belong to Permian system and are divided into two following groups. Nilawahan Group The unit Nilawahan Group overlying the Jehlum Group by disconformable contact co nsists of four formations. The age of Group is reported as early Permian. 4. Sar dhai Formation 3. Warchha Sandstone 2. Dandot Formation 1. Tobra Formation Tobra Formation The name Tobra formation was previously known as Talchir Boulder Bed or Talchir Stage of Gee (1959) and salt range boulder bed of Teichert (1967) . The type loc ality is near Tobra village in eastern salt range. Tobra formation consists of t hree facies Tillitic facies, Freshwater facies and complex facies. (1)Tillitic f acies are exposed in eastern salt range. The rock unit grades into marine sandst one which is containing Eurydesma and Conularia fauna. (2)Freshwater facies have few or no boulders. It is an alternating facies of siltstone and shale containi ng spore flora. This facies is characteristics of the Central salt range. (3)A c omplex facies of diamictite, sandstone and boulder bed which increases in thickn ess in western salt range and Khisor Range is also present. The Tobra formation is true tillitic; the rock unit is composed of boulders of granite with fragment s of Quartz, feldspar, magnetite, garnet, claystone, siltstone, quartzite, bitum inous shale, diabase and gneiss. Some boulders are polished and scratched. Accor ding to Teichert (1967) ice sheet that formed tillitic deposits is not a part of extensive inland sheet but it was result of local glaciations. The ice sheet di d not extend in the area now occupied by central and western salt range. In the central range the Tobra formation is mainly composed of freshwater facies compri sing siltstone and shale. The thickness of formation at type locality is 20 mete rs, but different at different localities. The contact of Tobra Formation with u nderlying Baghanwala is unconformable while the upper contact with Dondot format ion is gradational. Geological Field Report

26 The section was observed along Chua Saidan Shah Road in eastern salt range. It w as observed that Tobra formation composed of tillitic facies. Gravels, boulders, grits, of different sizes mixed in clay matrix. The flora and fauna reported in central salt range containing Glossopteris, Gangamopteris and several species o f fresh water bivalves and Ostracoda. The lower part of formation in Zuluch nala contains pollen and spores of which the following have been identified: Punctat isporities. The age of formation on the basis of Stratiopodocarpites and Protoha ploxypinus is considered to be Early Permian. Dandot Formation The name Dandot formation is formalized after the Dandot Group of Noetling (1901 ). The type locality is near Dandot village, eastern salt range. The Lithology a t type locality consists of light grey to olive green yellowish sandstone with o ccasional thin pebbly and subordinate dark grey and greenish splintery shales. T he maximum thickness recorded in the Makrach valley is 50 m. The formation has g radational contact with underlying Tobra Formation and it is terminated in sharp but conformable contact with overlying Warchha Sandstone. Tobra formation has b een observed along Chua Saidan shah road. It was observed that the section consi sts of thick bedded sand stone with pebbles of different size. A reverse fault i s marked between Skaser and Dandot formation along Chua Saidan shah road. The fo ssils of formation in the eastern salt range have yielded brachiopods and its sp ecies. Many species of Bryozoans and Ostracoda have been described from the form ation. The age of formation on the basis of fauna and its super positional order with the Tobra formation of Early Permian is considered to be early Permian. Warchha Sandstone The name Warchha sandstone was coined by Hussain (1967) which has approved by St ratigraphic committee of Pakistan. The type section is in Khewra gorge in easter n salt range Geological Field Report

27 The formation consists of medium to coarse grained sandstone, conglomerates in p laces and has interbeds of shale. The sandstone is purple, red, or shows lighter shade of pink. It is cross bedded. The sandstone is arkosic, the pebble of the unit are mostly granite of pink colour and quartzite. The thickness of the forma tion is 26 t0 180 m in salt range and Khisor range and it is widely distributed in these areas. The Warchha sandstone conformably overlies the Dandot formation. The upper contact of the formation with Sardhai formation is transitional and c onformable. Some plant fossils have been reported from this formation. On the ba sis of its Stratigraphic position with the overlying and underlying Early Permia n formation, the same age assigned to it. Sardhai Formation The name Sardhai formation as approved by Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan wa s given by Gee (1964). The type locality is in Sardhai gorge in eastern salt ran ge. The formation is composed of bluish and greenish-grey clay, with some minor sand and siltstone beds. It contains some carbonaceous shale. The clay prominent ly displays lavender colour and contains some copper mineral including chalcopyr ite. Minor jarosite, chert and gypsum are found disseminated in the formation wi th occasional calcareous beds in the upper part of it. The thickness of formatio n at type locality is 42 m. It has a lower transitional contact with the Warchha sandstone; and upper contact with Amb formation is conformable. The formation is largely unfossiliferous though occasional plant remains and fis h scales are found in the formation. Hussain reported Anastomopora sp., Fenestel la sp., Athyris sp., Spirifer sp., from the sandy limestone beds. The age of the formation is Early Permian on the basis of fossils reported by Hussain. Geological Field Report

28 Fig: 06 Chert Nodules in Sakesar limestone Fig:07 Cross Bedding in Khewra Sandstone. Fig: 08 Ripple Marks in Khewra Sandstone. Geological Field Report

29 Zuluch Group The name Zuluch Group, derived from the Zuluch nala in western salt range by Tei chert (1966). 3. Chhidru Formation 2. Wargal Limestone 1. Amb Formation Amb Formation Teichert (1966) suggested the name Amb formation to same unit which was formaliz ed by Stratigraphic committee of Pakistan. Type locality of the formation is nea r Amb village in Central salt range. The formation consists of sandstone, limest one and shale. The sandstone is brownish grey, medium grained, calcareous and me dium to thick bedded. These sandstone beds occupy the lower part of formation. U pward in sequence limestone with some shale appears. The limestone is sandy, bro wnish grey, medium bedded and richly fossiliferous. The shale is grey to dark gr ey contains some flora. The thickness of formation at type locality is 80 m .The formation is well developed in western salt range and thins eastward direction. The upper contact of the formation is conformable with the Wargal limestone and is placed above the plant bed. The lower contact with Sardhai formation is conf ormable. Age of formation is late Permian. Remains of fusulinids, bryozoans, bra chiopods, bivalves and gastropods have been reported by Pascoe (1959). Wargal Limestone The name Wargal limestone was formalized by staratigraphic committee of Pakistan which was introduced by Teichert (1966). The type section is near Wargal villag e in central salt range. Geological Field Report

30 The Lithology comprises limestone, dolomite of light to medium grey, brownish-gr ey and olive grey colours. The thickness at Zuluch nala is 183 m. The contact of Wargal limestone with underlying Amb formation is well defined and is placed at the basal sandy limestone of the formation above upper most shale unit of Amb f ormation. The upper contact with Chhidru formation is transitional. The unit was observed in Nammal gorge. Fossils of Trilobites, Gastropods and Bivalves were o bserved. The fauna consist of abundant bryozoans, brachiopods, bivalves, gastrop ods, nautiloids, Ammonoids, trilobites and crinoids. The age of unit is Late Per mian on the basis of Brachiopods. Chhidru Formation The name Chhidru formation was introduced by Dunbar 1932) which is now formalize d by the Stratigraphic committee of Pakistan. The type locality of the formation is in Chhidru Nala. The formation at the base as described by Kummel and Teiche rt (1970) has a unit of paleyellowish grey to medium, dark grey in colour and th ickness of 6 to 13 m.It contains rare small nodules of phosphate Overlying this unit are the beds of calcareous sandstone with few sandy limestone. The top most bed of Chhidru formation contains white sandstone with occasional ripple marks. The sandstone is medium to fine grained. Total thickness of the formation is 64 m. Chhidru formation was observed In Nammal gorge during our field work. The lo wer unit of Dolomite, upper unit of nodular limestone and whit sandstone at top was observed. The contact between Chhidru and Wargal formation has been marked. The upper most part of Chhidru formation is white sandstone which contains remai ns of Brachiopods, Ammonoids and genus Cyclolobus. The age of formation on the b asis of Ammonoids considered being Late Permian. Geological Field Report

31 Triassic Rocks The rock units of Triassic system are Mianwalli Formation, Tredian Formation, Ki ngriali Formation and Chak Jabbi limestone in Kohat-Potwar Province. Mianwalli Formation The name Mianwalli Series was used by Gee and later modified by Kummel (1966) in to a formation. The type section of the formation is located in Zaluch Nala in w estern salt range. The formation consists of three following members: (3). Narmi a Member Limestone bed of three meters thickness which is basal part of Narmia m ember and rest of member consist of grey to black shale with interbeds of sandst one and lenticular limestone and dolomite. The top most bed is a grey to brown, massive dolomite. (2). Mittiwali Member The Lithology consists of grey, fine gra ined, non-glauconitic limestone with abundant ammonites. The basal art consist o f limestone which is less then two meters thick in salt range, but up to 8 meter s thick in Khisor range. The rest of unit consists of greenish to grayish shale, silty shale with some sandstone and limestone interbeds. (1). Kathwai Member Th is unit consists of dolostone in the lower part and limestone in upper part. The dolomite is finely crystalline and includes fossil fragments and quartz grains. The upper unit is grey to brownish glauconitic limestone. The total thickness o f Kathwai formation at Zuluch nala is 3.7 meters. Permian-Triassic boundary in s alt range was placed by some at the top of the dolomite unite of Kathwai member while by others was placed in the middle of a white sandstone which is the heist bed of Chhidru formation. Kummel and Teichert (1966) shifted it to the base of the dolomite unit of Kathwai member. Permian Triassic boundary is a paraconfromi ty equivalent in magnitude to at least a Stratigraphic stage. Three members of M ianwalli formation was observed in Nammal gorge during our field wok.he contact between Mianwalli and Tredian formation have been marked. Fossils of Brachiopods was observed from Mianwalli formation. Geological Field Report

32 The brachiopods from the dolomite of Kathwai member were studied by grant (1970) including lingual, orbiculoldea and others. Permian-Triassic boundary consists of bryozoans, brachiopods, bivalves, ostracodes, fish and trace fossils. The age of formation is Early Triassic. Tredian Formation The name Tredian formation was introduced by Gee (1945). The type locality of th e formation is in Zaluch Nala. The formation consists of two members: (2).Khatki ara Member The Khatkiara member is massive, thick bedded, white sandstone that g rades into the overlying Kingriali formation. Formation with the inclusion of do lomite beds in its upper part. The thickness varies from 38 m to 59 m in the Tap an Wahan and Zuluch nala sections respectively. (1).Landa Member The Landa membe r consists of sandstone and shale. The sandstone is micaceous and varies in colo ur from pinkish, reddish grey to greenish grey. It is thin to thick bedded with rile marks and slump structures. The thickness varies from 19 m to 29 m in Zuluc h section and Tapan Wahan sections respectively. Tredian formation has conformab le contact with overlying Kingriali formation. Two members; Khatkiara member and Landa member of Tredian formation were observed in Nammal gorge during our fiel d work. Sedimentary structures such as cross bedding and ripple marks were found in Landa member. Khatkiara member containing concretions of Iron, was observed. The formation consists of plant micro fossils. The lower Landa Member contains acritarchs whereas the Khatkiara member yielded only spores, pollen grains and w ood fragments. On the base of staratigraphic position over Mianwalli Formation o f Early Triassic age, the microfossils, and its conformable contact with overlyi ng Kingriali formation the age is regarded as Middle Triassic. Geological Field Report

33 Kingriali Formation The name Kingriali Dolomite was used by Gee (1945) and later formalized as Kingr iali Formation because of several lithological facies are present. Type section of the formation is in Zaluch Nala in the western salt range. The formation cons ists of thin to thick bedded, massive, fine to coarse textured, light greybrown dolomite and dolomitic limestone with interbeds of greenish dolomitic shale and marl in upper part. The formation is widely developed throughout the salt range. The lower contact with the Tredian Formation is marked by inter bedding of sand stone and dolomite. The upper contact with Datta formation is disconformable. Th e thickness of the formation is 76 m to 106 m at various localities. It has tran sitional contact with the underlying Tredian formation or Chak Jabbi formation a nd disconformable contact with the overlying Datta Formation. Sandy dolomite of Kingriali formation was observed in Nammal Gorge during our field work. The cont act between Kingriali and Datta formation has been marked, which is conformable. Fossils are rare and poorly reserved in this formation .Some brachiopods, bival ves and crinoidal remains have been observed. The age of formation on the basis of upper and lower contact is regarded as Late Triassic. Geological Field Report

34 Fig: 09 Contact between Wargal and Chhidru Formation. Fig: 10 Ceratites in Mianwalli Formation Fig: 11 Cross Bedding in Landa Member in Tredian Formation. Geological Field Report

35 Fig: 12 contact between Kussak Formation and Jutana Formation Fig: 13 Salt Pseudomorph in Baghanwala Formation. Fig:14 contact between Baghanwala formation and Tobra formation Geological Field Report

36 Jurassic Rocks In salt range Baroch Group and Surhar Group represent the rocks of Jurassic syst em. The formation of Jurassic system is following: Datta Formation The name Datta formation was introduced by Danilchik (1961) and Shah (1967) to r eplace the name Variegated stage of Gee (1945) and earlier workers The type sect ion is located in Datta nala in the Surghar range. The formation is mainly of co ntinental origin and consists of variegated (red, maroon, grey, green and white) sandstone, shale, siltstone and mudstone with irregularly distributed calcareou s, dolomitic, carbonaceous, ferruginous glass sand and fire clay horizons. The f ireclay is normally present in the lower part while upper part includes a thick bed of maroon shale easily recognizable in Salt range and Trans-Indus ranges. Th e thickness at type locality is 212 m. The Datta formation is widely developed I n the western part of Salt range and in Trans_indus ranges. The formation is dis conformable lower contact with Kingriali formation and the upper contact with Sh inawari formation is gradational. Datta formation was observed in Nammal gorge d uring our fieldwork, it contains thick bedded sandstone with some Horizon of fir eclay and concretions of sulpher. The contact between Datta formation and Samana suk formation has been marked. No diagnostic fossils have been reported from for mation except some carbonaceous remains. The age of formation is regarded as ear ly Jurassic on the basis of Kingriali formation which is of Late- Triassic. Shinawari Formation The name Shinawari formation was introduced after the village of this name in we stern part of Samana Range by Fatmi (1964). Davis called these beds as lowest Sa mana beds . Cotteer1933 adopted the name lower part of Kioto limestone . Danilch ik and Shah1967 used the name upper transitional beds of Datta Formation. Type l ocality of the formation is near Shinawari village in Samana range. Geological Field Report

37 The formation consists in its type locality of well bedded limestone with nodula r marl calcareous and non calcareous shale and Quartoze, ferruginous and calcare ous sandstone. The limestone is grey, shale is also grey and sandstone is white to light grey. Sedimentary structures are present in layers .In the principal re ference section the formation consist lime stone in lower part with a thick sand stone bed in the middle part followed by the maroon shale. The upper most part c onsists of variegated shale, sandstone and siltstone. The thickness of formation is 400 m in the type area, 80 m in principal reference section of Sheikh Budin Hill. The formation has a transitional contact with underlying Datta formation a nd overlying Samanasuk Formation. The fossils of Boaleiceras are reported from H azara area. Latif 1970 reported fossils of Terebratula, Montlivaltia, and Pholad omya. Spiriferina spp. is reported from Kala Chitta. Corals and Gastropods are r eported from Marwat range. Bivalves and Brachiopods are reported from Khisor ran ge. The age of formation is regarded as Early Jurassic on the basis of fauna rep orted from lower part and Middle Jurassic on The basis of Fossils reported from the lower part. Samana Suk Formation The name Samana Suk is derived from the peek of this name in the Samana range. T he name is extended to include Baroch limestone of Gee (1945) in the salt range. The name Samana Suk was introduced by Davies in 1930 for the Jurassic limestone in Samana Range. Type locality is near north east of Shinawari in the western p art of Samana range. The formation consists in type locality of thick bedded lim e stone with marl and shale intercalations. The limestone is oolitic. In the sal t range the limestone is thin to medium bedded. In the type locality the thickne ss is 186 m. It is thin in western salt range and is absent from the eastern sal t range. The lower contact is Transitional with Shinawari formation and the uppe r contact with Chichali is disconformable. Oolitic limestone of Samanasuk format ion has been observed in Nammal gorge during our field work. The contact between Samanasuk formation and Hungu formation has been marked with Laterite beds. The fossils of Brachiopods Bivalves Gastropods and Ammonoids have recorded from the upper most beds. The age of the formation is middle Jurassic. Geological Field Report

38 Cretaceous System The cretaceous rocks in Salt range are represented by following formation: 2. Lumshiwal Formation 1. Chichali Formation The lower age limit of Chichali for mation and in Hazara area, of Lumshiwal formation extended into the Late Jurassi c but these formations are described in the cretaceous system because the contac t with Jurassic rocks is Transitional. Chichali Formation Danilchik and Shah (1967) described these rocks as Belemnite beds from the salt range and further the name Chichali formation was formalized by Stratigraphic Co mmittee of Pakistan. The type locality is near Chichali pass in Surghar range. T he formation consists of glauconitic sandstone in the type locality with glaucon itic shale in lower part. In the western salt range the formation is divided int o three members. (1)The lower member is glauconitic shale with some phosphatic n odules passing upward into glauconitic sandstone. (2)The middle member is calcar eous sandstone. (3)The upper member is glauconitic, generally unfossiliferous sa ndstone in Chichali pass and the Makarwal section the upper member is rich in Ir on to form a low grade iron ore. In Chichali area the thickness varies from 55m to 70m. The lower contact with Samana Suk formation is disconformable and Upper contact with Lumshiwal formation is gradational. The Jurassic-Cretaceous contact is gradational and lies in the upper 1 m of the lower member of the Chichali fo rmation. Fossils of Late Oxfordian to Valanginian Ammonoids are recorded from th e lower and middle members in the western salt range. The upper part of the form ation is devoid of fossils. The age of the formation is Late Jurassic to Early C retaceous. Lumshiwal Formation Gee (1945) proposed the name Lumshiwal sandstone for usage in the salt range, bu t due to variation in Lithology in areas other than type locality the name Lumsh iwal formation formalized by Stratigraphic committee of Pakistan. Danilchik and shah designated type locality a section one kilometer north of Lumshiwal nala. Geological Field Report

39 In the type locality the Lithology consist of thick bedded to massive light grey , current bedded sandstone with silty, sandy, glauconitic shale towards the base . The sandstone is feldspathic and contains carbonaceous material in upper part. The thickness varies from 80 m to 120 m in the Lumshiwal nala and 38 m in Chich ali pass section. The lower contact with Chichali formation appears transitional while upper contact with Kawagarh formation is disconformable. The formation co ntains abundant molds of brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, Ammonoids, belemnite s and echinoids. The age of Lumshiwal formation is recorded as early cretaceous and in some places late Jurassic. Paleocene Rocks The Paleocene rocks are well exposed throughout the salt range. Three formations belong to Paleocene epoch of tertiary system. 1. Hungu formation 2. Lockhart li mestone 3. Patala formation Hungu Formation The name Hungu formation was formalized by Stratigraphic committee of Pakistan ( 1973) for Hungu sandstone of Davies (1930). The type section of the formation is near fort Lockhart and Dhak pass in salt range as a principle reference section of the formation. The formation consists of variegated sandstone, shale, carbon aceous shale and some nodular, argillaceous limestone in the salt range. A 2 m t o 3 m thick bed of ferruginous, pisolitic sandstone occurs at the base of unit. At type locality is 90 m thick, 50 m at Hungu, 45 m thick at Dhak pass in the sa lt range. The formation unconformably overlies the Lumshiwal formation and confo rmably underlies Lockart limestone in the salt range. Laterite beds of Hungu for mation has been observed in Nammal gorge during our field work. Foraminiferas wi th some Corals, gastropods and bivalves have been reported by Iqbal (1972). Haqu e (1956) recorded abundant Epistominella dubia from Nammal gorge. Geological Field Report

40 The age of formation is assigned as early Paleocene on the basis of above mentio ned Forminiferas. Lockhart Limestone Davies introduced the name Lockhart Limestone for a Paleocene limestone unit in the Kohat area (1930). This unit thus represents Nummulitic series of Middle Mis s (1896). Latif (1970) assigned Mari Limestone to this unit. A section exposed n ear fort Lockhart in the Samana range has been designated as the type locality o f the unit. In the Hazara and Kala Chitta area the limestone is dark grey and bl ack in color and contains intercalation of marl and shale. The limestone is gene rally bituminous and gives off-fetid odor on a fresh surface. It is 260 m thick in Kala Chitta and 90 to 242 m in Hazara area. The formation conformably and tra nsitionally overlies and underlies the Hungu Formation and Patala Formation resp ectively. Latif (1970) reported a number of foraminifera from the Hazara area in cluding Lockhartia Conditi, L. conica, L. haimei, Globigereina tringularis, Misc ellanea miscella and Actinosiphon punjabensis. The formation is of Paleocene age . Patala Formation The term Patala formation was formalized by Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan for the Patala Shale of Davies and Pinfold (1937) and its usage was extended to other parts of the Kohat-Potwar and Hazara areas. The section exposed in Patala nala is designated as type section in Salt range. In the salt range, the formati on consists of shale and marl with subordinate limestone and sandstone. The shal e is greenish grey and containing carbonaceous material. The limestone is white to grey and nodular. Coal seems of economic value are present in upper part. The thickness of formation is 27m at Khewra and 90m at Patala nala. It widely expos ed in KohatPotwar and Hazara areas. Throughout its extent, the Patala formation conformably overlies the Lockhart lime stone .The Patala formation is conformabl y and Transitional overlain by Nammal formation in the Salt range. Geological Field Report

41 Patala formation has been observed along Choa sadden Shah Road in Eastern salt r ange during our fieldwork. A thin bed of bituminous shale and horizons of Fire c lay, coal and sand were observed. The formation is richly fossiliferous and cont ains abundant Foraminiferas, mollusks and ostracodes The age of formation is reg arded as Late Paleocene while in Hazara its age is Early Eocene. Nammal Formation The term Nammal formation has been formally accepted by Stratigraphic committee of Pakistan for the Nammal Limestone and Shale of Gee (1945). The section expose d in Nammal gorge is type section. Lithalogically formation comprises shale, mar l and limestone. In the Salt range, these rocks occur as alternations. The shale is grey to olive green, while the limestone and marl are light grey to bluish g rey. The limestone is argillaceous in places. It is 40 m thick in Khewra-Choa Sa idan Shah Road section in eastern salt range and varies at different places. The lower contact with Patala formation and Upper contact with the Sakesar limeston e are transitional. Abundant fossils, mainly Foraminiferas and mollusks, have be en reported from the formation. Eocene age has been assigned to the formation on the basis of fauna. Sakesar Formation The term Sakesar Limestone was introduced by Gee for the most prominent Eocene l imestone unit in Salt range and Trans Indus ranges. Type locality of formation i s Sakesar Peak in Salt range. The unit consists dominantly of limestone with sub ordinate marl. The limestone throughout its extent is cream colour to grey colou r, nodular, usually massive, with considerable development of chert in upper par t. The marl is cream colored to light grey and forms a persistent horizon near t he top. The thickness of the formation is 70m to 150m in salt range. The lower c ontact with the Nammal Formation is conformable. In eastern salt range, the uppe r contact with Geological Field Report

42 Chorgali formation is conformable, whereas in central and western salt range, th e Rawalpindi or Siwalik groups unconformably overlie the formation. Sakesar form ation was observed in Eastern salt range along Choa Sadden Shah road during our field work. Creamish coloured, massive nodular limestone with nodules of chert i n upper part was observed. It contains rich assemblage of Foraminiferas, mollusk s and echinoids. The age of formation is regarded as Early Eocene on the basis o f foraminifers reported. Chorgali Formation The term Chorgali beds of Pascoe (1920) has been formalized as Chorgali Formatio n by Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan. The section exposed in Chorgali Pass i n the Khair-e-Murat range, has been chosen the type section. In the salt range, the formation is divisible into two parts. The lower part consists of shale and limestone, while the upper part is mainly limestone. The most striking feature o f the lower part is the appearance of a porcellaneous limestone band in the midd le of unit near Kalar Kahar which is gradually thickens westward. In the upper p art the limestone is white or cream porcellaneous and well bedded. The thickness of the formation is 150 m in Chorgali Pass. In the Salt range, the formation co nformably overlies the Sakesar limestone and other places Margala Hill Limestone . In the salt range it is unconformably overlain by the Murree Formation while c onformably in other areas by the Kuldana formation. A rich fossil assemblage inc luding Foraminiferas, mollusks and ostracodes has been reported by Davies and Pi nfold (1937) , Eames (1952), Gill (1953) and Latif (1970). The age of formation is reported as Early Eocene on the basis of fauna. The fauna indicates Late Plio cene to Early Pleistocene age of the formation. Geological Field Report

43 Fig: Iron Concretions in Khatkiara member of Tredian Formation. Fig: Hungu Formation in Nammal Gorge. Fig: Paleogene Formations in Nammal Gorge. Geological Field Report

44 Fig: belemnites in Chichali formation Fig: Lockart limestone Fig: chore Gali formation Geological Field Report

45 Miocene Rocks The Miocene staratigraphy of Pakistan includes Rawalpindi group and lower part S iwalik group. Rawalpindi group is composed of following two formations. (1) Murree formation (2) Kumlial formation Murree Formation The name Murree formation has been formalized by the Stratigraphic committee of Pakistan for the Mari group of Wynne (1974) and Murree beds of Lydekker (1876). A type section has been designated to the north of Dhok maiki in the Campbellpur Distric. The formation is composed of a monotonous sequence of dark red clay an d grey sandstone with subordinate intraformational conglomerate. Calcareous sand stone is present at the base of the formation. This section has been designated as fatehjang member, after the fatehjang zone" of pilgrim (1918). The formation is 180 to 600 m thick in the northern salt range. It is 3,030 m thick in norther n potwar. The lower contact of the formation is with various formations of the E ocene age. The upper contact is transitional with Kumlial formation. The formati on is poorly fossiliferous and contains only few plant remains but from the fate hjang member fossils of mammals are recorded. The age the formation is early Mio cene on the basis of above mentioned fossils. Kumlial Formation The name kumlial formation formalized by the Stratigraphic committee of Pakistan is equivalent to kumlial beds of pinfold (1918) and kumlial stage of Pascoe (19 63). A type section has been designated near the southwest of kumlial in the Cam pbellpur Distric. The formation consists of thin to medium bedded brick-red sand stone and interbeds of purple shale and yellow intraformational conglomerate. Th e formation is 90 m thick at kumlial, 580 m in Khaur, and 650 m at Soan gorge. T he formation conformably overlies Murree formation and conformably underlies Chi nji formation of the Siwalik group. Geological Field Report

46 Fossils of mammals have been recorded from the formation such as Trilophodon cf. l. pentapotamiea Listriodon cf. and others. The age of the formation is late Mi ocene according to fauna recorded from this formation. Siwalik group Siwalik group is composed of following formations in Miocene and Pliocene series . (1) (2) (3) (4) Chinji Formation (Late Miocene) Nagri Formation (Early Pliocen e) Dhok Pathan Formation (Middle Pliocene) Soan Formation (Late Pliocene to Earl y Pleistocene) Chinji Formation Morris (1938) called Karghocha formation to the rocks of this formation. Pilgrim (1913) proposed the name Chinji zone and the Stratigraphic committee of Pakista n accepted the name Chinji formation of Lewis (1937). The type section is locate d near Chinji village in Campbellpur Distric. The formation consists of red clay with subordinate grey, thin to medium bedded, cross bedded and soft sandstone. Pebbles of quartzite and lenses of intraformational conglomerate are found at di fferent horizons of the formation. The proportion of sandstone and clay is diffe rent at different places. The formation represents the argillaceous facies conta ining about 16 m thickness of sandstone and 60 m thickness of clay. The thicknes s of the formation is 750 m at the type area and 1,800 m thick in Shinghar range . The upper contact of the formation with Nagri formation is conformable and low er contact with kumlial formation is sharp and conformable. Vertebrate fossils h ave been recorded from the formation such as innumerable crocodiles, turtles, li zards, aquatic birds and others. The age of the formation is late Miocene. Geological Field Report

47 Pliocene rocks Nagri Formation The formation represents the Nagri zone of pilgrim (113), Dondot sandstone of Wy nne (1877) and Urak group of hunting Survey Corporation. The Nagri formation of Lewis has been accepted by the Stratigraphic committee of Pakistan. The type loc ality of the formation is near Nagri village in the Campbellpur Distric. The Gaj river section is the principal reference section. The formation consists of san dstone with subordinate clay and conglomerate. The sandstone is grey, medium to coarse grained, cross bedded and massive. The clay is sandy and silty. The congl omerate beds consist of pebbles of igneous rocks and Eocene limestone in kohat p otwar province. The thickness of the formation ranges from 300m to 2,000m. The u pper contact of the formation is transitional with Dhok Pathan formation in all parts while the lower contact is conformable with Chinji formation in the kohatpotwar province. The formation is rich of vertebrate fossils. Some mammals are T riphodon angustidens, Dinotherium indicum etc. Age of the formation is early Pli ocene in kohat-potwar province. Soan Formation The name Soan formation has been formalized by the Stratigraphic committee of Pa kistan for the upper siwalik of Middlicott (1864) and Urak formation of Kazmi. T he type locality of the formation is near Mujahad village in the north of the So an River. The section near Urak village in Quetta Distric has been designated as its principle reference section. The formation consists of massive conglomerate with subordinate interbeds of varicolored sandstone, siltstone and clay. The co nglomerate of the kohat-potwar province is massive and mainly consists of pebble s and boulders of Margala hill type limestone, quartzite, porphyritic rocks, gne iss, schist, diabase; etc. The formation is 120m to 450m thick in kohat-potwar p rovince. The lower contact of the formation with Dhok Pathan formation is discon formable. The upper contact with lie conglomerate is transitional. Paeoe (1963) has reported vertebrates from potwar area such as mastodon sivalensis and others . The age of the formation is late Pliocene to early Pleistocene. Geological Field Report

48 3.2 Stratigraphy of Hazara Range 3.2.1 Introduction Hazara range is the northern most extremity of sedimentary succession of the Nor thwestern margin of the Indian plate. It is bounded by its north by the Panjal t hrust on its southern side, by the main boundary thrust. The main highway from R awalpindi to Peshawar is he dividing line between western limit of the Hazara ra nge and the Kalachita Range. The staratigraphy of the hazara range start form Pr ecambrian age(hazara formation) and ends at Miocene age (Murree formation). List of Observed Formations in Hazara Range The following formations were observed in Hazara range. 1. Tanawal formation 2. Chichali formation 3. Lumshiwal formation 4. Kawagarh formation 5. Hungu formati on 6. Lockart limestone 7. Patala formation 8. Margala hill limestone 9. Chore G ali formation 10. Kuldana formation 11. Murree formation 12. Kumlial formation Geological Field Report

49 3.2.2 Previous work The project area has remained a site of deep interest for the geologists working on stratigraphy and tectonics since a long time. A brief summary of the previou s work is given below: Lydekker (1876, 1883) and Middlemiss (1896) carried out t heir work in Kashmir and Hazara. They established the broad outline of the geolo gy in this region and named some of the rock units. Wadia (1931) explained the s yntaxis of the northwest Himalaya on the basis of geosynclina group of deposits laid down on the bed of Tethys against the northern shores of Gondwana land. Qur eshi and Imam (1960) did the geological mapping of the area for iron and mangane se ore deposits. Calkins, Offield, Abdullah and Ali (1975) mapped Balakot area a t 1:125,000 and discussed its geology. They delt the stratigraphy and structure of a sequence of rocks that range in age from Precambrian to Miocene. Structural ly the area lies on the western flank of the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis and contain s iron, manganese, high alumina, clays, gypsum, dolomite and graphite. This work was done jointly by the Geological survey of Pakistan and U.S. Geological Surve y. The main interest of field of Thakur and Gupta (1983) was the regional starat igraphy, paleontology and structure of Kashmir and Ladakh Himalayas. The Swiss g eologists Bossart, Dorthe, Dietrich, Greco, Ottiger and Ramsay (1984) in collabo ration with Institute of Geology Azad Jammu& Kashmir University described the li thological, Stratigraphic and structural features of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis. Ot tiger (1986) did his work on the geology of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis. He reviewed the lithological Formations and rhythmic sedimentation in Lower Murree Formatio n in detail. Ghazanfar, Chuadry and Latif (1987) established three different set s of Stratigraphic sequences which occur close together in the region of HazaraKashmir Syntaxis. Geological Field Report

50 3.2.3 Stratigraphic Notes Pre-Cambrian Rocks Following formations belongs to Precambrian age in hazara range: (1) Hazara Form ation (2) Tanawal Formation Hazara Formation The name Hazara Formation has been formalized by Calkin and Ali (1969) for the slat e series of Hazara of Middlemiss (1896), and Hazara slates formation of marks (1961 ), and Attok slates of Waagen and Wynne (1872), and Hazara group of Latif (1970). Th e Formation has its type locality near Hazara Distric. Exposure around Baragali along Abbotabad-Nathiagali Road can be regarded as its type section. The Formati on consists of slate, phyllite and shale with minor occurrences of limestone and graphite layers. Slate and phyllite are green to dark green and black in color. Limestone beds with maximum thickness of 150 m and calcareous phyllite gypsum f rom 30 to 120m thick are found in southern most hazara. Marks and ali (1961) reg arded the formation as a deep water turbidity current deposit. Calkins (1969) co ntended that the beds limestone, graphite and gypsum are unlikely to occur in a turbidity sequence and regarded the formation as a shallow water argillaceous se quence. Latif (1970) has reported fossils from the formation similar to protobol ella. Calkin (1969) correlated the formation with Dogra slates and assigned a la te Precambrian age to the hazara formation. Latif (1970) reported fossils showin g that it may be lower Paleozoic in age. Crawford and Davies (1975) determined t he age of the formation by the Rb-Sr method. This age determination place the fo rmation in the Precambrian. Tanawal Formation Wynne (1878) used the name Tanol group for the rocks of this formation. Middlemiss (1896) called them Tanol quartzite. Marks and Ali (1962) and Latif (1970) named t hem Geological Field Report

51 Tanol formation Calkins, Offield and Ali (1969) used the name Tanawal formation fo r this unit of rocks. The formation is well exposed in the north and south of Ma nsehra granite. The formation consists of Quartoze schist, quartzite and schisto se conglomerate. The south of Mansehra granite the formation consists of medium grained quartzite and fine grained mica-quartz schist. To the north of Mansehra granite the formation mainly consists of granite and biotite muscovite-quartz sc hist. Ali (1962) estimated he thickness as 1666 m. Tanawal formation underlies A bbotabad formation and overlies Hazara formation in the area between Abottabad a nd Indus river. The upper contact with Abottabad formation in this area is uncon formable. In the area between Abottabad and Garhi Habibullah the lower contact o f the Tanawal formation with the Hazara formation is gradational. The formation has been observed during our field work near Abottabad. It has been observed tha t the formation consist Quartzite and mica-quartz Schist. The contact relation o f the formation shows that the Tanawal formation is younger than Hazara formatio n but older than Abottabad formation. Tanaki conglomerate provide the basement f or Cambrian staratigraphy of Hazara Range. The presence of Tanaki conglomerate b etween Tanawal and Abottabad formation shows that the age of Tanawal formation i s late Precambrian. Cambrian Rocks Abbottabad Formation Waagen and Wynne (1872) used the name below the trias for this unit of rocks. Midd lemiss called it infra-trias. Latif (1970) named this unit as Abbottabad group. Calk in, offield and Ali suggested the name Abbottabad formation. Type locality of the formation is near Abbotabad town. The formation mainly consists of dolomite, qua rtzite and phyllite, with many lithologic changes from place to place. In Abbottabad area the formation contains beds of thick marble with phosphate de posit. In sherwan area the formation has an unconformable lower contact with Tan awal Geological Field Report

52 formation marked by the presence of a boulder bed or by lithologic change. In ea stern part of southern hazara the Tanawal formation is missing. The thickness of the formation is about 660 m at the type locality, 900 m in Tanol area, 833 in Muzaffarabad area and 100 to 130 in Garhi Habibullah syncline. Calkin (1969) exa mined the fauna of carboniferous to Permian age from the formation. Recently Ikr amuddin Ali and David examined the fossils of Hyolithes spp. from the formation which has been reported from the Cambrian of North America, Sweden and Russia. A ccording to Calkin (1969) the formation is carboniferous to Permian in age. On t he basis of Hyolithes spp the formation placed in lower Cambrian. Hazira Formation The name hazira formation was introduced by Gardizi and Gazanfar (1965) for the shale silt stone unit exposed near hazira village. Type locality is near said vi llage in hazara area. The formation consists mainly of calcareous, shally siltst one containing earthy concretion. The formation shows glauconitic facies near ba se. Gardizi and Gazanfar (1965) have included the Galdanian formation in hazira fo rmation. Hazira formation attains maximum thickness of 300 m . it overlies the A bbottabad formation and underlies Jurassic arenite. Fuchs and Mastler (1972) ext racted the following fauna from the formation: Porifera: Allonia tripodofora, Ar chiaste-rellla pentactina Calyptoptamatida: Hyolithes and representative of fami ly Orthothecidae Annilida: Lapworthella spp. and Rush-tonia spp. The age of form ation reported by Rushton is Cambrian. Geological Field Report

53 Jurassic Rocks Datta Formation Datta Formation has already been reported in salt range section. Specifications in Hazara Area Middlemiss (1896) used the name red beds and part of Kioto limesto ne for the rocks of Datta formation in hazara area. In hazara range the formation extend as a tongue where it consists of quartoze sandstone, ferruginous sandsto ne and fireclay. The beds of brownish calcareous grits are present at the base. Its thickness is 7 to 10 m in hazara range. In hazara the formation unconformabl y overlies doubtful Precambrian, palaeozoic, and Triassic rocks and is not devel oped in some parts of hazara. The upper contact with Shinawari formation is grad ational. Age of the formation is early Jurassic. Shinawari Formation Shinawari formation has already been reported in salt range section. Specificati on in Hazara Area In hazara range the formation is divided into two folds. The u pper part is red shale and clay with intercalated marl and shelly thin bedded li mestone. The lower part consists of limestone and marl with locally developed do lomitic beds. The thickness of the Shinawari formation is 25 m in Bagnotar secti on of hazara range. The formation has a transitional contact with overlying Sama na Suk formation and underlying Datta formation. Remains of Bouleiceras, Terbrat ula, Montlivaltia and Eotrapezium have been reported from lower part of the form ation in hazara area. Age of the formation is Early to Middle Jurassic. Geological Field Report

54 Samana Suk Formation Samana Suk formation has already been reported in salt range section. Specificat ion in Hazara Area Middlemiss (1896) proposed the name Kioto limestone for the roc ks of Samana Suk formation in hazara range. In hazara area the limestone of the formation is thin to thick-bedded and includes some dolomitic, ferruginous, sand y and oolitic beds. The thickness of the formation is 366 m in Bagnotar section of hazara area. The lower contact is transitional with Shinawari formation and u pper contact is disconformable with Chichali formation. The formation was observ ed in Changla Galli and in Margala Hills Islamabad during our field work. It was observed that Samanasuk formation is an intrabasinal facie because of the prese nce of Oolites .The contact between Samanasuk formation and Chichali formation w as observed as unconformable in Islamabad. Calkins (1968) reported fossils of ga stropods from northern hazara. Latif (1970) reported fossils of Stylina sp., Cor bula sp., Nucula sp. and Protocardia sp. from different parts of hazara. Age of the formation is Middle Jurassic indicated by its fauna. Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous Rocks Chichali Formation Chichali formation has already been reported in salt range section. Specificatio n in Hazara Area Middlemiss (1896) called the rocks of Chichali formation as Spit i Shale in hazara. In southern hazara the formation is divided into three folds w ith almost type section Lithology. In the lower part it consists of glauconitic sandstone with nodular silty, calcareous, phosphatic base. In the middle part it consists of glauconitic, sandy shale and dark pyritic unfossiliferous shale in the upper part. In northern hazara the formation shows a facies change consistin g of dark silty shale with some ferruginous calcareous and phosphatic nodules an d is similar to Spiti Shale of Himalayas. In southern hazara Geological Field Report

55 it is 33m thick while in northern hazara its thickness is 34m to 64m. The lower contact with Samana Suk formation is disconformable while the upper contact with Lumshiwal formation is gradational. Chichali formation was observed in Margala Hills in Islamabad during our field work. It was shale with intercalation of san dstone. Fossils of belemnite were observed. Ammonoids and belemnites of late Jur assic age have been recorded from Chichali formation in hazara area. In northern hazara the age of the formation is Late Jurassic while in southern hazara the a ge of the formation is Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. Lumshiwal Formation Lumshiwal formation has already been discussed in salt range section. Specificat ion in Hazara Area The name Giumal sandstone was given to the rocks of Lumshiwal formation in Hazara area by Middlemiss (1896). Cotter (1933) used the name Main s andstone series for the same rocks. Wuch khwar section in Nizampur area and Jhami ri village on Haripur jabrian Road in Hazara are the reference sections of Lumsh iwal formation. In Hazara area the formation is mostly of marine origin consisti ng of quartose, ferruginous sandstone and dark rusty brown sandy limestone. In s outhern hazara its thickness is 50m in northern hazara its thickness varies from 20m to 10m. The lower contact with Chichali formation is transitional and upper contact with Kawagarh formation of upper cretaceous is disconformable. The Lums hiwal formation was observed in Islamabad and in Changla Galli. The contact betw een Lumshiwal and Kawagarh formation has been marked in Changla Galli. It was th ick bedded sandstone with oyster shells and glauconitic green shale. The uppermo st part of formation in northern Hazara has abundant fossil casts of brachiopods , gastropods and Ammonoids. The age of the formation in Hazara area is lower cre taceous Kawagarh Formation Kawagarh formation has already been discussed in salt range section. Geological Field Report

56 Specification in Hazara Area The name Kawagarh formation was approved by Stratig raphic committee of Pakistan, prior to the name Kawagarh marls by Day. Sattu lime stone of Calkines and Matin (1968) and Chanali limestone of Latif (1970) in Hazara Area were formalized into Kawagarh formation. The Nara sandstone member in the u pper part is grey, brownish grey to dark grey, thick bedded, calcareous sandston e with some limestone interbeds. In northern hazara Nara member was not develope d and Kawagarh formation consists of grey, olive grey, light grey sublithlogic l imestone with subordinate marl and Calcareous shale. In Hazara the thickness of the formation varies from 45 m to 200 m, south to middle area. The formation has disconformable contact with overlying Hungu formation of Paleocene age and Unde rlying Lumshiwal formation of mainly Early Cretaceous. Kawagarh formation was ob served in Changla Gali of Hazara range during our field work. It was limestone a nd marl in lower part, the contact between Kawagarh and Hungu formation has been marked in Changla Galli. Latif (1970) has reported following foraminifers from southern Hazara: Globotruncana lapparenti, G.fornicata, G. concavata carinata, G . etc. On the basis of fauna the age of formation is regarded as Late Cretaceous . Upper Paleocene Rocks Lockhart Limestone Lockhart limestone has already been reported in salt range section. Specificatio n in Hazara Area Davies (1930) introduced the term Lockhart limestone for a Pale ocene limestone unit in Kohat area and usage has been extended by Stratigraphic committee of Pakistan to similar units in Hazara area. In the Hazara area limest one is dark grey and black in colour and contains intercalation of shale and mar l. The limestone is generally bituminous and gives off fetid odor on the fresh s urface. The thickness of unit is 242m in Hazara area. The formation conformably Geological Field Report

57 and transitionally overlies and underlies the Hungu formation and Patala formati on respectively. Lockhart limestone was observed in Islamabad in Changla Gali of Hazara range during our field work. It was limestone with some shale and Calcit e veins and Quartz nodules. The contact between Lockhart limestone and Patala fo rmation has been marked in Changla Galli road section. Raza (1967), Cheema (1968 ), and Latif (1970) have reported a number of foraminifera from Hazara area incl uding Lockhartia Conditi, Globorotalia uncinata, Globigerina tringularis, Texula ria sinithvillensis etc. The above mentioned fossils indicated Paleocene age of unit. Patala Formation Patala formation has already been reported in salt range section. Specification in Hazara Area It contains shale of brown and green colour with interbeds of nod ular limestone and carbonaceous material in hazara area. The thickness of format ion is 182 m in Hazara area. Throughout its extent Patala formation is conformab ly overlies Lockhart lime stone. Patala formation was observed in Islamabad and in Changla Gali during our field work. It was shale with grayish colour having t hin beds of limestone. Contact between Margala hill lime stone and Patala format ion has been marked al9ng Changla Gali road section. Latif 1970 reported smaller foraminifers from Hazara which includes Globorotalia elongata, Globigerina prim itive, Triloculina trigonula. The larger foraminifers recorded by Raza and Cheem a includes Assilinadandotica, a.granulosa, a. Spinosa. The age of formation is E arly Eocene in Hazara area. Geological Field Report

58 Eocene Rocks Margala Hill limestone The term Margala Hill limestone of Latif has been formally accepted by Stratigra phic committee of Pakistan for the Nimmulitic formation of Waagen and Wynee (1872) , the upper part of Hill limestone of Wynne(1873) and Cotter (1933), and part of Nummlitic Series of Middle miss .The name is derived from the Margala Hills in Ha zara. The formation consists of limestone with subordinate marl and shale. The l imestone is grey, weathering pale grey, fine medium grained, nodular, medium to tick bedded are rarely massive. The marl is grey to brownish grey while the shal e is greenish brown to brown in colour. The lower and upper contacts with the Pa tala formation and Chorgali formation are conformable. Margala hill limestone wa s observed in Islamabad and in Changla Gali road section during our field work. It was limestone of big nodules with subordinate shale and marl. Foraminiferas, mollusks and echinoids are common in the formation. Raza (1967), Cheema (1968) a nd Latif (1970) recorded number of foraminifers from the formation, including As silina graulosa, A.laminosa, A.Lokhartia Conditi, L.Opercoloia jiwani, O.etc The above listed Foraminiferas indicate the Early Eocene Age of the formation. Chorgali Formation The term Chorgali beds of Pascoe (1920) has been formalized as Chorgali formation by the Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan. Latif (1970) used the name Lora Forma tion for the rocks of Chorgali formation in the Hazara area. In Hazara area the f ormation is composed of thinly inter-bedded limestone and marl which are light t o pale grey and weather light yellow to cream. In the Kala Chitta, the formation consists thins to medium bed grey limestone with subordinate marl. The limeston e is lightly nodular and contains chert lenses. Chorgali formation was observed in Islamabad and Changla Gali during our field work. It consists of alternative beds of shale and limestone. A rich fossil assemblages including foraminiferas, m ollusks and ostracodes has been reported by Davies and Pinfold (1937), Eames (19 52), Gill(1953) and Latif (1970c). The age of the formation is Early Eocene. Geological Field Report

59 Kuldana Formation Middlemiss (1896) used the name Kuldana series, Latif called Kuldana beds to the roc ks of Kuldana formation. The type section is near Kuldana village in hazara Dist ric. The formation is composed of shale and marl with occasional beds of sandsto ne, limestone, conglomerate and bleached dolomite. In hazara area shale and marl are dominant. The shale is brown, gypsiferous and arenaceous. The marl is brown with few beds of fibrous gypsum. The thickness of the formation is 150 m in haz ara area. In hazara area the formation has a conformable contact with underlying Chorgali formation and upper contact with Murree formation is disconformable. K uldana formation was observed in Islamabad and Changla Gali road section during our field work. It was variegated shale with occasional beds of limestone. Remai ns of foraminifers, gastropods, bivalves have been reported from the formation. The age of the formation is Middle Eocene. Miocene Rocks Murree Formation Murree formation has already been discussed in salt range section. Specification in Hazara Area The name is derived from the Murree hills in Rawalpindi Distric. The formation consists of purple clay and greenish grey sandstone with subordin ate intraformational conglomerate. The basal strata of the formation consist of light greenish, grey calcareous sandstone and conglomerate. The formation unconf ormably overlies various formation of Eocene age. Its upper contact is transitio nal with kumlial formation. Murree formation was observed in Islamabad and Chang la Gali during our field work. It was clay and sandstone with conglomerate. Geological Field Report

60 It is poorly fossiliferous and only few plant remains, silicified wood, fish rem ains, frog and mammalian bones have been recorded. The fauna indicates an early Miocene age of the formation. Geological Field Report

61 Chapter No. 4 Geological Field Report

62 Introduction Economics of any country depend upon the natural resources present in it. In Pak istan nature has gifted abundant natural resources. Salt range and Hazara range contains abundant mineral deposits and building materials, which are used in ind ustry as crude material. It has large deposits of Halite, Gypsum, Phosphate, Pot ash, Coal, Limestone, Dolomite, Silica sand, Iron ores, Petroleum, Radioactive m inerals, clays and etc. Halite The main salt production comes from Billianwala member in salt range. Where seve ral salt mines are established in the areas of Khewra, Warchha and Kalabagh. The second largest salt mine Khewra Salt Mine is present in Billianwala member of Pre cambrian age of Salt rage. Massive beds of Halite are embedded in red coloured m arl. Salt has been mined at Khewra since 320 BC, in an underground area of about 110 square kilometers (42 sq mi). Khewra salt mine has estimated total of 220 m illion tonnes of rock salt deposits. The current production from the mine is 325 ,000 tons salt per annum. The mine-head buildings have 19 stories, with 11 below ground. Only 50% salt is extracted and 50% is left as pillars to keep the mount ain. The salt-mine is 288 meters (940 ft) above sea level and extends around 730 meters (2,400 ft) inside the mountains from the mine-mouth. The cumulative leng th of all tunnels is more than 40 kilometers (25 mi). There are seven thick salt seams with a cumulative thickness of about 150 meters. At places the rock salt is 99% pure. Salt is transparent, white, pink, reddish to beef-color red. There are beautiful alternate bands of red and white color salt. Gypsum Thick deposits of Gypsum are present in Bhander Kas member of Salt range Formati on, through which gypsum is mined. The thickness of the Bhander kas gypsum membe r is more than 80.Gypsum is used primarily in the plaster-making industry. Crude gypsum is used as a fluxing agent, fertilizer, filler in paper and textiles, an d retarder in Portland cement. About three-fourths of the total production is ca lcined for use as plaster of paris and as building materials in plaster, cement, board products, and tiles and blocks. Gypsum plaster is a white cementing mater ial made by partial or complete dehydration of the mineral gypsum, commonly with special retarders or hardeners added. Applied in a plastic state (with water), it sets and hardens by chemical recombination of the gypsum with water. Geological Field Report

63 Rock Phosphate Rock phosphate is present in the upper part of Abbotabad formation if palaeozoic age. These phosphate occur with dolomite and cherty dolomite. It is also occur in Chichali formation exposed in Kohat area. Low grade phosphatic nodules are al so known from Paleozoic Patala formation in eastern and central salt range. Phos phate rock is mined, beneficiated, and either solubilized to produce wet-process phosphoric acid, or smelted to produce elemental phosphorus. Phosphoric acid is reacted with phosphate rock to produce the fertilizer triple superphosphate or with anhydrous ammonia to produce the ammonium phosphate fertilizers. Elemental phosphorus is the base for furnace-grade phosphoric acid, phosphorus pentasulfid e, phosphorus pentoxide, and phosphorus trichloride. Approximately 90% of phosph ate rock production is used for fertilizer and animal feed supplements and the b alance for industrial chemicals. For general use in the fertilizer industry, pho sphate rock or its concentrates preferably have levels of 30% phosphorus pentoxi de (P2O5), reasonable amounts of calcium carbonate (5%), and <4% combined iron a nd aluminium oxides. In addition to phosphate fertilizers for agriculture, phosp horus from rock phosphate is also used in animal feed supplements, food preserva tives, anti-corrosion agents, cosmetics, fungicides, ceramics, water treatment a nd metallurgy. Limestone Limestone is far most abundant mineral commodity in Pakistan contains vast reser voirs in many localities. In salt range Wargal lime stone, Lockhart limestone, S akesar limestone, Nammal formation and Chak Jabbi limestone indicated major Lime stone. More than 95% limestone is used in cement making, so this is the reason t hat Pakistan s many cement industries are present in Salt Range areas. Limestone is used in variety of purposes due to variation of composition. The more common uses for which these rocks are suitable include concrete and other aggregate, c rushed rock for road metal and other uses, agricultural limestone, riprap, and b uilding stone. Geological Field Report

64 Dolomite Pakistan contains vast amount of dolomite. In upper Indus basin , major dolomite bearing formations are Jutana, Kingriali and Samana Suk. Dolomite is of good gr ade , close to theoretical value of dolomite. The inherent differences between d olomite and calcite drive the applications for dolomite. Dolomite is chosen for many construction and building product applications due to its increased hardnes s and density. Asphalt and concrete applications prefer dolomite as a filler for its higher strength and hardness. Dolomite also finds use in a number of applic ations as a source of magnesium such as glass and ceramics manufacture, as well as a sintering agent in iron ore pelletization and as a flux agent in steel maki ng. Farmers use dolomite for agricultural pH control. The chemical industry uses the mineral dolomite in making magnesium salts including magnesia, magnesium ox ide (MgO), which is used in pharmaceuticals. Coal Pakistan contains large deposits of low quality coal of Tertiary age. The salt r ange contains major coal fields of the country. The salt range province contains two horizons, which are Makarwal Coal and Khushab-Dandot coal fields. This coal is present in Hungu formation in eastern part of the salt arrange and other in Patala formation, which is formed in all over salt range but coal of economic va lue is only present in central salt range area. Geological Field Report

65 For many centuries, coal was burned in small stoves to produce heat in homes and factories. Today, the most important use of coal, both directly and indirectly, is still as a fuel. The largest single consumer of coal as a fuel is the electr ical power industry. The combustion of coal in power generating plants is used t o make steam which, in turn, operates turbines and generators. Coal is no longer widely used to heat homes and buildings, as was the case a half century ago, bu t it is still used in industries such as paper production, cement and ceramic ma nufacture, iron and steel production, and chemical manufacture for heating and f or steam generation. Another use for coal is in the manufacture of coke. Coke is nearly pure carbon produced when soft coal is heated in the absence of air. In most cases, one ton of coal will produce 0.7 ton of coke in this process. Coke i s of value in industry because it has a heat value higher than any form of natur al coal. It is widely used in steel making and in certain chemical processes. Potash In the salt rang potash beds are associated with rock salt in salt range formati on and with green sand of Chichhali formation of Surghar range. Potash has three main uses: fertilizer, livestock feed supplements and industrial processes. 95% of world's potash is used in fertilizers, while the rest is used for feed suppl ements and industrial production. Geological Field Report

66 Potash is a key ingredient in fertilizers that enhances water retention of plant s, increases crop yields and plants' disease resistance. In feed supplements, th e key function of potash is to contribute to animal growth and milk production. Potash is also used to produce glass, ceramics, soaps etc. Iron Ores Sedimentary iron ore deposits are known to occur in upper Indus basin in salt ra nge and Hazara range. The large deposits of Iron, though of low quality are foun d in Sakesar in Salt range. In hazara two sedimentary iron Horizons are present, in red shale of Jurassic age at Galdanian and Chure Gali and in Hungu formation of Paleocene age. Iron ore that is mined is used for making steel. Raw iron by itself is not as st rong and hard as needed for construction and other purposes. So, the raw iron is alloyed with a variety of elements (such as tungsten, manganese, nickel, vanadi um, chromium) to strengthen and harden it, making useful steel for construction, automobiles, and other forms of transportation such as trucks, trains and train tracks. While the other uses for iron ore and iron are only a very small amount of the consumption, they provide excellent examples of the ingenuity and the mu ltitude of uses that man can create from our natural resources. Powdered iron: u sed in metallurgy products, magnets, high-frequency cores, auto parts, catalyst. Radioactive iron (iron 59): in medicine, tracer element in biochemical and meta llurgical research. Iron blue: in paints, printing inks, plastics, cosmetics (ey e shadow), artist colors, laundry blue, paper dyeing, fertilizer ingredient, bak ed enamel finishes for autos and appliances, Geological Field Report

67 industrial finishes. Black iron oxide: as pigment, in polishing compounds, metal lurgy, medicine, magnetic inks, in ferrites for electronics industry. Clay The term clay is a natural, earthy, fine grained, material, largely composed of hydrous alluminium silicates. Deposits of clay are wide spreading in time and sp ace in Pakistan.The clay is classified into four different catagories: china cka y, fireclay, fullers earth and bentonite. Fire clay and benonite are present in s alt range and hazara range. Fire Clay Fire clay deposits are reported from Datta formation, Hungu formation and Patala formation in the salt range. The followin g reservoirs of Fire clay are present in he salt range. Area Eastern salt range Eastern Salt range Western salt Range Trans Indus Ranges Horizon Patala Hungu Da tta Datta Approx. reserves in million tons 2.0 3.5 5.0 0.0 The principal uses of fire clay are in the manufacture of firebrick and of vario us accessory utensils, such as crucibles, saggers, retorts, and glass pots, used in the metalworking industries. Bentonite Beds of Bentonite are known to occur in the rocks of siwalik group in upper Indus basin. Bentonite can be used in cement, adhesives, ceramic bodies, a nd cat litter. Bentonite is also used as a binding agent in the manufacture of t aconite pellets as used in the steelmaking industry. Fuller's earth, an ancient dry cleaning substance, is finely ground Bentonite, typically used for purifying transformer oil. Bentonite, in small percentages, is used as an ingredient in c ommercially designed clay bodies and ceramic glazes. Bentonite clay is also used in pyrotechnics to make end plugs and rocket nozzles. The ionic surface of bent onite has a useful property in making a sticky coating on sand grains. When a sm all proportion of finely ground bentonite clay is added to hard sand and wetted, the clay binds the sand particles into a moldable aggregate known as green sand used for making molds in sand casting. Geological Field Report

68 Geological Field Report