EE 400: Communication Networks (091)

Dr. Wajih A. Abu-Al-Saud

Latestupdateofthislecturewason17122009

Ref: A. Leon Garcia and I. Widjaja, Communication Networks, 2nd Ed. McGraw Hill, 2006

Lecture13:DigitalTransmissionFundamentals ChannelAmplitudeResponseH(f)
Achannelischaracterizedbyeitherits: 1. ImpulseResponseh(t):Thisisthetimedomainrepresentationofthechannel.Itrepresentsthe outputofthechannelwhentheinputofthechannelisadeltafunction(t),whichisanimpulse at t = 0. The impulse response indicates how a channel spreads the input signal. An ideal channeldoesnotspreadthesignalatallwhileanonidealchannelspreadstheinputsignal.The spreadingoftheinputsignalisequaltothewidthoftheimpulseresponse. 2. Transfer function H(f): This is the frequency domain representation of the channel. It representsthe amplitude of the output of the channel when a sinusoid withamplitude 1V is andfrequencyfisinputtothechannel. Intimedomain,anidealchannelwithinfinitebandwidthisonethathasanimpulseresponsethatisa delta function at time 0 or later. If it has an impulse response of delta at 0, the channel does not introduceanydelayinsignal(thereiszerodelaybetweentransmittingthesignalandreceivingitatthe outputofthechannel).Iftheimpulseresponseisadelayeddeltafunction,thechannelisstillidealbut there is a nonzero delay between transmitting the signal and receiving it at the other side of the channel.Infrequencydomain,anidealchannelwillhaveatransferfunctionwithaflatmagnitudeforall frequencies.Thephaseofthetransferfunctioniszeroifthechannelhaszerodelayandwillbeastraight line(linearcurve)ifthechannelhasanonzerodelay. Inreality,nochannelhasinfinitebandwidthbutallchannelshavesomebandwidthWthatisfinite(less than infinity). A channel with finite bandwidth can still be considered ideal if the response of that channelisflat(constant)oversomefrequencyrange(forexamplefrom0toW foralowpasschannels) asseeninpart(a)ofthefigurebelow.Asignaltransmittedoversuchachannelwillexperienceanideal channelifthebandwidthofthesignalislessthanW.IfthebandwidthofthesignalisgreaterthanW,the channelwillnotactasanidealchannelforthissignal,butsomedistortionwilloccurinthesignalasitis transmittedthroughthechannel. Furthermore, in reality, channels are never ideal (some channels may only be approximated to being idealforspecificapplications).Atypicallowpasschannelisshowninpart(b)ofthefigurebelow.The bandwidthofthechannelinthiscasemaybeoneofseveralvaluesdependingontheapplication,but themostwidelyusedisthe3dBbandwidth.

EE 400: Communication Networks (091)

Dr. Wajih A. Abu-Al-Saud

Latestupdateofthislecturewason17122009

Ref: A. Leon Garcia and I. Widjaja, Communication Networks, 2nd Ed. McGraw Hill, 2006

Lecture13:DigitalTransmissionFundamentals

(a) (b) Now consider that we have a digital signal that we would like to transmit over a specific channel. Assumethat: BandwidthofDigitalSignal= Ws BandwidthofTransmissionChannel= Wc Wecaneasilyverifythefollowingtwocases(assumingnonoiseexists): Forthecaseof Ws W : The input signal will completely pass through the channel and will not experience any distortion giving an output signal that is similar to the input signal with the exception of amplification/attenuationanddelay.

Forthecaseof Ws > W : The input signal will only partially pass through the channel and therefore will experience some distortion that results from filtering out high frequencies. The signal may also experience amplification/attenuationandpossiblysomedelay. 2

EE 400: Communication Networks (091)

Dr. Wajih A. Abu-Al-Saud

Latestupdateofthislecturewason17122009

Ref: A. Leon Garcia and I. Widjaja, Communication Networks, 2nd Ed. McGraw Hill, 2006

Lecture13:DigitalTransmissionFundamentals

NyquistSignalingRate
Nyquistcameupwithaformulathatgivesthemaximumnumberofpulsesyoucantransmitthrougha channelthathasbandwidth Wc .TheNyquistSignalingRatetheoremstatesthatthemaximumrateat whichpulsescanbetransmittedoverachannelwithBandwidth Wc is Maximumpulsetransmissionrate Rmax = 2Wc pulses/s Note:theNyquestSignalingRatetheoremgivesthemaximumPULSERATEnotthemaximumBITRATE. Infact,differentpulsesmaycarrydifferentnumberofbitsperpulse(1bitforpulsesthattakeoneof twovalues5Vand+5V,or2bitsforpulsesthattakeoneof4values0V,1V,2V,and3V,or3bitsfor pulsesthattakeoneofthe8values0V,1V,2V,3V,4V,5V,6V,and7V). Ifeachpulserepresents1bit,thenbitrateinthiscaseis 2Wc bits/s Using multileveltransmission withnumberoflevelsof M = 2 m (where m isnumberof bits), we getamaximumtransmissionbitrateof

Rmax = 2Wc

pulses bits bits m = 2Wc m second pulse second

SignaltoNoiseRatio(SNR)andMultiLevelTransmissions
One measure of thequality of a signal is the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR). The signal tonoise ration is often defined as shown in the following equation. Sometimes the SNR becomes useful if it is representedindBformasshownbelow. 3

EE 400: Communication Networks (091)

Dr. Wajih A. Abu-Al-Saud

Latestupdateofthislecturewason17122009

Ref: A. Leon Garcia and I. Widjaja, Communication Networks, 2nd Ed. McGraw Hill, 2006

Lecture13:DigitalTransmissionFundamentals
SNR (Linear) =

Average Signal Power Average Noise Power

SNR ( dB ) = 10 log10 ( SNR (Linear) )

ShannonChannelCapacity
Shannon(anAmericancommunicationengineerandmathematician)provedthatforaspecificchannel withaspecificsignaltonoiseratioSNR,youcantransmitamaximumnumberofbitspersecondequal toCthatisgivenbytheformula(thesignaltonoiseratioisthelinearSNR)

C =W c log 2 (1+SNR(Linear) )

bits second

Where Wc is the channel bandwidth in (Hz), and SNR(Linear) is the linear signal to noise ratio. The ShannonChannelCapacitystatesthatforanoisychannel,youcantransmitreliablyamaximumnumber ofbitspersecondequalto C .Ifyou trytoexceedthe channelcapacityfora particularchannel,the noisewillcauseuncontrollablehighratesoferrors.

BandwidthofAnalogSignals
One characteristic of an analog signal is its bandwidth. The bandwidth of analog signals is usually computedusingoneofthefollowingtwomethods: Bandwidth is equal to the highest frequency component in the signal: the problem with this method of computation of the bandwidth is that there is a possibility that the frequency componentsofthesignalaboveaspecificfrequencyareverysmallthattheycontainnegligible power,yet,thebandwidthbecomessolargeduetotheseverylowpowercomponents Bandwidthisequaltothefrequencyatwhichthepowerofthesignalcomponentsdropbelow the power of the signal components at zero frequency: this bandwidth is less than the bandwidthaboveanditconsidersthesignalcomponentsabovethatbandwidthnottobepart ofthesignal(theycanbecompletelyremovedwithoutmuchdistortiontothesignal.

SamplingofAnalogSignals(NyquistSamplingTheorem)
Beforeananalogsignalcanbetransmittedoveradigitalcommunicationsystem,theanalogsignalmust besampledandthenquantized,whichconvertstheanalogsignalintoasequenceofbits.Accordingto 4

EE 400: Communication Networks (091)

Dr. Wajih A. Abu-Al-Saud

Latestupdateofthislecturewason17122009

Ref: A. Leon Garcia and I. Widjaja, Communication Networks, 2nd Ed. McGraw Hill, 2006

Lecture13:DigitalTransmissionFundamentals
NyquistSamplingTheorem,topreservethequalityofananalogsignal,itmustbesampledatarateAT LEAST double thebandwidth of the signal (called the Nyquist sampling rate). If sampling is done at a lowerrate,aliasingoccurswhichcausesthereconstructedsignaltobedistorted.Sincesignalsmayhave components with frequency above the bandwidth, the proper thing to do before sampling to avoid aliasing from occurring is to pass the analog signal through a lowpass filter that removes any componentsaboveonehalftheNyquistsamplingrate.Thisisillustratedinthefollowingfigure:

EE 400: Communication Networks (091)

Dr. Wajih A. Abu-Al-Saud

Latestupdateofthislecturewason17122009

Ref: A. Leon Garcia and I. Widjaja, Communication Networks, 2nd Ed. McGraw Hill, 2006

Lecture13:DigitalTransmissionFundamentals Quantization
Onceananalogsignalissampled,thenextstepistoquantizeit,meaningthatafiniteprecessionvalueis used to describe the value of each sample. In quantization, an analog sample with an amplitude that maytakeanyvalueinaspecificrangeisconvertedtoadigitalsamplewithanamplitudethattakesone ofaspecificpredefinedsetofquantizationvalues(withfinitenumberofdigitsneededtodescribethe valueofeachsample).Thisisperformedbydividingtherangeofpossiblevaluesoftheanalogsamples into L different levels, and assigning the center value of each level to any sample that falls in that quantization interval. The problem with this process is that it approximates the value of an analog sample withthenearestofthequantization values. So, foralmost allsamples, thequantizedsamples willdifferfromtheoriginalsamplesbyasmallamount.Thisamountiscalledthequantizationerror.To getsomeideaontheeffectofthisquantizationerror,quantizingaudiosignalsresultsinahissingnoise similartowhatyouwouldhearwhenyouplayarandomsignal. Assume that a signal with power Ps is to be quantized using a quantizer with L = 2n levels ranging in voltagefrommptompasshowninthefigurebelow.

Quantizer Output Samples x Quantizer Output Samples x q

WecandefinethevariablevtobetheheightoftheeachoftheLlevelsofthequantizerasshown above.Thisgivesavalueofvequalto

EE 400: Communication Networks (091)

Dr. Wajih A. Abu-Al-Saud

Latestupdateofthislecturewason17122009

Ref: A. Leon Garcia and I. Widjaja, Communication Networks, 2nd Ed. McGraw Hill, 2006

Lecture13:DigitalTransmissionFundamentals

v =

2m p L

Therefore,forasetofquantizerswiththesamemp,thelargerthenumberoflevelsofaquantizer,the smaller the size of each quantization interval, and for a set of quantizers with the same number of quantizationintervals,thelargermpisthelargerthequantizationintervallengthtoaccommodateallthe quantizationranges. Aftersimplemanipulation,wecanwritetheSignaltoNoise(orQuantizationNoise)Ratio(SNRorSQNR) as

SNR =

Signal Power Ps = Noise Power Pq

3L2 = 2 Ps . mp

IngeneralthevaluesoftheSNRaremuchgreaterthan1,andamoreusefulrepresentationoftheSNR canbeobtainedbyusinglogarithmicscaleordB.WeknowthatLofaquantizerisalwaysapowerof twoorL = 2n.Therefore,

3L2 3 SNR dB = 10 log10 2 Ps = 10 log10 2 Ps + 10 log10 22 n mp mp

( )

3 = 10 log10 2 Ps + 20n log10 ( 2 ) mp

= + 6n

dB.

Note that shown in the above representation of the SNR is a constant for a specific signal when differentquantizerswiththesamempareused. ItisclearthattheSNRofaquantizerindBincreaseslinearlyby6dBasweincreasethenumberofbits that the quantizer uses by 1 bit. The cost for increasing the SNR of a quantizer is that more bits are 7

EE 400: Communication Networks (091)

Dr. Wajih A. Abu-Al-Saud

Latestupdateofthislecturewason17122009

Ref: A. Leon Garcia and I. Widjaja, Communication Networks, 2nd Ed. McGraw Hill, 2006

Lecture13:DigitalTransmissionFundamentals
generated and therefore either a higher bandwidth or longer time period is required to transmit the outputdigitaldataofthequantizer.

DigitalTransmissionofAnalogSignals
Now,oncethesignalhasbeenquantizedbythequantizer,thequantizerconvertsittobits(1sand0s) andoutputsthesebits.Lookingattherepresentationofthequantizershownabove,weseethateachof the levels of the quantizer is assigned a code from 000000 for the lowest quantization interval to 111111forthehighestquantization intervalasshowninthecolumntotherightofthefigure.The outputbitsarecalledaPulseCodeModulation.ThePCMsignalisobtainedbyoutputtingthebitsofthe differentsamplesonebitaftertheotherandonesampleaftertheother.Thiswouldbethecodethat would be transmitted in a digital communication system. So, it is clear that either increasing the samplingrateorthenumberofquantizationlevelsofthequantizerwouldincreasetheinformationthat wewouldhavetotransmit.
A quantization interval mp v L = 2n L levels n bits Corresponding quantization value PCM Code n bits/sample 1.111

Ts

2Ts

3Ts

4Ts

5Ts

. . . .
0.010 0.001 0.000

mp

Quantizer Output Samples x Quantizer Output Samples x q