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Ballistic pendulum questions Use kinetic energy and momentum together to solve in a 2 step process Step 1 Use conservation

of energy to find the initial velocity of the pendulum bullet system {Ek (btm) = Ep (top) } Step 2 Use conservation of momentum to find the initial velocity of the bullet. (pi = pf ) Elastic vs. inelastic collisions To predict whether a collision is elastic or inelastic check to see if Ek is conserved in the collisions If Ek before is equal to Ek after, then the collision was elastic. If energy was lost in the collision then the collision was inelastic 2 dimensional interactions (non collinear) Since momentum is a vector quantity graphical vectors summation techniques can be used to solve non linear problems Center of mass Often mistakenly Called center of gravity (they are all physics different concepts) Point where total mass of the object is assumed to reside (mean location of all the mass in a system) Allows for the use of simplified physics equations For symmetrical objects with uniform density center of mass of a body can be assumed to be its geometric center 2d elastic and inelastic collisions Compared Eki and E kf As with collinear collisions if Eki = Ekf for the system the collision was elastic. Id the Eki Ekf for the system the collision was inelastic Momentum exam tues the 13

Momentums when to use Use momentum when asked for given momentum Use momentum when 2 or more objects interact - collisions, explosions use when heat is generated energy when to use when asked for or given energy use energies when a single object is transferring energy - change in height, speed or compression use when asked for heat or type of collision unit v review p 503 #s 9, 16, 18, 29, 39 47 (odd), 55-72 (odd) Unit 2 Forces and fields Laws of electrical charges There are only 2 types of charges positive and negative Like charges repel and opposite charges attract A charged object can attract neutral objects Model of the atom According to Rutherford and bohr the atom contains ve electrons that orbit a +ve Nucleus the atom is neutral because there are an equal number of protons and electrons in each atom conductor materials in which e- are free to move between atoms electrons are loosely bonded to the atom metals make good conductors because there are few electrons in their outer orbit materials that are good conductors gold silver copper aluminum iron carbon mercury insulator materials in which electrons do not move freely

e- are bound tightly to the nucleus of the atom non-metals do not share e- so are good conductors materials that are good insulators wood glass rubber semiconductors materials that lie in the middle, between good conductors and good insulator material that is a conductor that sometimes acts as a conductor and other cases acts as an insulator materials that are semiconductors semiconductors are used in electronics and computers superconductor have no resistance to flow of electrons at super cool temperatures at super cool temperatures (-123 216) almost all materials become superconductors alloy materials that are superconductors: copper oxide alloys (-123 C) law of conservation of charge charges cannot be created or destroyed charge can be transformed from one object to another total amount of charge in a closed system remains the same methods of charging during any transfer of charge It is the negative charge (electrons) that move for every negative charge there is a equal and opposite (positive) charge types of static charge an object with a negative charge will have an excess of electrons an object with a positive charge has a deficit of electrons a neutral object there is a balance of charges electrons only move electrostatic series -ve hold electrons tightly Sulfur Brass Copper Ebonite Wax Silk Lead Fur

Wool Glass +ve holds electrons loosely Static charges Building up of charges on a surface of an object Objects with ve charge -> excess of electrons Object with a _ve charge -> deficit of electrons Natural objects = balance of +/- charge Methods of charging Static charge can be conveyed to an object in 3 ways Friction Conduction Induction Charging by friction Electrons gain energy through friction Electrons with a higher energy will move from one material to another creating a transfer of charge Electrons are lazy and will always move to a lower energy or an object that has lower charge density Charge conduction Charging by conduction When 2 objects with an un equal charge contact each other electrons will transfer from higher charged object to lower charges object Charge will transfer equally if the 2 objects are the same size Charge will move to the larger object if the charges are not the same size. Distribution of charge Charge will distribute evenly over the surface of an object if the object is a conductor Charge will remain on one surface at the point of contact if the object is an insulator An object charged by contact has the same sign as the charging object use. Charging by induction

Read 510-522 #1,4,5,6,8-10 P 523

Conductors and electric field lines In a conductor, electrons move freely until they reach a state of static equilibrium (ie. All charges must be at rest and therefore experience no net force) Charged distribution on conductors: Round All excess charges move as far apart as possible because like charges repel These excess charges will distribute evenly on the surface of the sphere Solid flat conducting plate Electrostatic forces of repulsion acting on charges cause the charge to spread and distribute evenly along the outer surface of the charge plate Irregularly shaped solid conduction object The net electrostatic forces on charges cause the charges to accumulate at the point of an irregularly shaped convex conduction object Conversely the charge will spread out on an irregular shaped concave conducting Hollow conducting object All excess charge are still repelled outward how ever, they distribute evenly only on the outer surface on the conducting object There is no excess charge on the inner surface, no matter what the shape is. Faradays cage Enclosure formed by conducting material or mesh which blocks out external static electric fields External static electrical fields causes electrical charge of the cage conducting material to redistribute so as to cancel the fields effects in the cages interior Parallel plates Electrostatic forces of repulsion of like charges, within each plate, cause the charges to distribute evenly within each plate Electrostatic forces of attraction of opposite charges on 2 plates cause the charge to accumulate on the inner surface. Parallel plates Electric field any where between the plates is uniform Field lines extend perpendicularly from the plates stating at the positive charge plate and terminate at the negative charged plate Electric field outside the plates is 0

A system of parallel plates is called a parallel-plate capacitor Electric potential energy E In gravitational system, lifting a mass a vertical distance against Fg requires work The work is done against the gravitational field increases the objects Ep Moving a small charge through a distance in a electric field requires work Therefore work done in the electric field must increase the electric potential energy of the system Ep is the energy stored in the system of 2 charges a certain distance apart Choosing a reference point 2 commonly used reference points for electric potential energy Test charge defined as having 0 Ep at the surface of the source charge Text charge defined as having 0 Ep at infinity Electronic potential energy: parallel plates Except at the edges, the electric field between 2 oppositely charged plates in uniform If a small positively charge is moved in the field from the negative plate to the positive plate, an external force must be applied to overcome the electrostatic forces the charged plates The word done on the charge increases the system electronic potential energy Electric potential Sometimes, it is convenient to consider just the electric potential energy per unit charge at a location Electric potential (voltage) Electric potential energy stored per unit charge Electrical potential difference When a charge moves from one location to another in an electric field, it experiences a change in electric potential This change in electric potential is called the electric potential difference, V, between the 2 points V = Vfin Vin V = Ep/q Electric potential difference is commonly referred to as just potential difference or voltage

An electron volt (eV) is the quantity of energy an electron gains or looses when passing through a potential difference od exactly 1 V \an electron volt is much smaller then a J Although not an SI unit the electron volt is sometimes convenient for expressing tiny quantities of energy 1 eV = 1.60x10^-19 Electric fields between charged plates The electric field around a point charge is non-uniform The electric field between plates in uniform Do not use ( E = kq/r^2 ) for plates E = V / d Is used to calculate the magnitude of the uniform electric field between charged plates V is the potential difference between the 2 charged plates in volts d is the distance in metres, between the plates Check and reflect p569 #1, 3-10 Electrical interactions and the law of conservation of energy The acceleration of a charged particle in a non=uniform electric field around a point charge is different from the acceleration motion of a charge in a uniform electric field between charged plates Non uniform field Acceleration is non-uniform due to varying Fe A charged particle in an electric field will accelerate from a region of high Ep to a region of low Ep Use the law of conservation of energy to determine the particles speed at a given point The law of conservation of energy The moving charge gains kinetic energy at the expense of potential energy Assuming that ni energy is lost to friction and the forces are conserved Epi + Eki = Epf +Ekf Gain in Ek = loss in Ep Uniform fields Acceleration is constant because of the constant force Solving using either the work-energy theorem or the laws of dynamics

Magnetic force and fields Law of magnetism like magnetic poles repel and unlike magnetic poles attract each other Magnetic poles always exist in pairs If you break a magnet into 2 pieces each piece will have a north-south pole A magnetic field can be detected by its effect on a small test compass and is depicted visually by drawing magnetic field lines to show the direction in which the N-pole of the compass points, at all locations in the field Magnetic field lines point away from the north-pole and toward the south-pole The density of the lines represents the magnitude of the magnetic field Magnetic field strength Magnetic field surrounding a magnet is a vector quantity represented by the symbol B Measured in Teslas Domain Theory of magnetism Artificial magnets arte made from various alloys of iron, nickel, cobalt, and gadolinium These ferromagnetic materials, although not normally magnetized many become magnetized The explanation of how these substances can become magnetized can be explained using the domain theory of magnetism Ferromagnetic substances Are composed of a large number of tiny regions < 1 um long magnetic domains Each domain behaves like a tiny bar magnet with its own north and south pole When the material is in a non-magnetized state these millions of domains are randomly oriented so their magnetic effects cancel each other out When a material is placed in a strong magnetic field the orientation of these domains rotate to align themselves in the same direction as external field This orientation many remains for a long time or many disappear quickly depending on the type of materials used the domain model provides an explanation for many properties of included magnets a needle can be magnetized by stroking it with a strong permanent magnet a broken bar magnet produces 2 smaller magnets each with its own N and S pole some includes magnets made of soft iron demagnetized instantaneously while other made of hard steel or alloy remains magnetized indefinitely

heating or dropping a magnet can cause a magnet to loose its magnetism a strong magnetic field can reverse the magnetism of a bar magnet Danish physicists teaching at the u of Copenhagen Accidentally discovered the relationship between electricity and magnetism Observed a magnetic compass needle was defected when a light switch was turned on Formulated basic principles of electromagnetism Conventional current vs electron flow Conventional current flow of positive charges Electron flow flows of negative charges When an electric current flows through a long straight wire the magnet field created consists of fields lines that are concentric circles with the wire at their centres First hand rule If a conductor is grasped in the left, with the thumb pointing in the direction of electron flow the curled fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field lines Use right hand if using conventional current Magnetic field: loop A straight wire formed into a loop gives magnetic field lines closer together inside the loop Indicates a stronger magnetic field on the inside of the loop Magnetic field coil or solenoid A conductor wound into a coil with many loops is called a solenoid Magnet field of a solenoid is the sum of the magnetic fields of all its loops Field inside a coil can be very strong, consisting of field lines that are straight and very close Second hand rule if a coil is grasped with the left hand with the fingers curled in the direction of the current, the thumb indicates the direction of the magnetic field lines and hence the N pole Use right hand if using conventional current Electromagnets A solenoid has a magnetic field that is very similar to that of a bar magnet and acts much like a bare magnet that can be turned on and off Strength is influenced by The current Increasing the size The size of the loops in the coil

Changing the core of the coil Electromagnetic. Ferromagnetic core If a ferromagnetic core material is put in the core of a solenoid magnetic field becomes stronger The domains in the material are aligned by the magnetic field of the coil Total magnetic field is the sum of the field due to the coil and due to the magnetized core Ratio of magnetic field strength with a particular core to that with out with out the core is called the permeable core When making a solenoid a soft iron core is used so there when the current is shut off the core demagnetizes quickly Strong electromagnets that can be used be turned on and off have many uses Read p 580 591 Check and reflect p 592 # 1-13 Moving charges and magnetic field Cathode ray tubes Evacuated glass tube with positive and negative plates Electrical fields accelerate a beam (cathode ray) through a large potential difference Called cathode ray because it appeared to originate form the cathode ray Beam lights up fluorescent screen at the end of the tube Deflecting electrons Involves an integration of 2 magnetic fields Electron enters the magnetic field produced by 2 opposite magnetic poles The field produces a magnetic force that acts on the particle to deflect it Motor effect This magnetic force is also called the motor effect force Motor effect force the deflecting force acting on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field Moving charged particles enter a magnetic field and are deflected up or down depending on their direction of travel Magnetic force Fm is always perpendicular to the direction of the velocity of the charged particle An electron forces can be changed the speed of a charged particle A magnetic force can never do work on a charges particle, nor can it change the speed of a charged particle (it is perpendicular to the velocity) 3rd hand rule

To determine direction of Fm thumb indicates the direction of the initial charge movement extend fingers indicate the direction of the external magnetic field, from north to south open palm faces in the direction of the magnetic force use the left hand rule if the moving charge is negative use the right hand rule if the moving charge is positive charged particles motion in a magnetic field in the initial motion of charge particles is parallel to the external magnetic field then there is no effect in the initial motion of charge particles is perpendicular to the external magnetic field, the charge is deflected in a circular arc if the initial motion of the charged particle is at an angle to an external magnetic field the charge deflects in a circular motion deflected in a circular path in a magnetic field deflected in a parabolic path in an electric field calculating the magnetic field the magnitude of the deflecting force depends on all of the following the magnitude of the moving charge (q) the magnitude of the perpendicular velocity component (v_) the magnitude of the external magnetic field (B) Fm = qv B Check and reflect 12.2 pg601 #1-10 current carrying conductors and magnetic fields two of the most common applications of magnetic fields acting on moving charged objects are meters (suck as ammeter, voltmeter and galvanometers) and electric motors electric current equation I= q/t

I current q = magnitude of charge in coulombs t = time in seconds conductor in a magnetic field when a straight wire carries a current (I) through a magnetic field (B) the force on the conductor is in the direction perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the direction reverse either the current direction or the magnetic field reverse the direction on the force angles to the magnetic field also if the conductor cuts across the magnetic field ine at an angle : F proportionality sin where is the angle between B and I combined above formula we can derive the formula F=BIL as an experience for the force acting on the conductor note the force is maximum when L crosses B at 90 degrees and is 0 when Land B are parallel, there is NO force on a conductor that carries current parallel to the magnetic line electric current the quantity of charge that flows through a wire in a given unity of time 1 A = 1 C/s Ampere is named after Andre-Marie Ampere for his analysis of the relationship between current and magnitude force Magnetic force on a current- carrying conductor He magnetic force on a conducting wire is the same as the magnetic deflecting force on a moving charge To determine the direction of the magnetic force, you can use the same LHR 3rd as in Magnetic forces between 2 current-carrying conductors Ampere preformed extensive studies to determine the magnitude of the magnetic field at any point surrounding a current conductor He found that the 2 current-carrying conductors exert magnetic forces on each other He also found the magnetic force depending on The length of the conduction wire The distance between the 2 conducting wires The amount of current in each wire Amperes work led to the naming of the SI unit for current in his honour An ampere is now defined as the current required in each of the 2 current-carrying wired 1m long and separated by 1m in the air, to provide force of 2.00x10^-2 N

The electric motor A device that converts electrical potential energy to mechanical kinetic energy DC motor A current through a coil will produce a magnetic field and if that field is produced inside a permanent magnet field rotation can occur Considering the rotation will reveal that the coil will rotate only 180 For the coil to continue to rotate the direction of the force would have to change every rotations Changing the direction of the Fm A force change can be effected in 2 ways by changing the direction of; 1 magnetic field 2 the current in the coil Changing the direction of the current is the simplest solution Components of a dc motor A stator a frame with a coil or permanent magnet An armature or rotor a rotating loop of wire conducting wire A commutator a split metal ring that switches the direction of current flow Changing the direction of the current Contact with the commutator in made by 2 stationary brushes made of carbon which are connected to a battery such that current may enter the coil through one brush and leave through the other The generator effect After oersed demonstrated that moving electrons created a magnetic fields has colleague began to study the reverse effect a magnetic field causing electron to move Faraday and Henry stated that when a piece of conducting wire cuts through a magnetic field lines, and induce current produced If this wire was part of an external circuit, the induced voltage would produce a electromotive force to drive an induced current through the wire. Technological advancements 8,11,17,24,39,41,42,45,46,48,49,50,52,54,55,58,61,62,64,74 p626

Generators ac-dc A device which converts mechanical energy of motion into electrical energy The most convenient form of mechanical energy with which to drive a generator is rotation A coil of wire rotated by such motion in the jaws of a magnet would represent a simple electric generator Generator DC a disadvantage of the DC generator is that the current drops to .5 every half cycle ripple effect can be overcome by winding several equally spaces separated coils on the same armature each coil requires its own pair of segments on a multi segmented commutator such that one coil is always produce a maximum amount of current maximizing output from generators generators are designed to efficiently produce the maximum amount of electrical energy accomplished by -increasing the number of turns -by winding the coil on a soft iron core to increase the strength on the inducing force -by increasing the speed of the rotation -by increasing the strength of the field magnet An induced current flows in such a direction that the induced field it creates opposes the action on the initial force Simple dc electric motors and electric generators have 3 similar components External magnetic fields a loop of conducting wire A commutator Partial model of EMR Describes all EMR (light) as a stream of particles radiating outward from a source Using that particle model all EMR is made up of discrete units of matter haing m, E, and p Evidence for the particle model EMR > straight line Reflection and absorption Wave model of EMR Describes EMR as a transverse wave radiating outward from a source EMR obey the universal wave law (c=f) All EMR have the properties of waves

Reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference Problem with the wave model How can a wave travel through the vacuum of space What is the medium of space? (ether) Proposed a wave theory of light 1678 Overshadowed by Isaac Newton (opticks,1704) theory of light as corpuscles The interference experiment of Thomas young vindicated Huygens wave theory in 1801 as results could no longer be explained with light particles Preformed interference experiments which vindicated Huygens wave theory in 1801 results could not explained with light particles Max Planck 1900 max planks quantum model is a combination of particle model and the wave model of light All EMR is composed of discrete bundles of energy called photons Einstein, 1905 explained that light is emitted in quantized, tiny, mass less particles called photons Photons can have the characteristics of waves or particles but not both at the same time Particle of electromagnetism First principle Oersted. an electric current can produce a magnetic field Second principle Faraday, a changing magnetic field in the region of the conductor can induce an electric field Third principle James Clerk Maxwell, 1865 a changing magnetic field in space will induce a changing electric field Fourth principle - James clerk Maxwell 1865 a change in electric field in space will induce a changing magnetic field Electromagnet wave The last 2 particles produced by Maxwell lay the foundation for an electromagnetic wave A magnetic field changing in time will produce an electric field that is changing in time which produces a magnetic field that is changing in time Producing EMWave Some events that start an electromagnetic wave: an accelerating charging particle a charged particle that is oscillating in direction (AC current ) electrons in AC circuit are constantly oscillating they vibrate and as they bump into each other they transfer energy Maxwells equations can be summarized in these statements The distribution of electric charge in space is related to the electric field it produces

Magnetic field lines are contained and do not have a beginning or an end whereas electric field lines begin and end in electric charges An electric field current can produce a magnetic field and a changing electric field can produce a magnetic field a changing magnetic fields can produce an induced current and a changing electrical fields (potential difference) Oscillating charges produce electromagnetic waves The frequency of the EMR will be the same as the frequency as the oscillating charge All EMR waves travel at the speed of light The oscillating electric and magnetic fields will always be perpendicular to each other perpendicular to the direction of the EMR Albert Abraham Michelson 1906 He used an 8 sided mirror light strikes the mirror and then travels to a mirror 35 km away and then back to the spinning frequencies of the rotating mirror Michelson received the noble prize for his accuracy in measuring the speed of light Speed of light = d/T His speed of light 299792456.2 m/s We will use 3.00 x10^8

Curved mirrors There are 2 types of curved mirrors Concave Convex Ray diagrams The position, size and nature of a image can be found using a scale ray diagram 1. draw the mirror showing the principle axis, the centre of curvature, and the focal point 2. place a vertical arrow on the principle axis to illustrate the position and size of the object 3. draw 2 rays from the tip of the object to the mirror. A. a ray parallel to the principle axis will reflect through the focal point. B. a ray through the focal point will reflect back parallel to the principle axis 4. draw the reflected rays from the mirror. The point where the reflected reys intersect is where the image will appear Concave mirror when light rays strike a concave mirror they will converged to a focal point the focal point is the front is in front of a concave mirror convex mirror

rays of light parallel to the principle axis of a convex mirror will reflect as iff the originate from a single point behind the mirror locating an image convex mirror any ray parallel to the principle axis will be reflected away from the focal point any ray traveling towards the focal point will reflected parallel to the principle axis any ray traveling toward the 2F will be reflected back on itself mirror equations we can use the mirror equations to locate the images and determine the size of the objects and images magnification m = hi/ho =-di/do m- magnification hi- image height ho- object height sign convention mirror equations real objects and images have + distance virtual objects and images have distance erect images and objects have + height inverted images and objects have height converting mirror have a real principle focal point and the length + diverging mirrors have a virtual principle focal point and the focal length is erect images have + magnification inverted images have magnification thin lenses convex lens when light rays pas through a convex lens they will converge to a focal point locating an image convex lens any ray traveling parallel to the principle axis will be refracted through the focal point any ray traveling through a focal point will be refracted through the focal point any ray traveling through the center of the lens will continue and not be refracted a convex lens has a focal point on both sides of the lens magnifying glass bending light rays from an object to create a magnified virtual, upright image that appears larger then the object mirror equations 1/do + 1/di = 1/f f- focal length di- image distance do- object distance

the objects must be closer than f or the object is not magnified concave lens when light rays pass through a concave lance they will diverging away from a focal point any ray traveling parallel to the principle axis will be refracted away from the focal point any ray traveling toward from a focal point will be refracted parallel to the principle axis any ray traveling through the center of the lens will continue and not be defaced sign conventions f is + if the lens is a double convex lens f is if the lens is double concave lens di is + if the image is a real image and located on the opposite side of the lens di is if the image is a virtual image and located on the objects side of the lens hi is + if the image is an upright image hi is if the image an inverted image refraction as a wave travels from one medium through another; speed, wavelength, and direction will change. Index of refraction Is a measure of the speed of light in a medium as compared to the speed of light in air (vacuum) n=c/v n index of refraction C speed of light in a vacuum V speed of light in the medium Water has an index of refraction of 1.33, what is the speed of light in water Snells law n2/n1 = v1/v2 = 1/2 = sin 1/sin 2 n1 sin1= n2 sin 2 Water is optically denser than air. In water light will Travel slower Have a shorter wavelength Will bend toward the medium Frequency remains same

Refraction Critical angle As light travels from a more dense medium to a less dense medium there is a maximum angle of incidence where light may be able to escape the more dense medium and enter the less medium At the critical angle the angle of refraction is 90 At an angle greater the critical angle all light is totally reflected internally Prism As white light travels through a prism it will refract and the white light will separate into the separate colors and wavelengths of the spectrum Light with longer wavelength (red) will refract less than light with a shorter wavelength (blue, violet Refraction and a prism is how Newton proved that light is made up of EMR and different wavelengths Application of refraction Lenses light is bent toward the normal as it enters the denser medium and always from the normal as it exits Fibber optics total internal reflection can be used to bent light around the corners Diffraction and interference Newton proposed that light was a particle and published in optics (1704). His reputation helped the particle theory of light to hold sway during the 18th century Robert Hooke proposed that light was a wave in 1665 and Christian Huygens provided support to the wave model in 1685 Particles encounter a barrier with holes in it will either bounce back or pass straight through a wave on the other hand Diffraction refers to bending around the edges of a barrier forming circular waves that spread out Interference is the separation of 2 or more waves Superposition As wave passes through each other their amps will add to produce a larger or a smaller wave. Construction interference When waves are in the same phase their amps will add together to reinforce eachother or produce a larger wave Destruction interference When waves are out of phase their amps will add together to cancel eachother or preduce a smaller wave

Huygens principle Wave front is composed of many tiny point sources & every point on a wave acts as the source of a new wave (when a wavelength, the incident wave acts as a point source) In order to observe diffraction the size of the opening and the incident wavelength must be of the same order of magnitude where there is construction interference a new wave is formed Huygens principle explains how a linear wave front will produce another linear wave and a circular wave front will produce another circular wave Diffraction as a wave travels past a barrier or through an opening the wave will bend and spread out the amount of diffraction depends upon The size of the opening The wavelength Thomas young Sought to discover if light behaves as waved or a particle If we are able to produce an interference pattern with light then light has the properties of a wave Because young saw an interference pattern this demonstrated that light has properties of a wave When monochromatic (single wave length) light is passed trough a double slit the light a screen behind the slits will appear as alternating bright (maxima or antinodes) and dark bands (minima or node) ( constructive and destructive interference) Since only waves diffract and interfere youngs experiment supported the wave nature of light Mathematic of youngs experiment There is a relationship between the following Wavelength of incident light wave length Distance between 2 slits Distance to screen from slits Distance from a central bright fringe to first order line Diffracting grating A diffraction grating is a plastic lens that is etched with thousands of lines per meter Each pair of lines acts as a double slit diffraction source Polarization Transverse waves can be polarized so that they can only vibrate in 2 dimensions Only the component of the wave that is the same attitude as the polarizing filter can pass through polarizing filter If light can be polarized then light must be made up of transverse wave

Why is the sky blue It is not the reflection of light from the ocean Because of ray light scattering which causes light to scatter when it passes through particles that have a diameter one tenth that of the wavelength of light When light collides with tiny particles in the high atmosphere the shorter wavelengths of light (blue) skater more then the longer wavelength This is also why mountains like look so blue Clouds are white because the larger molecules scatter all of the light Chapter assignment P 699 #11,13-15,17,23,26,27,29,30-39,41 Color and Temerature
Three observations of the relationship between color and the temperature o o o Hot, glowing objects emit a continuous wavelengths(thus continues spectrum of colors) range of

At a certain temperature a definite range of wavelengths (colors) are emitted The hotter an object is, the bluer the light-the cooler, the redder

Gustav Kichoff-Blackbody Radiation


A blackbody is an object that absorbs all energy (no reflection) that contacts it when it is cool (appears black) and emits all wavelengths when it is hot. If light is a wave the EMR intensity as a function of a wavelength can be plotted (using Maxwells theory for a radiating blackbody) Fig. 14.3 (Note, use text.) The accepted model of light could not be explain the graphs Even worse theory predicted an entirely different type of curve that was never observed experimentally The best theories of EMR (light) and thermodynamics (heat)could not solve the problem

Blackbody Curves

Ultraviolet Catastrophe Max Planck


To solve this probem a german physicist proposed a new, model for the way that atoms emit light

His proposal suggested that light can only be emitted in quanta and that the enrgy of each quanta is proportional to the frequency of EMR produced o o Quantum: an discrete amount Photon: a quantum (particle) of light

Plancks Formula
Planck ignored theory and played with the math and found an equation that worked but he did not know why it worked?!? o E=nhf ----- E=hf-> (E=hc/^) E= energy of 1 or more photons of light(J) h= Plancks Constant (6.63*10^-34 J*s)

Quantum Numbers
The whole number (n) means that not all energies are possible. Only certain, discrete or specific values are possible (quanta). SO WHAT? o o Waves have continuous energies Particles have specific energies

IF PLANCK IS RIGHT, THEN LIGHT IS A PARTICLE NOT A WAVE!!!!!!!!

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. What is the energy of red light that has a wavelength of 654nm? 2. A wave has energy of 1.50 eV. What is its: a. Energy in joules? (2.40810^-19 J) b. Speed? (3.00*10^8 m/s) c. Wavelength? (8.29*10^-7 m) d. Frequency? (3.62*10^14 Hz) e. Period? (2.76*10^-5) 3. An X-ray of 0.52nm is used in a dentist office for a total of 2.0 minutes. How much power was used? a. E=3.825*10^-16 J P=E/T= 3.19*10^-18 W

4. If Planck is correct and light is a particle, how many photons would be emitted by a 1.50mW laser each second if the laser produced light with a frequency of 4.75*10^14 Hz a. 4.76*10^15 Photons

Increasing Photocurrent
Can be increased I n two distinctively different ways once threshold frequency has been exceeded. o Increasing the frequency increases the energy of the incoming photons which increases the emitted electrons energy (speed) and thus its current. Increasing the intensity increases the amount of photons coming in which increases the number of electrons being emitted thus the current goes up.

Practice
Read p702-706 Ex. 14.1 &PP 1-3 p706 Ex. 14.2 &PP 1-3 p 707 Ex. 14.3 &PP 1-3 p708 Ex 14.5 Ex14.6 Ex14.7 It takes a minimum frequency to remove an electron from an atom. A wave gives energy continuously thus given time it should always remove eParticles give their energy when they collide in one burst and thus have enough energy or not THERFORE light MUST Bea PARTICLE

Einstein Knew

Now What?
The photoelectric effect implies light MUST be a particle. However, double slit experimental evidence suggests light MUST be a wave What is It???

o o o

Light is both wave and particle, and will act accordingly depending on the experiment How its observed determines the nature of light For simplicity call it a wave when it acts like a wave and call it a photon when it acts like a particle.

Quantum Mechanics (aka Quantum Theory)


In Nature, Single photons are not encountered. Thinking of EM waves acting as particles is Quantum Theory. Thinking of the energy of a wave in a clump (photon) is called a quantum of energy. Planks work with blackbody radiation predicted photons Einsteins work with the photoelectric effect cannot be explained without the quantum theory. Arthur Compton questioned the belief in photons (Quantum Theory) Compton proposed that if EMR acts like a particle, it should behave as such in collisions. His Results o In 1923 Compton directed X-rays (EMR) at a block and found that the wavelength of the scattered photon increased (decreased in energy) He applied the laws of conservation of momentum and conservation of energy to show the photon experienced a change in momentum due to elastic collision with an electron in the graphite( photons that strike nucleus just bounce off unaffected because of nuclear inertia) Compton earned the 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery.

14.3 Compton Effect (1892-1962)


How to create X-Rays?


3 Things needed: o o o A source of electrons A way to accelerate the electrons to high speeds A target material to receive the impact of the electrons

X-rays are generated when free electrons give up some of their energy, when they interact with the orbital electrons or nucleus of an atom. The energy given up by the electron appears as EMR known as X-radiation

Momentum of a Photon
Energy of a photn => E=hf Momentum =>p=mv Einstein Showed =>E=mc^2 -> m=E/c^2 o So p=mc=(E/c2)v= E/c= hf/c =h/^ P=h/^ Where o o o P=momentum h= Planks Constant ^=Wavelengths of X-ray

14.4 Matter Waves


Loise de Broglie (de Broy) suggested that if waves can act as particles may be particles can act like waves. Wave-particle duality allowed wavelength to be related to momentum. o p=h/^ and p=mv ^ = h/mv traveling at high speeds have noticeable

De Broglie Wave Equation

Small masses wavelengths.

Example1
What is the de Broglie wavelength of a 0.10kg ball moving at 20m/s o Solution ^=h/mv =3.33*10^-34

Example2
What is the De Broglie wavelength of an electron that has been accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 50V? o Solution Ek=Vq =8.0*10^-18 J*e

But Ek=1/2mv^2so 4.2*10^6m/s Then ^=h/mv=1.7*10^-10

C.J. Davisson, L.H. Germer & G.P. Thomson


Showed electrons act as waves in diffraction experiments using crystals as a diffraction grating The particle-wave dualism reinforces Einsteins contention that matter is a form of energy. Read about it particle-in-a-box P729733 Read P734735 Unit Review P746 o 8,10,15,18,20, 25,26,28,30,33, 36, 37, 38, 41, 43, o 44, 45, 50, 53, 55, 56, 57, 60, 64, 74

Quantization of Energy

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Unit Review Assignment

14 Atomic Physics
Evolution of the atomic model o Focusing Questions

John Dalton (1766-1844)


Proposed the existence of atoms, (1803) and developed a theory to explain the ratios in which elements combine to form compounds. (Joseph Proust- Law of Definite Proportions) At this point there was no direct evidence of atoms, but by 1900 some experiments were beginning to prove their existence Daltons theory was the corner stone of atomic physics

Sir William Crookes (1832-1919)

A pioneer in the construction and use of vacuum tubes and applying high voltage across electrodes. Produced mysterious rays which flowed from (the cathode) +electrode Suggested these.. Built on earlier experiments by using improved vacuum tubes with very low pressure (1897) Found that cathode rays respond to electric fields just as negatively charged particles would. Nobel prize in 1906 for discovery of electron Thompson could not measure either the mass of the electron or the charge that it carried. But he did find a way to determine the ratio of charge to mass for the electron by using both an electric field and a magnetic field. Chapter 11 showed that the electric force acting on a charged particle is Fe=qE Chapter 12 showed that the magnetic force on a moving particle is F= JJ set apparatus such that the electric field exerts a downward force on the negative charge and the magnetic field exerts an upward force If the net force on the charged particle is 0, the electric forces must equal in magnitude but opposite in direction o Fnet=Fe+Fm =0 so Fe=Fm Eq=Bqv E=Bv V=E/B

Sir J.J. Thompson (18561940)

Charge to Mass Ratio of electron

Electric Force and Magnetic Force


Thomsons Experiment Charge to mass ratio

Thomson used mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields to dertermine the speed of the cathode rays

He then measured the deflection of the rays when just one of the fields was swiched on These deflections depended on the: o o o o o Magnitude of the field Length of the path in the field Speed of the particle Charge of the particle Mass of the cathode-ray particles

Thomson could determine only the first three quantities, but he could use his deflection measurements to calculate the ratio of the two unknowns, the chare and mass of particles Thomson made measurements with a series of cathode-ray tubes that each had a different metal for the electrode that emitted the rays Since he found reasonably consistent values for the charge-to-mass Thomson concluded that all cathode rays consist of identical particles with exactly the same negative charge. By measuring the path of charged particles in a uniform magnetic field a mass/charge ratio can be determined Charged particles moving perpendicular to experience a constant force (speed is constant) the magnetic field,

Mass/Charge Using a Magnetic Field


Thus a charged particle moving perpendicular to a magnetic field follows a circular path, with a magnetic force acting as the centripetal force. o o o o Fnet =Fm Fc=Fm Mv^2/r=Bqv q/m=v/Br

Summary
Thomson Equated Forces o If the electron passed through the fields un-deflected, Fe=Fm

Used to calculate the speed of an electron

If the electron was deflected, the o Fc=Fm Used to calculate the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron.

Thomsons model of the Atom


Since atoms are electrically neutral, if they contain negative electrons they must also contain some form of positive charge Since no positive charged subatomic particles had yet been discovered, Thomson suggested that atoms might consist of electrons embedded in a blob of mass less positive charge. (like a raisin bun)

Practice
Read Mass Spectrometer P159 Check and Reflect #1-3, 9

15.2 Quantization of particles


Benjamin Franklin originally described electricity to be, a continuous fluid but Millikans work showed that it involved charges that had been quantized. American physicist and his graduate student Harvey Fletcher made the next breakthrough in the study of the properties of the electron Conducted an experiment (1909) that determined the charge on the electron and showed that it was a fundamental unit of electrical charge. Sprayed tiny drops of oil into a vessel containing two medal plates Friction gave some of the drops a small electric charge > 5yrs of measurements balancing oil drops of various sizes Millikan reasoned that the smallest possible charge that a drop can have is the charge acquired either gaining or losing an electron. Observed charged oil drops had n*1.6E-19

Millikan

Millikans Oil drop Experiment


Floating Drops So What! Millikan showed that charge is not a continuous quantity ;it exists only in discrete amounts Since JJ Thomson (and others) had already determined the charge-tomass ratio for electrons, Millikan could now calculate a reasonably accurate value for the mass of the electron

Mass of the Electron

EXAMPLE 15.3 Practice C&R #1-6 p 765 Ernest Rutherford 1909 showed that some radioactive elements emitted alpha particles used Ra in a lead block with a small opening to produce a beam of alpha particles. Rutherfords scattering experiment Directed alpha particles at thin gold foil and had Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden measure particles definition Most of the alpha particles travelled through the foil with minimum deflection However a few particles were scattered at an angle >140 Rutherford conclusion was that the positive charge in a gold atom must be concentrated in an increasing tine volume, so most gold foil was actually empty space. Rutherfords team scattering alpha particles from other metals with similar results The planetary model Rutherford discovery of the nucleus quickly led to the planetary model of the atom In this model, the electrons orbit the nucleus due to electrostatic attraction between the positive nucleus the and the negative electrons. Neils Bohr In 1912, a Danish physicist, studied for a few months at Rutherfords laboratory Both Bohr and Rutherford recognized a critical flaw in the planetary model The flaw with the planetary model Maxwells experiment has shown that an accelerating charge emits electromagnetic waves and electrons orbiting a nucleus are constantly accelerating, so they should emit electromagnetic waves So orbiting electrons should loose energy and spiral into the nucleus Josef von Fraunhofer

In 1814, noticed a number of gaps or dark lines in the spectrum of the sun By 1859, another German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff, had established that gases of elements or compounds under low pressure each have a unique spectrum Kirchhoffs three types of spectra Continuous when a solid is heated A hot, dense material emits a continuous spectrum, without any dark or bright lines Line-emission when a gas glows A hot gas a low pressure has an emission light spectrum with bright lines at distinct characteristics wavelength Line absorption when light is passed through a cool gas A gas at low pressure absorbs light at the same wavelength as the light it emits when heated. Shining white light through the gas produces an absorption line spectrum whith dark lines that match the brightness in the emission The Bohr model of the atom Here are the basic principles of Bohrs model: The orbits in an atom are quantized Each orbit corresponds to a particular electron energy level Since the size and shape of the orbit remains constant along with the energy of the electron, the orbit are often called stationary An electron can move from one energy level to another only by either emitting or absorbing energy equal to the difference between the 2 energy levels. An electron that stays in a particular orbit does not radiate any energy. Energy level transition and line spectra The Bohr model explains why absorption and emission line spectra occur from hydrogen and other elements To jump to I higher level, an electron in an atom must gain energy The atom can gain this energy by absorbing a photon For energy to be conserved, the photons energy must match the difference between the electrons initial energy level and higher 1 Ionization energy Energy required to remove an electron from an atom has several serious failing The quantum model of the atom Bohrs model explains the spectral lines of hydrogen and accurately predicts the size and ionization energy of the atom Despite these remarkable accomplishments, the theory atom has several serious failing: it does not really explain why energy quantized, nor why orbiting electrons do not radiate electromagnetic energy It is not accurate for atoms that have 2 or more electrons

it does not explain why a magnetic field splits the main spectral lines into multiple closely spaced lines Pieter Zeeman Dutch physicist Pieter Zeeman disobeyed the direct order of his supervisor and used lab equipment to measure the splitting of spectral lines by a strong magnetic field. he was fired from his efforts Louis de Broglie As decribed in section 14.4 diffraction experiments confirmed that electronics behind like waves that have the wavelength predicted by de Broglie So the principle of interference and standing waves apply for electrons orbiting a nucleus for most size of orbit, successive cycles of the electron wave will be out of phase, and destructive interference will reduce the amplitude of the wave for constructive interference to occur the circumference of the orbit must be equal to a whole number of wavelengths the wave nature of matter provides a natural explanation for quantized energy level Erwin Schrodinger Derived a set of wave equations for electrons You can describe only the probably of where an electron could be Quantum indeterminacy The quantum model does not have electrons orbiting a precise defined distance from the nucleus rather the electrons behaving as waves, which do not have a precise location The orbitals in the quantum model show the likely hood of an electron being a given point they are not path the electrons follow Since electrons within the atom behave as waves, rather than orbiting particles, explains why these electrons do not radiate electromagnetic energy continuously The quantum model despite its challenging concept, quantum theory is the most comprehensive and accurate model of the atom and molecules yet developed Review assignment p786 #1-2, 4-14, 19, 21, 24 Atomic mass unit for calculating involving nuclei and subatomic particles, it is often convenient to use a mass unit that is much smaller than the kilogram The atomic mass unit (u) is defined as exactly 1/12 of the mass of the carbon atom 1u 1.66 x 10^-27 Forces in the nucleus Other than hydrogen, all nuclei consist of 2 or more protons and a number of neutrons

Like charges repel each other so, what keeps these nuclei from flying apart. \what holds the nucleus together The strong nuclear force the force that binds together the protons and neutrons in a nucleus Acts over very small distances (fm) Binding energy Is the energy holding nucleons together Of a nuclear force ad separate its protons and neutrons infinitely far apart Eb = E nucleons E nucleus Mass defect (the sum of proton masses and neutron masses) (measured mass of nucleus) Mass energy equivalence Part of the theory of relativity developed by albert Einstein 1905 His theory predicted that mass and energy are related by the equation E=mc^2 Nuclear reactions can involve conversions between mass and energy The law of conservation of energy still applies if the conversion are taken into account For any closed system, the total of energy and the energy equivalent of the mass in the system is constant carbon-14 has a nuclear mass 10 amu the mass of a proton is 1.007825 amu, a neutron is 1.008665 amu and 1 amu = 931049 MeV = 1.660539x10^-27 mass defect = ? binding energy MeV =? Binding energy in J =? The process by which an atomic nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing particles. Emission is spontaneous, without any interaction with another particle from outside the atom. Is a random process at level of single atom however, given a large number of identical atoms, the decay rate for the collection is predictable. Antoine henri bacquerel

The French physicist, discovered radioactive decay by accident in 1896 while conducting an experiment Marie curie Pierre curie Husband and wife did extensive studies of radiation She found that the radioactivity in uranium resunts from a process within the uranium nucleus Rutherford identified 3 forms of nuclear radiation Alpha (a) :the emission of a helium nucleus Bata (B) : the emission of the high energy electron Gamma (y) :the emission of a high energy photon Classification was initially based on how much material each type or radiation would penetrate Alpha Beta Gamma Three types of radiation results from different processes within nuclei. Conservation laws and radioactive decay Radioactive decay obeys classical conservation laws: Conservation of momentum and conservation of energy Radioactive decay obeys additional conservation laws Charge: the net electrical charge cannot change in a decay process Any charge in the electrical charge of the nucleus must be exactly offset by an opposite change elsewhere in the system Atomic mass: the total mass of the final product Alpha decay In 1908, Rutherford showed that alpha particles are helium nuclei spontaneously emitted by unstable large nuclei In these nuclei, the electromagnetic force repelling the outer protons is almost as great as the attractive strong nuclear force Such nuclei can spontaneously emit alpha particles Alpha radiation Ejected with extremely high speeds from radioactive materials Poor penetration power because of relatively larger sixe Easiest to shield but quite harmful Alpha decay equation

A radioactive element that undergoes alpha decay send out a helium nucleus and h[thus looses 2 protons the 2 neutrons The emission of an alpha particle decreases the atomic number by 2 and the atomic number by 4 Beta decay 2 types of beta decay Beta negative Beta positive The elusive neutrino A daughter nucleus is several orders of magnitude larger in terms of mass compared to an electron Therefore no recoil of the daughter nucleus during decay should be noticed Expect that virtually all of the energy released during decay would become Ek of emitted eMeasurements indicate that most ekectrons emitted during B decay had less Ek expected Small portions of the mass of the parent nuclei meemed to just disappear where did the mass go Wolfgang pauli Suggested that the missing energy in beta decay was carried away by a tiny, as-yet undiscovered neutral particle, now called the neutrino v Neutrinos are so small that physicist have yet to determine their size and mass These particles can pass through earth with only a slight change of being Eventually physicist discovered that there are actually 2 kind of neutrinos given off in beta decay In B- decay an antineutrino is released. As u will soon see, in B+ decay a neutrino is released The neutrino and antineutrino are identical in all respects except for their opposite spins. Many astrophysicists now think that neutrinos play a critical role in the cores of stars and perhaps the structure of the cosmos as well Beta negative decay Nucleus decay by emitting an electron Termed beta-negative or B- decay During B- decay, a neutron in the nucleus transforms into a proton an electron an antineutrino (extremely small neutral particle) a radioactive element that undergoes beta negative decay has a neutron turn into a proton, an electron and antineutrino

so the atomic number of the atom increases by 1, but the atomic mass number does not change charge is conserved because the charge on the new proton balances the charge on the electron emitted from the nucleus beta positive decay protons transform into a neutron positron neutron beta decay protons and neutrons are made up of things called quarks. Quarks are held together with the weak force for reasons not fully understood the quarks may rearrange themselves in 2 ways neutron turns into a proton and beta negative particles. This very common proton turns in to a neutron and beta positive particles. This is not as common B decay weak nuclear force and antimatter Study of beta decays reveals 2 other important difference from alpha decay Transformation of a neutron into a proton involves a fundamental force called the weak nuclear force Beta decay involves antimatter Antimatter particles Have a key property opposite to that of the corresponding particles of ordinary matter For example, an antielectron, or positron has positive charge but the same mass as an electron Gamma decay Alpha or beta decay may leave a daughter nucleus in a highly excited state When nucleons are arranged father apart their binding energy is less than in ground state so an excited nucleus makes a transition to its ground state and emits a gamma ray photon Gamma radiation Extremely high energy electromagnetic waves Great penetration ability due to the fact that waves have no mass Most difficult to protect against but generally the least harmful Gamma decay Gamma decay does not change the atomic number or the atomic mass number Gamma decay can be written using this general form Cause of gamma radiation Like all electromagnetic wave, gamma is created with a changing current, in this case the change in current is the formation of high energy alpha and beta particles

There is no need for a decay equation as gamma is a wave not a particle and thus does not cause a transmutation Stability of isotopes Stable isotopes have greater binding energies then the unstable isotopes Stable isotopes have at least as many neutrons as protons Radioactive decay transmutes unstable nuclei into nuclei with higher binding energies Radioactive decay series Often a radioactive nucleus will decay into a daughter nucleus that is itself radioactive The daughter nucleus may then decay into yet another unstable nucleus This process of successive decay continues until it creates a stable nucleus Such a process is called a radioactive decay series A decay series can have several branches that lead to the same final product Potential hazards of nuclear radiation Alpha, beta, and gamma radiation are all invisible, and most of their effects on the human body are not immediately apparent Radiation poses 2 major types of risk Radiation sickness Genetic damage Radioactive decay rate The active (A) or decay rate is the number of nuclei in a sample that decay with in a given time Activity is usually measured in decays per second, or bacquerels (bq) A highly radioactive sample has many radioactive decays each second Half-life There is no way to determine when a particle will spontaneously decay but given a large enough sample a predictable pattern emerges this pattern is referred to has half life Half-life Half-life is the time required fro one half decay Math analysis The number of nuclei of the original radioisotope left in a sample is given by the equation N=No(1/2)^n Practice 16.12 16.3 1-2 1-2 Chapter assignment

1-15, 24-27, 29, 30

Particle physics studies the elementary subatomic constituents of matter and radiation and their interactions detecting and measuring subatomic particles Charles Thomson reed Wilson Invention of the cloud chamber Cloud chamber contains dust-free air supersaturated with vaper from a liquid such as water or ethanol A cloud track shows the path of the particle

Tracks of subatomic particles Donald A. Glaser Invention of the bubble chamber Bubble chamber uses trails of bubbles in a superheated liquid to show the path of charges particles Analyzing particle tracks Cloud and bobble chambers create a controlled environment for studying subatomic particles A magnetic field across the chamber causes charges particles to follow curved or spiral paths Measurements of the resulting tracks used to determine the mass and charge of the particles Heavier particles have straighter tracks b/c of momentum Magnetic fields will turn charged particles Quantum theory and new particles Antimatter Paul Dirac Used Einsteins theory and Schrodingers wave equation Carl Anderson Evidence for antimatter Anderson used this path to show that the particles that made it had a positive charge but a mass equal to that of the electron

Quantum electrodynamics The electromagnetic force acts by exchanging virtual photons between charged particles to elicit an attraction repulsion theory is matching Mediating particles bosons Gluons Mediating particle of the strong nuclear force Photons Mediating particle of the EMF W+, W-, Z0 Mediating particle of the WNF Gravitons Hypothesized mediating particles of the gravitational force Higgs bosons Gives everything its mass Particle accelerators Electrons Outer can be removed by photons Inner can be removed by x-ray photons Nuclear Binding energies 10^6 x large then electrons (SNF) thus need ultra-high energy interactions Natural energetic particles Radioactive isotopes Natural decay produces relatively low energy particles that can be used in experimentation Cosmic rays Primary high energy particles from space Secondary less energetic particles resulting from collisions of primary particles with atom is the atmosphere Subatomic zoo Improved particle accelerators and detectors have led to the discovery of >300 subatomic particles Studies of the interactions and decay of these particles show that there are 2 separate families of particles Hadrons interact by snf Leptons do not interact by means of snf Hadrons interact by SNF Example proton, neutron and hyperons Composed of quarks

2 types Baryons composed of 3 quarks and with a mass > or = to protons Mesons comprised of 2 quarks Leptons WNF interaction Fundamental not composed of smaller particles Three pairs of leptons in standard model Spin One of the key quantum properties for classifying particles is their spin A complicated and difficult to understand property similar to angular momentum Fermions Half-integer spin or 3/2 Full integer spin (0, 1, or 2 Units for subatomic particles (read in book)

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