CHAPTER I

Democracy in the Contemporary World

policy decisions taken by Allende to help the poor and the workers.
1. 2. 3. 4. Salvader Allende reformed the educational system. He provided free milk for school children. He redistributed land to the landless farmers. He also opposed foreign companies which are taking away natural resources like copper from the country. 5. So that the landlords, other political parties the rich and the Church opposed his policies.

How was Allende`s government overthrown? OR How did Pinochet become the president of Chile?

1. On 11 September 1973, the military headed by Pinochet took over the Seaport and the Defence Minister was arrested by the military when he arrived at his office. 2. The military commanders asked the President to resign. Allende refused to resign or leave the country. 3. Then the military surrounded the Presidents house and started bombing it. President Allende died in the military attack. A government elected by people was overthrown by the military through conspiracy and violence. 4. General Augusto Pinochet an Army general became the president and ruled it for the next 17 years.

Differences between Allende`s rule and Pinichet`s rule

No 1

Allende` rule

Pinochet`s rule Pinochets government tortured and killed several thousand people Pinochet came to power through conspiracy and coup. He allowed USA to take away the resources because it helped him in military coup.

He has taken many policy decisions to help the poor and the workers
Allende came to power through election. He did not permit foreign companies to take away the resources from Chile

2 3

How was democracy restored in Chile? OR How was Pinochet`s government overthrown?

1. Pinochets military dictatorship came to an end after he decided to hold a referendum in 1988. He felt confident that in this referendum, the people would say yes to his continuing in power. But the people said NO. 2. This led to Pinochet losing first his political and then his military powers. Then Chile had four presidential elections in which different political parties have participated. Slowly, the armys role in the country has been eliminated. 3. The elected governments that came to power ordered inquiries into Pinochets rule. These inquiries showed that his government was not only very brutal, but also very corrupt. 4. General Bachelets daughter who was imprisoned and tortured along with her mother that girl, Michelle Bachelet was the elected President of Chile in January 2006.

What were the demands of striking workers of Poland?

1. They demanded to take back a crane operator, a woman worker, who was unjustly dismissed. 2. They wanted the right to form independent trade unions. 3. They also demanded the release of political prisoners. 4. They wanted an end to censorship on press. 5. They wanted the Freedom to organise, protest and express opinions

How was Jaruzelski`s communist rule overthrown in Poland?

1. The workers led by Walesa signed a 21-point agreement with the government that ended their strike. The government agreed to recognize the workers right to form independent trade unions and their right to strike. 2. A new trade union called was formed. Within a year, Solidarity swept across Poland and had one crore members. 3. Solidarity criticized widespread corruption and mismanagement of Jaruzelski`s government. General Jaruzelski, imposed martial law and thousands of Solidarity members were put in prison. 4. Another wave of strikes, again organised by Solidarity, began in 1988. This time they demanded free election. In April 1989 elections, Solidarity contested all the 100 seats of the Senate and won 99 of them and Walesa was elected President of Poland.

Two Features of Democracy

1. In a democracy, only leaders elected by people should rule the country. 2. In a democracy, people have the freedom to express views, freedom to organise and freedom to protest.

Two Features of Non-Democracy

1. In a Non-Democracy, the people could not choose or change their rulers. 2. In a Non-Democracy, there was no real freedom to express ones opinions, form political associations and organize protests and political action.

THE CHANGING MAP OF DEMOCRACY (OR) HOW HAS DEMOCRACY MARCHED THROUGH THE TWENTIETH CENTURY?

1. In 1900 there were less than 15 democracies in the world. They were USA, France, England, etc. 2. In 1950 there were 30 democracies in the world. Many Asian countries achieved independence and became democracies. They were India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka etc 3. In 1975 there were 30 democracies in the world. Some of the democracies became Non democracies and vice versa. 4. By 2000 there are more than150 countries following democracy. Many of the Asian and African countries became independent and began to follow democracy.

SHORTNOTES Censorship: A condition under which the freedom of expression is taken away. Coalition: An alliance of people, associations, political parties or nations. Colony: Territory under the immediate political control of another country. Communist state: A state governed by a communist party without allowing other parties to compete for power. The state controls all the big property, land and industry. Coup: A coup is the sudden overthrow of a government illegally. Martial law: A system of rules that takes effect when a military authority takes control of the normal administration of justice. Political prisoners: Persons held in prison or under house arrest, because their ideas and activities are threat to the authority of the state. Referendum: A direct vote in which an entire electorate(people) is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. Strike: Mass refusal by workers or employees to perform work due to certain grievances or demands not met Trade Union: An association of workers for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment. Veto: The right of a person, party or nation to stop a certain decision or law.

TheFrenchRevolution

CAUSES FOR THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

1. Political causes (or) Louis XVI and his problems

a. Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France. So the French treasury was empty. b. Louis XVI, helped the thirteen American colonies to gain their independence from the common enemy, Britain. c. France had taken 3 billion Livres loan from money lenders who began to charge 10% interest. d. To meet its regular expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army, the court, running government offices or universities, the ruler was forced to increase taxes.
2. Social causes(or) Division in the French Society

a. French society in the eighteenth century was divided into three estates- Clergy, Nobility and Common People.(I, II and III Estates) b. Clergy and Nobility were 10% of the population but possessed 60% of lands. III Estate were 90% of the population but possessed 40% of the lands. c. Clergy and Nobility enjoyed many privileges based on birth. They were exempted from paying taxes. They collected taxes and feudal dues from III Estate people.

d. Peasants were obliged to render services to the Clergy and Nobility to work in his house, fields, serve in the army or to participate in building roads.
3. Economic causes (or) The Struggle to Survive
a.

b.

c.

d.

The population of France rose from 23 million to 28 million in 1789. This led to a rapid increase in the demand for food grains. Production of grains was less because drought or hail reduced the harvest. Bread was the staple diet of the majority. Most workers were employed as labourers in workshops. Owners of the workshops did not increase the wages of workers. This led to a subsistence crisis (scarcity of food grains) which occurred frequently

4. Growth of Middle Class

a. The eighteenth century witnessed the emergence of social groups, termed the middle class, who earned their wealth through trade and professions.

b. All of these were educated and believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth c. They also believed that French society should be based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for all.
5. Role of Philosophers in the French Revolution a. John Locke, in his book the Two Treatises of Government, criticized the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch. b. Jean Jacques Rousseau, in his book Social Contract proposed a form of government based on a social contract between people and their representatives. c. Montesquieu in his book The Spirit of the Laws, proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary. d. The ideas of these philosophers were discussed intensively in salons and coffee-houses and spread among people through books and newspapers. The news that Louis XVI planned to impose further taxes generated anger and protest against the ruler and system. Outbreak of the French revolution

1. Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates General to pass his proposals to increase taxes. The Estates General was a political body to which the three estates

sent their representatives. The first and second estates sent 300 representatives each and III estate sent 600 representatives. III estate representatives demanded individual voting right but king refused to grant so they walked out. 2. On 20 June they assembled in the hall of an indoor tennis court in the grounds of Versailles and declared themselves a National Assembly and swore not to disperse till they had drafted a constitution for France that would limit the powers of the monarch. Mirabeau, a noble and Abb Sieys, a priest joined with III estate representatives 3. While the National Assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a constitution, the rest of France was in tension. After spending hours in long queues at the bakery, crowds of angry women stormed into the shops and looted the stock. 4. At the same time, the king ordered troops to move into Paris. People of Paris organized a militia and broke many buildings in search of weapons. On 14 July, the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille. 5. In the countryside rumours spread from village to village that the lords of the manor had hired bands of brigands who were on their way to destroy the ripe crops. Common people attacked nobles houses, looted hoarded grain and burnt down documents containing records of manorial dues. A large number of nobles were killed and many fled to other countries.

France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy

1. Louis XVI finally recognised the National Assembly and accepted the constitution. On the night of 4 August 1789, the Assembly passed a decree (law) abolishing the feudal taxes, privileges of Nobles and Clergy, Tithes and confiscation of church properties. 2. The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution in 1791. Its main object was to limit the powers of the monarch. These powers were separated and assigned to different institutions-the legislature, executive and judiciary. This made France a constitutional monarchy. 3. The Constitution of 1791 vested the power of making laws to the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected by active citizens. Active citizens, who were above 25 years of age and paying taxes worth of 3 days wages of a worker were given voting right. They voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the members of the National Assembly. 4. The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as natural and inalienable rights. These rights were granted to only men.

France Abolishes Constitutional Monarchy and Becomes a Republic

1. Louis XVI had signed the Constitution but he entered into secret negotiations with the King of Prussia and Austria to put down the revolution. The National Assembly voted to declare war against Prussia and Austria. Thousands of volunteers joined the army and it was a war of the people against kings and aristocracies. 2. The revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people. As the Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections Common people established Political clubs. The most successful of these clubs was that of the Jacobins. . Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre. 3. The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less prosperous sections of society. They included small shopkeepers, artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, as well as servants and daily-wage workers. Jacobins start wearing long striped trousers so they came to be known as the sans-culottes, literally meaning those without knee breeches. 4. In the summer of 1792 the Jacobins planned an insurrection. Parisians who were angered by the short supplies and high prices of food stormed the Palace of the Tuileries, massacred the king`s guards and held the king himself as hostage for several hours. Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family.

5. Elections were held. The newly elected assembly called the Convention. On 21 September 1792 it abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. The Reign of Terror

1. The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror because Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment. Ex-nobles, clergy, members of other political parties, even members of his own party who did not agree with his methods were arrested, imprisoned and guillotined. (The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded. It was named after Dr Guillotin who invented it). 2. Robespierre`s government issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages and prices. Meat and bread were rationed. 3. Peasants were forced to transport their grain to the cities and sell it at prices fixed by the government. The use of more expensive white flour was forbidden; all citizens were required to eat the equality bread. 4. Equality was also sought to be practiced through forms of speech and address. Instead of the traditional Sir and Madame all French men and women were addressed as Citizen.

5. Churches were shut down and their buildings converted into barracks or offices. Finally Robespierre was convicted by a court in July 1794, arrested and on the next day sent to the guillotine.
A Directory Rules France

1. The fall of the Jacobin government allowed the middle classes to seize power. A new constitution was introduced which denied the vote to non-tax paying men. 2. It provided for two elected legislative councils. These then appointed a Directory, an executive made up of five members. This was meant as a safeguard against the concentration of power in a one-man executive as under Robespierre. 3. The Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them. The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.
Did Women have a Revolution?(OR) Role of women in French revolution

1. Most women did not have access to education or job training. . They worked as seamstresses or laundresses, sold flowers, fruits and vegetables at the market, or were employed as domestic servants in the houses of

prosperous people. Their wages were lower than those of men. 2. From the very beginning women were active participants in the events of revolution. They hoped that their involvement in revolution would provide equality and basic rights as men. But women were not provided basic rights and voting right in the new constitution. 3. In order to discuss and voice their interests women started their own political clubs and newspapers. About sixty women`s clubs came up in different French cities. The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous of them. Their main demands were equal political rights, right to vote, right to be elected to the Assembly and to hold political office. 4. The revolutionary government introduced laws that helped improve the lives of women. Education was made compulsory for all girls. Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their will. Marriage was made into a contract entered into freely and registered under civil law. Divorce was made legal, and could be applied for by both women and men. 5. During the Reign of Terror, the new government issued laws ordering closure of women`s clubs and banning their political activities. Many prominent women were arrested and a number of them executed.

It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.
The Abolition of Slavery

1. The slave trade began in the seventeenth century. French merchants sailed to the African coast where they bought slaves from local chieftains. Slaves were branded, shackled and packed tightly into ships for the three-month long voyage across the Atlantic and sold to plantation owners in America. So this was known as a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and the Americas. 2. Throughout the eighteenth century there was little criticism of slavery in France. The National Assembly held long debates about whether the rights of man should be extended to all French subjects including those in the colonies. But it did not pass any laws, fearing opposition from slave traders who paid huge tax to the French government. 3. One of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime was the abolition of slavery in the French colonies. Robespierre passed a Convention according to which in 1794 all slaves were freed in the French colonies. 4. Ten years later, Napoleon reintroduced slavery. Slavery was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.

Use of Revolutionary ideas in Everyday Life

1. The revolutionary governments took initiative to pass laws that would translate the ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity into everyday practice. In 1789 the revolutionary government abolished censorship and introduced press freedom. 2. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech and expression to be a natural right. Newspapers, pamphlets, books and pictures were printed in the towns of France and they travelled to the villages. 3. The revolution brought changes in dress they wear, food they eat and language they speak. The rise of Napoleon 1. In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France. He conquered many neighbouring countries and placed members of his family on the crown Napoleon was seen as a moderniser of Europe. 2. He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the decimal system. 3. Initially, many saw Napoleon as a liberator who would bring freedom for the people. But soon the Napoleonic armies came to be viewed everywhere as an invading force. 4. He was finally defeated at the battle of Waterloo in 1815. He was taken to St Helena where he died.

Legacy of the French Revolution

1. The ideas of liberty, equality & fraternity and the democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution. 2. These ideas spread from France to all the parts of Europe during the nineteenth century, where feudal systems, aristocracy and monarchy were opposed by the people. Even these ideas spread to India and used for freedom struggle.