Keynote Papers

Coated Tools for Metal Cutting

- Features and Applications

F Klocke (11, T. Krieg . Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering Dept. of Machining Technology RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany

Abstract

Demands on products and production processes are the driving factors behind developments in today's cutting technologies. Innovations such as the application of advanced work material concepts, together with needs for non-pollutant machining processes, increased flexibility and improved cost-effectiveness trigger the application of high performance processes, imposing higher stresses on tools. This often reveals inadequate wear resistance in conventional tool materials. Coating technology is one means of achieving a crucial enhancement in tool performance. However, there is such a huge variety of available coating materials, coating structures and coating processes that careful selection of a suitable coating system is essential. Using accessible know-how concerning coated cutting tools and their behaviour in a wide range of different machining tasks, the paper shows methods to test, evaluate and influence the properties of tool coatings. Applying this know-how may contribute to improving the systematic selection and development of coatings for specialised cutting operations.
Keywords: Machining, Tool Coating, Tribology

0 Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge all who have contributed to this paper with suggestions, discussions and documents of their work. Special thanks are given to: Akiyama K., Altan, T., Bouzakis K.-D., Brinksmeier E., Dautzenberg J.H., Jawahir I.S.. Leopold J., Moriwaki T.. Ostafiev V., Schulz H., Seytoyama M., Tonshoff H.-K., Uhlmann E.. Weinert K., Werlheim R..Yamada Y.

affect, i.e. very often intensify, demands on the wear resistance of coated cutting tools. An effective, systematic approach is essential for the successful implementation and sophistication of modem cutting processes. There is accordingly a current need to develop predictive models for the various parameters which govern machining performance, like cutting forces, tool wear, chip formation, surface integrity and part accuracy. The properties of tool materials need to be included as an integral part of such attempts at predictive modelling [I, In addition, it is necessary to formulate the 21. effective mechanisms by which process modifications affect tool stresses and the ways in which coating properties influence wear behaviour under a given set of process parameters. The following sections are intended to contribute to a basic understanding of these interrelationships.

1 Introduction Some important keywords describing the environment of current cutting processes are High Speed Machining, near net shape technology, hard machining, hard-tomachine materials, environmentally compatible processes and precision machining. These technologies are being developed and implemented in response to demands on actual products in terms of productivity, flexibility, accuracy and environmental compatibility

(m

1. )

2 Properties of coatings In order to select or develop a suitable tool coating, it is necessary to identify the primary wear mechanisms inherent in the specific machining task. The ability of a coating to reduce wear sufficiently is the criterion for choosing it.
Fiaure 2 shows that there are two major ways in which a coating may influence tool wear. On the one hand, the five wear mechanisms defined in DIN 50320 can be influenced directly by increasing wear resistance. These wear mechanisms may firstly be classified into the three surface effects of adhesion, abrasion and tribo-oxidation. Diffusion is a mechanism which begins at the tool face, but which also influences the properties of the bulk material and can therefore also be regarded as a volume effect. Finally, fatigue is a typical volume effect that leads to losses of tool material due to fractures which follow the formation of cracks. On the other hand, tool coatings can help to vary contact conditions by altering friction, heat generation or heat

Figure 1: Driving factors current cutting processes. Just as the demands imposed on products change machining processes, current cutting processes in their turn

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flow. These are indirect means of influencing wear by decreasing wear attack.
Friction Heat generation Heat flow Altered contact

7 Altered wear resistance

fl Surface effecrs: Abrasion
Complex stresses Adhesion Tribo-oxidation combined wear Diffusion phenomena Volume effects: Crack initiation Scoring Plastic deformation

basic guideline. The enthalpy of formation of the chosen coating material must be as negative as possible, in order to shift the temperatures at which diffusion occurs towards high values [4]. For example, if steel is used as a work material, it is important that the tool material has a much more negative enthalpy as compared to any possible combination of iron with one of the elements of the tool material. If the enthalpies of different materials are compared [5, 61, it can be inferred that most of the potential carbide coating materials like TIC, HfC,ZrC etc. are more suitable for steel cutting than WC. This likewise applies to most of the nitrides except CrN, up to a temperature of some 1500C. The oxides are also very stable and are suitable as tool materials. Transformation in response to tribological stresses is an anticipated and desired property of certain metallic coating materials. A frequently discussed effect is the possible formation of AIO, and TiO, on a (Ti,AI)N coating at high temperatures. This transformation could help to provide protection against tribo-oxidation for coated regions which are temporarily or continuously exposed to high temperatures and air [7]. Some special effects like the influence of different coating materials on the wetting of tool surfaces by cooling lubricants (influence of coating polarity and topography) are still being researched (8). 2.1.2 Influence of the coating process The morphology of a coating depends mainly on the coating process applied. The relevant processes for the coating of tools may roughly be differentiated into CVD and PVD processes. CVD and PVD processes may be further classified into sub-types, each with its effects on coating structures and on the tribological properties of the coated tools. The main characteristic of a CVD-process is the high substrate temperature needed to deposit a coating. High temperatures during the coating process promote annealing processes in HSS substrates and also affect the toughness and the transverse rupture strength (TRS) of cemented carbide substrate materials, due to the formation of a brittle q-phase (Co, , , WC) [9, 101. Using a standard CVD process at about 1100C can reduce strength by 30 percent. The problem can be alleviated by using the moderate temperature process (MT-CVD) at 850C coating temperature. A further advantage of the moderate temperature processes is that stresses decrease and toughness is improved significantly due to the lower material expansion at 850 "C. Co-enrichment at the tool faces has been identified as another means of improving the TRS of CVD coated tools. The PVD process, which is usually performed at 200 "C to 500 'C, has virtually no impact on the transverse rupture strength of the coated material [7. lo]. In PVDprocesses, the materials needed to form the coating material (e.g. metals) are evaporated and subsequently condense on the tool substrate. Further components of the coating material can be added by using a reactive gas. The method used to evaporate the coating material is an important feature of a specific PVD-process. It can be induced by heating, by an electron beam or by sputtering with a process gas (often Argon) accelerated to the target. Differentiation into three types of PVD-processes (evaporation, sputtering and ion plating (IP)) is in line with the energy imparted to the evaporated particles [ill. High ionisation levels, as realised in ion plating, can be exploited to improve important properties of tool coatings, like hardness, coating-substrate bonding, structure as well as chemical and thermal stability. A negative bias voltage is therefore used to accelerate the particle stream from the target to the substrate. Popular IP-processesare Arc-lon-Plating (AIP), Magnetron-lon-Sputtering (MSIP),

source: WZL

Figure 2: Influence of coatings on wear mechanisms and contact conditions. 2.1 Coating structures Because the structure of the tool coating determines both its wear resistance and the tribological conditions in the contact zones, it is essential to adapt the coating structure to the demands of a specific machining task. The main influences on the structure are:

+ + +

the choice of coating material layer growth during the coating process and the structural design of the single layers to form a multi-layer.

2.1.1 Philosophy behind choice of materials Basically, there are four major groups of hard coating materials on the market. The most popular is the group of titanium-based coating materials such as TIN, Tic and Ti(C,N). The metallic phase is often supplemented by other metals like A or Cr, whose role is to improve prop1 erties like hardness, oxidation resistance etc.. A very successful example of such coatings is (Ti,AI)N. The second group represents ceramic coatings like AO I, ,. In the last few years, two further groups have been added to the list of available coatings for cutting tools. These are the super-hard coatings, like CVD-diamond, and the solid lubricant coatings (hard coatings with a very low coefficient of friction), such as amorphous metal-carbon, MeC:H. Additionally, recent years have seen the introduction of soft coatings, which are deposited on top of a hard coating to reduce friction and wear, especially in its first stages. Examples are MoS, or pure graphite. WClC providing a somewhat higher hardness can also be counted among this type of coatings due to a self polishing effect under tribological loadings. The Ti-based coatings earn their popularity from the fact that they combine coverage of a broad "medium range" of mechanical and thermal properties with an adequate rate of deposition during the coating process and good bonding to the usual tool substrates. Ceramic coatings exhibit good resistance to abrasive wear and possess high thermal stability. Except for AO this group of coatings has I, ,. not yet reached a very high level of application for metal cutting tools (31. This may be due to their brittleness and poor bonding to the tool substrate. Moreover, at least some PVD-processes are not suitable for depositing ceramic coatings. Since diffusion is a very strong wear mechanism in metal cutting, the choice of a coating material must follow a
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High-lonisation-Sputtering (H.I.S.TM) and Low-VoltageArc-Discharge (Bakers) [7].

In Fiaure 3, SEB-analyses of the cross-sectional morphology of different (Ti,AI)N coatings illustrate the interrelationships between coating structure, aluminium content and ionisation [12]. MSIP-coatings with an AI/Ti-ratio of 0.6 show a coarse columnar structure with pinholes (Figure 3-A). The diameter of the grains varies from 0.3 pm up to 0.6 pm. A higher aluminium content leads to a dense, fine, columnar structure (Figure 3-8). The end faces of these columns are flat rather than spherical, as shown in Figure 3-A. Further increasing the aluminum content decreases the grain diameter, but also produces a less dense columnar film structure (Figure 3-C).

ers of TiN and (Ti,AI)N to provide a coating which combines all the advantages of (Ti.AI)N with good bonding and high toughness. A large number of interfaces between the single layers are also thought to provide a barrier against crack propagation [7]. 3. Multi-layer design can also be aimed at realising a combination of functions provided by different coating materials. Multi-layers with different functional intermediate layers are applied for this reason. Functions may include the high thermal stability offered by an intermediate layer, high hardness provided by the top layer or even reduction of the friction coefficient by a soft top layer or a solid lubricant layer. If graded layers are interpreted as multi-layer systems they can be designed for two different purposes, to provide a smooth and graded transition either to a good coating-substrate bonding or to special properties on the coating surface.
t = 0.5

Mono-layer (hard thin film) ... 50 pm

Typical multi-layer with functional intermediate layers t = 0.5 ... 10 pm

I
souce: cemem
Figure 3: Influence of PVD-process and Al-content on the structure of (Ti,AI)N-Coating. The H.I.S.TM process (Figure 3-0, -E, -F) leads to enhanced ionisation as compared to MSIP-technology. Irrespective of the aluminium content, all cross-sections are dense and non-columnar. The surface topographies are smooth. With increasing ionisation, more argon and metal ions reach the surface. The higher the energy of the arriving ions, the denser are the obtained films [13]. MSIP- and H.I.S.lM coatings reache their greatest hardness at an AITTi-ratio = 1.O. The microhardness of H.I.S. lM-coatings was found to improve irrespective of the AVTi-ratio. The microhardness of the coatings correlates closely with the structure of the films. The denser the obtained structure, the greater will be the microhardness of the films. The decrease in microhardness as aluminium content rises can be explained by the higher content of the softer and hexagonal AIN-phase (= 1000HVO.l)
[141*
_I____(_

Multilayer (nano-structure)

t = few atomic cells ... 100 nm

Graded layer

Super-hard coatings (CVD-DP I BN) Hard and soft compounds (MoS,, WC/C, graphite etc.) Hard film + solid lubricant film (a-Me-C:H)

IS 8

Source:WZL, LMM Figure 4: Commonly used layer structures.

A frequently cited property of coatings, especially in connection with functional intermediate layers, is the thermal insulation of the substrate. FEM-analysis of the influence of 15pm thick coatings with thermal properties of (Ti,AI)N )5-( can be used to show that there is no significant effect on either the temperature fieldlmaximum temperature or on a delay in the increase of heat at the substrate surface (A) and at a depth of 0.3 mm (B). A low heat transmission coefficient likewise has no effect on the temperature in the substrate. Rather, there is higher temperature loading of the coating itself. These statements have been deduced from the fact that three calculations for different thermal properties produced almost identical results for the temperature curves in point A and point 8. In addition lower thermal conductivity of the coating material as well as a low heat transmission coefficient in the coating-substrate interface leads to higher maximum temperatures in the coating. Since the model is based on the assumption of a constant heat flux into the coated body, any measurable thermal relief of the substrates in metal cutting with coated tools has to be traced back to altered contact conditions which lead to lower heat generation. De-

Philosophy behind the structuring of monoand multilayer coatings Fiaure 4 gives an overview of currently available monoand multilayer structrures. There are three main driving factors behind the application of multi-layered coatings in the field of conventional hard coatings:
2.1.3

Some coating materials provide good bonding to the substrate, so that they are often used as an interfacial layer between the substrate and the actual hard coating. An example is Tic in a typical CVD TiCAI,03-TiN coating. Some multi-layers are designed to improve mechanical properties of the complete coating, like hardness and toughness. Since some of the Ti-based coatings have high residual stresses, nano-layer structures or even superlattice structures are used to improve toughness. As a result, a greater coating thickness can be realised without adverse effects on bonding. One example is the use of numerous alternating lay-

517

creased heat transfer between chip and tool as a result of the coating is also conceivable.

influences of grinding, water peening and micro blasting on the bonding of a PVD-(Ti,AI)N coating to the cemented carbide substrate were investigated by means of a spherical indent test. )7- ( Evaluation of the pattern of the chipped coating material around the spherical indent shows that both microblasting and water peening can decisively improve the bonding between coating and substrate. It is important to use a blasting material with low grain size for microblasting. Low pressure seems to have an additional positive effect.

Figure 5: FEM-analysis of thermal isolation-effects.

2.2 Interactions Many interactions take place between the coating and substrate materials as well as between the coating process and the coated tool, decisively determining its wear resistance and performance. These interactions begin on a very low scale, with the dependence of the lattice structure of single layers in a superlattice on the layer thickness. (A) and (B) show the X-ray diffraction patterns of TiNlAlN superlattices with h = 30 nm and h = 2.5 nm periods respectively. For the superlattice with 30 nm period, the diffraction patterns of TIN (NaCI-type) and Wurtzite-type AIN are identified. However, the diffraction of Wurtzite-type AIN is not identified for a period of 2.5 nm (A). Only one diffraction pattern exists. It is equivalent to face centered cubic structures and its lines lie between the positions of TIN and NaCI-type AIN. The results suggest that AIN in the superlattice with h = 2.5 nm transforms into a cubic structure (NaCI-type) and that TIN and AIN distort each other. An increase of hardness HK with a decrease of the period of the superlattice was identified in the same study. At the period of 2.5 nm, hardness reached a maximum value of approximately 4000 HK, which is 1.6 times that of a TIN single layer film. The HK value for a period of 13 nm is only about 2700 MPa [15].

Figure 7: Influence of different substrate pre-treatments on coatinglsubstrate adherence. Diffusion of Co and W from the substrate into the coating is decisive for bonding between the substrate and CVD coatings on cemented carbides. Cutting tests at a high feed rate showed that a good adhesion is obtained when a suitable amount of these elements diffuses into the coating. EDX analyses show (Eiaure 8 greater diffusion 3 of these elements if a layer such as Tic or Ti(C,N) with granular crystals is present in the coatingkubstrate interface [16]. Columnar TiCN on 1: substrate

Wurtziie AIN

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

Distance from substrate surface l pm

30
I
I
I

40 50 2 Q [desl
1

60
I I

Source: Mitsubishi
iTiN
I

Figure 8: Effect on an interfacial layer on (W+Co) diffusion into the CVD-TiCN coating. As with all other technical systems, residual stresses in the surface and subsurface zones of coated tools determine their resistance to mechanical stresses, especially discontinuous loads. CVD coatings exhibit tensile stresses, PVD coatings, compressive stresses9 - ( .) The stress characteristics of the PVD coating, in combination with the usually small layer thickness (2-5 pm), provides good cutting edge strength, fracture toughness and bending strength. Lower stresses are normally induced in CVD-AI,O, coatings as compared to CVDTi(C,N) and -TiN layers [lo].

I I

I AIN (NaCI type) I AIN (Wurtzite type)

Source: Sumitorno

Figure 6: X-ray diffraction patterns of TiNlAIN superlattice. Periods: (A) h = 2.5 nm, (B) h = 30 nm. Besides the properties of the coating itself, interactions between coating and substrate, especially the bonding, are important for the tribological behaviour of a coated tool. Different methods for pre-treatment of the substrate can be applied to improve coating-substrate adhesion. The

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CVD Coating (5-10) pm

PVD Coating (2-6) pm

blasting material causes strong local plastic deformations and leads to higher, more homogeneous compressive stresses as compared to the ground state. Fine grained blasting material reduces the plastic deformation of subsurface layers. The abrasive effect of microblasting with fine grained materials is also greater, leading to a stress level which is similar to that in the ground state, but much 7. more constant stress [I1 Water peening removes the Co-binder of WC-carbides. The compressive stresses at the surface of the substrate also increase. The process characteristics of water peening always induce homogenous stress distributions at the surface.
2.3 Methods for testing and evaluating coatings It is not intended for this paper to focus on the individual methods in detail, because they are mostly standard evaluation methods and widely known. A reference to each of the more unconventional methods is therefore included. Some methods are illustrated in m r e 11.
It is more important to cluster the methods in three subgroups:

Source: lscar

Figure 9: General stress distribution. In addition to the influence of the coating process on residual stresses in the coating and substrate material, the grinding process affects stress values in the substrate ( U r e 1 ). Polishing removes the deformed and Q smeared subsurface of ground WC-based carbides and at the same time almost completely relieves the residual stresses.

a) The measurement of coating properties such as

tJJ
2 m
m m
2 U .m

0 -200
-600
-1000 range

+ + + + + + + +

? MPa insert SNGN 120412

Substrate: Micro blasting: Water peening: X-ray diffraction HW-P30/40 AI,O,, p=6 bar p,=lOOO bar measurement' s=30 mm t=20 s radiation (CuK,) s=45 mm
Source: IFW

chemical composition by EDX, ESMA, Auger, Sims etc. residual stresses by X-ray diffraction [I81 or by mechanical methods [ I 91 topography by mechanical or optical methods as well as Atomic Force Microscopy morphology and growth by SEM analyses of fractures (s. Figure 3) plastic hardness by microhardness HV or nano-hardness and elasticity by universal hardness HU and nano-indentation (Figure 11) [DIN 50359,201 thermal conductivity by the thermal wave method [21]

b) The measurement of tribological properties such as Coating-substrate adhesion by scratch test or Rockwell indent (s.Figure 7, Figure 11) resistance to abrasion by the spherical calotte test [22] or the pin on disk method [23]

Figure 10: Substrate pretreatment residual stresses. Different stresses can be induced in carbides by rnicroblasting the substrate surface before coating. Coarse

S o m : LMM

Figure 11: Determinationof mechanical coating properties 1251.

519

resistance to tribooxidation by abrasion testing on thermally pre-loaded coatings adhesion resistance by measurement of material transfer between sliding partners resistance to diffusion by ESMA analysis of clamped and heated tool material - work material specimens friction between sliding partners on a tribometer with realistic pressings resistance to fatigue by means of an impact test [24] Evaluation by modelling Simulation of impact test, generation of Smith-Mlbhler diagrams for determination of fatigue resistance of coatings [24] Suitable combinations of these individual methods have to be found in order to determine the wear resistance of a specific coating to the primary wear mechanisms that are active in the real tribosystem, i.e. the cutting process. It is, therefore, often necessary to identify modifications of coating properties and wear resistance during or after a thermal, chemical or mechanical stress. Unfortunately. there is still no complete description of the ways in which coating structures affect coating properties and in which specific coating properties are related to resistance against specific wear mechanisms.

statements concerning the influence of coatings on contact conditions (s.Figure 5), or even quantitative results. The latter are possible if mechanical test methods can be supplemented by computational evaluation strategies. The impact test is used to determine the fatigue behaviour of coatings (Fiaure 17, top left). In the impact test, a plane coating-substrate compound is exposed to contact pressure by impacting its surface with a cemented carbide ball. Graphs plotting the contact stress which leads to coating fatigue fracture versus the corresponding number of impacts can be obtained in this way (Figure 12, top right). FEM simulation of the impact test transforms critical impact loads into critical stress values associated with specific and distinct failure modes. Coating fatigue behaviour can thus be expressed in the form of a Smith diagram of the critical stress components for cohesive failure mode, i.e. the von Mises stresses that ensure their persistence (Figure 12, bottom) [24].
3 Solutions and performance of coated tools The combination of basic coating features decisively affects the suitability of a tool for a certain technological application. In consequence, a coating has to be selected or designed with the aim of adapting its performance to demands arising from the chosen technology, work material or operation. The dominant wear mechanisms occurring in the cutting operation have to be determined and all coating parameters, like material, structure, coating process and substrate pretreatment, have to be adapted to it systematically. 3.1 Technology driven

PI

The following sections of the paper will present a number of results showing how modern tool coatings perform in current machining processes. In this context, technological requirements have to be regarded as the driving force behind coating developments.
3.1.1 High speed cutting The application of coated cemented carbides for high speed cutting operations on steel materials is still very much restricted by the fact that tool temperature increases as the cutting speed rises. Here, we often find polycrystalline boron nitride BN or ceramic as the tool material. However, some high speed operations like milling of steel materials or machining of light-weight alloys with coated carbide grades are common applications for coated carbides tools.

An example for the performance of coated tools at high cutting speeds is shown in Fiaure 13. (Al, Ti)N reduces the rise in flank wear when milling hardened steel at a cutting speed of 600 m/min, as compared to uncoated and TiNcoated tools. Three properties of the coating have been related to this improved wear resistance: higher hardness (2720HV vs. 1930 HV for TIN), improved oxidation temperature (840' C vs. 620' C for TiN) and better bonding of the coating to the substrate [26]. The use of Al-containing coating materials is reported to be advantageous, especially for machining operations which combine high cutting temperatures with high mechanical stresses on the tool material. This is usually explained by two effects. The formation of a thin A1,03 layer on tool faces which come into contact with O2protects the coating from tribo-oxidation. This is important for interrupted cutting operations as well as for reducing notch wear at the minor cutting edge of coated carbide tools. The second reason for the good wear resistance of (Ti,AI)N coatings is their comparatively high hardness at

Source: LMM

Figure 12: FEM evaluation of the impact test. determination of SmithMlOhler diagrams. A rather new aspect of coating characterisation is the application of computational methods. FEM analysis of thermal or mechanical stresses often provides qualitative 520

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elevated temperatures (Fiaure 14). This provides good resistance to abrasive wear in high speed cutting [27].

0.07
h

@
iL

E 0.06 E 0.05 0.04 3 0.03

0.02 0.01

Cutting speed (dmin) Outside diameter of endmills Work material (hardness) Cuttingspeed Feed rate Depth of cut width of cut Cutting direction Cutting length Remarks
sovce:Kobela,

1Omm 100-600tn/rnin O.lOmm/tooth 4 = 1O m m a = 0.5mm . Downcut milling 50m Side milling, air blow
X40CrMoV5-1 (52HRC)
source: WZL

Figure 15: Positive influence of low friction layers on dry drilling of AISi9Cu with carbide drills. These tests showed that a complete dry drilling operation with uncoated tools is not possible, due to the tendency of chips to stick to the chip flutes. This results in the end of tool life after only 6 holes. But it was possible to detect significant differences between the performance of a single hard coating (PVD Ti(C,N)) and two different combinations of a hard coating with a solid lubricant layer. In all tests, the stop criterion or tool life criterion was either clogging of the chip spaces or tool breakage. While the Ti(C, N) coating achieved no significant improvements as compared to the uncoated tool, the TiAICN+MoS, combination made it possible to machine as many as 87 holes. Improvements were even more noteworthy with the TiAICN+Me-C:H coating (104 to 130 drilled holes). Although aluminium material had stuck to the margins and in the chip spaces at the end of the test cycles for all the coatings, the tool life test demonstrates that coatings with a low friction coefficient have an anti-adhesive effect. Nevertheless, minimal quantity lubrication (MQL) is recommended under production conditions. Using MQL reduces adhesion and significantly improves chip transport. This is to some extent true even for the conventionally Ti(C,N) coated tool, which, in short tests, produced results comparable to those for both the multilayers in terms of tool wear and surface roughness [29].

Figure 13: Influence of tool coatings on wear in high speed milling of steel.
of 8 urn P

3000

> 2500
I
u) u)

2000

E 1000 a
t

t 1500
0

500T
0

200

400 600 800 Temperature

'C

1200

Source:Quinto

Figure 14: Hot hardness of some PVD-coatings [27]. 3.1.2 Environmentally compatible technologies It is desirable to eliminate the use of cooling lubricants completely, or at least partially, in order to reduce the environmental impact of cutting fluids. The use of environmentally friendly fluids, i.e. biodegradable cooling lubricants, is aimed at in cases where a dry operation cannot be conducted. Either option will, however, lead to a loss of the tribological functions of the cooling lubricant as compared to conventional fluids. The absence of cooling, lubricating or chip transport functions induces greater stresses on the tools. Coating technology frequently offers a means of compensating for this deterioration in contact parameters. A very detailed overview of the current state of the art in dry cutting technology was given in a ClRP keynote paper in 1997 [28]. Treatment here will therefore be restricted to describing the influence of tool coatings in a very critical though representative drilling operation on AISi9Cu3 (aaure 15).

Another means of reducing the environmental impact of cooling-lubricants (CL) is the application of biodegradable, non-water miscible fluids. Synthetic esters are one of the first commercially available examples. Applying these esters instead of emulsion in drilling operations on austenitic steel with conventionally coated tools shortens tool lives. This may be related to two main effects: 1. the tool temperature rises, due to a reduced cooling function of the fluid and 2. the CL-flow through the tool falls, due to the higher viscosity of the fluid. Such altered contact conditions increase adhesive material transfer in the chip flutes and hence the resistance to chip flow. This results in chipping of the cutting edge comers, eventually followed by breakage of the drilling tools. Only the application of a hard and soft compound coating material consisting of (Ti,AI)N and WC/C could compensate for the increased wear attack (Fiaure 18). SEManalyses showed that WC/C flattens the tool surface. WC/C remains only in the roughness valleys, e.g. the grooves left by the grinding process. This minimises adhesive material transfer as well as the resistance to

52 1

chip flow. The result is a significant reduction of cutting edge corner chipping or tool breakages.

hardness of the CVD-diamond coating produces adequate enhancement of the wear resistance. The high degree of abrasive wear may be related to the hardness of the Sic phases in the workpiece material. When the same Mg-matrix reinforced with softer &AI,O, short fibers was drilled, the (Ti,AI)N coating provided wear protection comparable to that of the CVD-diamond coating [31]. 0.07

5
3

mm 0.03 0.01
0

% m
Number of holes n Tool material: HC-K20F Material: X5CrNil8-10 . 0 vc=42 dmin. M 8mm, d=6 mm, I=18 mm Pocket hole, inner CL-supply
swce: WZL

200

400

800

Cutting-time 6 Cutting speed : v = 400 m h i n Feed rate : f = 0.1 mm Depthofcut : a p = 1 mm Cutting time : t = 750 s
source:ISF

Tool geometry:

Figure 16: Wear in drilling of austenitic steel with synthetic ester - influence of different coatings.

3 2 Work material driven . The work material becomes the driving factor for coating selection and coating development, if the machined part-the product-needs to possess special properties which mean that the workpiece becomes more difficult to machine.
3.2.1 Light weight alloys In recent years, developments in the automotive industry have brought a rapid increase in the use of light composite materials based on At. Examples of these new materials are hypereutectic AI-Si alloys with a Si content between 17 and 25 wt.-% for tribological applications. The materials are produced by spray deposition and hot forming. As with metal matrix composites (MMC), the main problem in machining hypereutectic AI-Si alloys is abrasive tool wear caused by hard Si crystals. A study of the wear resistance of differently coated carbide tools and a DP tool ( u r e 12) revealed that, because of its high hardness up to 5000 HV, the DP tool suffers the lowest amount of flank wear. Compared to uncoated cemented carbide, the CVD-diamond coating and the (Ti,AI)N coated tools achieve lower wear rates. In contrast to the other tool materials, the diamond coating is subject to progressively increasing tool wear. This is caused by chipping at the rake and clearance face. The unprotected substrate consequently comes into contact with the Si phases of the workpiece material. By comparison with CVD-diamond, the hardness of the (Ti,AI)N coating amounts only to 2450 HV. Is resistance to initial t abrasive wear attack by abrasive Si crystals is lower and higher tool wear is therefore observable. Although the hardnesses of TiN and (Ti,AI)N are quite similar, the wear rate at the flank of the TIN coated tool is much higher. This can be explained by a high chemical affinity of TIN to aluminium. The coating is dissolved by the mechanical, thermal and tribochemical stresses in the contact zones [4] and cannot protect the tool against wear [30]. As in the case of the hypereutectic AI-Si alloys, the main wear mechanism in machining of GAI,O,+SiC particle reinforced magnesium alloys is abrasion. m u r e 18 shows that the abrasive wear attack in drilling of such a workpiece material is so intense that there is no improvement of the wear resistance of the uncoated carbide tool by application of a (Ti,AI)N coating. Only the high 522

Figure 17: Tool wear in turning of spray deposited AISi25X.

0.6 I

> 2
x

mm

0.2

C
(I (

LL

200
Drilling length 4

mm

500

Reinforcement : 5 vol.% &4l2O3+i5 vol.% Sic Tool diameter : d = 6 mm Drill hole length : I = 20 mm Cutting speed : v = 100 mlmin Feed rate : f = 0.25 mmlrev

Source:ISF
Figure 18: Tool wear in drilling of reinforced Mg. Comprehensive tests have shown that the suitability of the cutting tool material depends mainly on the hardness of the reinforcements. But the relation between the grain size of the cutting materials and the size of the reinforcements is also important, because these factors influence the dominant wear mechanism [32, 33, 34,351, i.e. the dominant subtypes of abrasive wear: microploughing. microcutting or microcracking/fatigue1361. Microploughing occurs when hard abrasives interact on the surface of a material causing high levels of plastic deformation. In general this mechanism is not dominant concerning the tool wear when machining MMC, because the cutting tool materials have a high hardness and therefore a high resistance against plastic deformation. During microcutting the reinforcement removes material

Keynote Papers

from the cutting edge in form of microchips. This mechanism is dominant if the reinforcement is harder than the cutting tool material and the dimension of the reinforcement is higher than the grain size of the hard phases of the cutting tool material. Microcracking and fatigue occur when cracks are induced into the cutting tool material by high dynamic loadings. These mechanisms are dominant, if the hardness andlor grain size of the cutting tool material is higher as compared to the reinforcement particles. 3.2.2 Difficult to machine materials Titanium alloys play an important part amongst the materials for components subjected to high thermal and mechanical stresses. The good suitability of such materials for certain products is, however, associated with a severe decline in machinability. A characteristic feature of titanium alloys is their tendency to form built up edges (BUE) as well as to stick on the tool flank, especially if HSS tools are used. This leads to higher friction on the tool flank and also higher temperatures in the contact zone. Cohesive failure of the tool substrate is related to the welding of chips on the tool surface. The use of coatings like TiN or Ti(C,N) even intensifies this effect. Baure 19 shows results obtained for TiA16V4 milling, using different coatings at a cutting speed of 70 m/min. The studies showed that the coated tools have a greater susceptibility to BUE formation, owing to the chemical affinity between the coating and workpiece materials. An additional anti-stick coating based on MoS, can diminish the interactions between coating and workpiece material as compared to the other coatings, but achieves no improvement as compared to the uncoated substrate. Further investigations have shown, that negative experience with coated HSS tools coincides with results obtained using coated carbide tools [37, 381.

during the cutting process.

- G-CuAIlONi

Material:

Process: external cylindrical turning

10 min

Diamond layer thickness: -sd=6prn Cutting parameter: feed: f = 0.04 mm -depth of cut: ap = 0,8 mm dryat cemented carbide (K10) uncoated. cemented carbide (K10) CVD-diamond-coated, SN. i, , CVD-diamondcoated .

< E B Im

cutting edge geometry:

!OO

mlrnin 2000 Cutting speed v,

source:MIF:

Figure 20: Tool wear in turning of G-CuAIlONi. Influence of substrate material and CVD-diamond coatings.

3.3 Operation driven

In order to determine the properties required for a special application. it is necessary to assess the demands arising from the choice of workpiece material and technology. Fiaure 71 shows a scheme that relates necessary coating properties to the five wear mechanisms. This is derived from a study published in [22]. Cutting operations are differentiated mainly in terms of the special features of continuous and interrupted cutting processes. For continuous operations like turning, the dominant requirement is large volume, to allow for wear, and good coating-substrate bonding. CVD coatings are accordingly often applied. In interrupted operations like milling, the main demands are for toughness, oxidation resistance and compressir:e residual stresses in the tool material. PVD coatings are consequently very often used, in order to avoid negative influences on substrate properties associated with high coating-process temperatures [lo]. However, since both low-temperature and thin-film CVD processes have been established, it is nowadays also possible to find suitable CVD coatings for this field of applications [41]. A study including different modem tool coatings has revealed that coating materials which contain A provide the best wear resistance to virtually all 1 wear mechanisms, irrespective of the coating process [22]. This is due to their comparatively great hardness and abrasion resistance, to their high oxidation resistance and to thermal relief of the substrate in the case of volume effects like diffusion and fatigue. Examples are PVD(Ti,AI)N and CVD-Tic-AI,O,-TiN. Another operation driven criterion for the selection of coatings is whether finishing or roughing cuts are performed. Roughing operations demand a high level of protection for the tool against mechanical stresses and high temperatures. Finishing operations are dependent on sharp cutting edges to allow the use of small chip cross-sections. Such operations are possible only with thin coatings which do not increase the cutting edge radius significantly and do not reduce the toughness of

mo 1

r - / A l l

TiA16V4

Ippl;
D,=~OIIUTI z=4

v, = 70 rnlrnin f, = 0,08mrn g=5mm %=2mm dry machining downcut milling

HSS HSS uncoated TIN-coated

HSS TiCNcoated

HSS
TiCN+

failure of tool

MoSi
coated

souw: IWT
Figure 19: Coatings increase tool wear in milling of TiA16V4. Longer tool lives or higher cutting speeds are possible in external cylindrical turning operations on a high-strength aluminium bronze if CVD-diamond coatings on cemented carbides (K10) or nonsxide ceramics are employed ( m r e 24). The highest cutting speeds are obtained in turning operations using coated ceramics. This is due partly to geometrical modification in form of a chamfered cutting edge and partly to closer harmonisation of the respective coefficients of thermal expansion a of the diamond layer and the ceramic substrate. The a-ratio is 1/4 for the diamond layedceramic combination, but 1/7 for the diamond layerkemented carbide composite [39]. This may contribute to better coating-substrate adhesion

523

the substrate. This is also a typical application for PVD coatings. Here, currently thin film technology is opening up new fields of application for CVD coatings as already mentioned. However, there still seem to be certain restrictions concerning the application of CVD coatinas on carbide drills and endmills [27].

resistance to abrasive and adhesive wear, there seem to be good prospects for CVD-diamond coatings in this field. In the case of steel materials, the main factors are technological, i.e. the demands for ecological machining and high cutting speeds will encourage the development of tool coatings. These demands often entail substitution and compensation for the lost functions of the cooling lubricant. Research and development work on the actual surface of the tools and coatings will therefore be necessary. Some concepts have already been launched on the market, including hard and soft compound layers like MoS, and WC/C. or solid lubricant coatings such as MeC:H. Since CVD-diamond coatings are very successful in machining of non-ferrous materials, it could be very attractive to have a suitable superabrasive coating for the machining of steel, too. CBN in therory could be such a coating material. However, unlike diamond, which is a single element, cBN is a compound, which makes the growth process more complex for a number of reasons including the problems of stoichometry and purity of the cubic phase. Despite a significant level of research effort over many years, virtually all cBN layers are actually multi-phase microcrystalline material. Even in this form it may be possible to develop coated tool application, although to date this has not been clearly demonstrated

[45,46].
5 References van Luttervelt, C.A., Childs, T.H.C., Jawahir, I.S., Klocke, F., and Venuvinod, P.K., 1998, "Present Situation and Future Trends in Modelling of Machining Operations," Keynote Paper, Annals of the CIRP, 4812,pp. 587-626.

0 Milling of hypereutectic Al

sovc%:wzL
Figure 2 : Evaluation-scheme for demands on coating 1 properties (operation and material driven).

4 Trends and Future Developments Owing to the great suitability of hard thin films for prolonging tool lives [41, et al.], between 40 % and 80 % 42 of all machining operations are now conducted with coated tools, depending on the process concerned, while virtually all .first-choice" grades for turning, drilling and milling processes are coated [43,4 1 The coating of 4. complex special tools is also becoming more economically viable. A dominant role is played by CVD as opposed to PVD coatings, usually with multilayer structures. A recently published market survey revealed that larger companies in particular are turning to coated tools (65%) while smaller companies only have 35% of their tools coated. The use of CVD is growing, especially among the larger companies, with a market share of some 65 %. With respect to tool materials it was found that conventional TIN and Tic coatings still represent about twothirds of the total coatings deposited [40].Among the coating systems, titanium-based ternary or quaternary hard thin films and coatings with oxidic interlayers are gaining importance. The technological improvements mentioned above widen the field of possible applications for both CVD and PVD coatings, promising substantial overlaps between their basic application profiles in the future. However, the inputs to this paper reveal a strong scientific focus on characterisation and development of PVD coatings.

Jawahir I.S., Balaji A. K., 1999,The effects of Tool Coatings on Machining Performance, not published Yet Loffler F., Barimani A., 1990,PVD-Schichten fur den tribologischen Einsatz, Ingenieur-Werkstoffe 1 . 2, 2 pp. 56-59 Taminiau D.A., Dautzenberg J.H., 1999, How to Understand Friction and Wear with Classical Physics, unpublished manuscript Kubaschewski O., Alcock C.B., 1979,Metallurgical thermochemistry, Pergamon Press Barin I., Knacke 0.. 1973,Thermochemical properties of inorganic substances, Springer Verlag Derfinger V. et al., 1999, Balinit Schichtendie Lasung fur moderne Zerspanungsaufgaben, 3. VSM-Seminar "neue Entwicklungen in der spanenden Bearbeitung, January 28, RegensdorfCH Lugscheider E., Bobzin K., 1999.unpublished progress report, collaborate research center SFB 442, RWTH-Aachen Quinto D. T., Santhanam A. T. Jindal P. C.. 1989, Int. J. Refrac. Hard Materials 8,2,95-I01 Wertheim R., 1998, Development and Applications of Coated Cutting Tool Carbides, Rewrite of an Oral Presentation held at CIRP General Assembly in Athens Haefer R.A.. 1987,Oberflachen- und Dunnschichttechnologie, Teil I, Beschichtungen von OberWhen, Springer-Verlag, Berlin

Recapitulating the contents of the previous sections, it is evident that the main factors for future coating developments are material driven, so far as the machining of non-ferrous materials is concerned. Due to their high

524

Keynote Papers

[12] Tdnshoff H.-K. et al., 1997,Wear Mechanisms of (Ti,.x, AIJN Coatings in Dry Drilling , Surface and Coatings Technology. 94-95, pp. 603-609 [I31 R. Messier, A. P. Giri, R. A. Roy, Vac. Sci. Techn. A2(2), 1984, pp.500-505 [I41 H. Satoh, Vac. Sci. Techn. A, July/Aug. 1992 [15] Seytoyama M., et al., 1996, Formation of Cubic-AIN in TiN/AIN Superlattice, Surface and Coatings Technology, 86-87, pp. 225-230 [16] Akiyama K. et al., 1997, A Study of the Adhesion Between CVD Layers and a Cemented Carbide Substrate by AEM Analysis, Surface and Coatings Technology, 94-95, pp. 328-332s [17] Tdnshoff H.-K.. Mohlfeld A.. 1998, Increasing Interface Strength by Mechanical Substrate Treatment , Production Engineering, V/1, pp. 603-609 [I81 Chollet L; Laufenburger A; Biselli C, 1988, Relation between residual stresses and adhesion of hard coatings, Second Int. Conf. on Residual Stresses ICRS2, Societe Fraincaise de Metallurgie, Nancy, F, 23.-25.11., pp. 901-906 [19] Vijgen R.O.E., Dautzenberg J.H., 1995, Mechanical measurement of the residual stress in thin PVD films, Thin Solid Films 270, pp. 264-269 [20] Neumaier P., 1989, Hartebestimmung an Beschichtungen von Metalloberflachen, Metalloberflache, 2 [21] Lugscheider E.. Geiler H.D., Lake M., Zimmermann H., 1996. Investigation of thermophysical properties of AIP coated cutting tools for dry machining, Surface and Coatings Techn. 86-87. pp. 803-808 [22] Klocke F. et al, 1998, Improved Cutting Processes with Adapted Coating Systems, Annals of the CIRP, 47/1, pp. 65-68 [23] Czichos H.. Habig K.-H., 1992, Tribologie - Handbuch: Reibung und VerschleiR; Systemanalyse, Pruftechnik Werkstoffe und Konstruktionselemente. Vieweg Wiesbaden [24] Bouzakis K.-D., et al., 1998, Experimental and FEM Analysis of the Fatigue Behaviour of PVD-Coatings on HSS Substrate in Milling, Annals of the CIRP. 4711, pp. 69-71 [25] Bouzakis K.-D., Vidakis, N., 1999, Advanced Physically Vapour Deposited Coatings State of the Art, Innovations and Future Trends, Tribology in Industry, too be published

Berlin [32] Biermann, D., 1995, Untersuchungen tum Drehen von Aluminiummatrix-Verbundwerkstoffen, Fortschrittsberichte Reihe 2, Nr. 338, VDI-Verlag Dusseldorf [33] Brun M. K., Lee M., 1988, Wear characteristics of various hard materials for machining Sic reincorced aluminium alloy, ASME Int. Conf. On Wear of Materials, Vancouver Canada 14.4.-18.4., pp. 539-544 [34] Tomac N., Tanessen K., 1992, Machinability of Particulate Aluminium Matrix composites, Annals of the CIRP, 4111, pp. 55-58 [35] Weinert K., 1993. A Consideration of Tool wear Mechanism when Machining Metal Matrix Composites MMC, Annals of the CIRP, 4211, pp. 95-98 [36] Zum Gahr K.-H., 1987, Microstructure and wear of materials, Tribology series 10. Elsevier, Amsterdam [37] Brinksmeier E., Berger U., Janssen R., 1997, High Speed Machining of TiA16V4 for Aircraft Applications, Proc. 1st French and German Conf. On High Speed Machining, June 17-18, Metz, pp. 295-306 [38] Brinksmeier E.. Berger U., Janssen R., 1998, Advanced Sensoric and Machining System for Manufacturing and Repair of Jet Engine Components, Proc. Of 31st CIRP Int. Seminar on Manuf. Syst., 26.-28.5, Berkley [39] Uhlmann E., Brucher M., Lachmund U., 1998. Einsatzverhalten diamantbeschichteter Werkzeuge bei der Trockenbearbeitung hochfester und abrasiver NE-Legierungen, Werkstofhvoche. Symposium 5, Fertigungstechnik, Milnchen [40] Weiner M.. 1999, Coatings move forward, cutting tool engineering, February, pp. 22-29 [41] Pulker, H. K. et al.. 1989, Wear and Corrosion resistant Coatings by CVD and PVD, Ehningen bei Boblingen: expert-Verlag [42] Venkatesh, V. C., Ye, T. C., Quinto, D. T., Hoy, D. E. P., 1991, Performance Studies of Uncoated, CVD-Coated and PVD-Coated Carbides in Turning and Milling, Annals of the CIRP, 40/1, 545-550 [43] N.N., 1991, Die Schneide verdient das Geld. Schneidstoffe lndikatoren vielschichtiger internationaler Entwicklungen, Fertigung, Landsberg, 2 Sonderheft Werkzeuge, pp. 12-15

[44] N.N.. 1994, AB Sandvik Coromant: Modem Metal Cutting [45] Clark I.E., Sen P.K., 1998, Advances in the Development of Ultrahard Cutting Tool Materials, Ind. Diamond Rev., 2, pp. 40-44 [46] Stock H.R., 1997, Stand der cBNProzeRentwicklung (BAD), Proc. of MaTechStatusseminar: Superharte Schichten far tribologische Anwendungen, June 4-5, Braunschweig

[26] Yamada Y., 1996, High Speed Cutting Performance of (Al, Ti)N Coated Endmills, Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. On Progress of Cutting and Grinding Nov. 19-22. pp. 211- 216 [27] Quinto, J. et al., 1999, PVD coatings for turning, Cutting tool engineereing, 02, pp. 42-52 [28] Klocke F.. EisenbUtter G., 1997, Dry cutting, Annals of the CIRP, 4612 [29] Fleischer W. et al.. 1999, PVD coatings for Dry Cutting of AI-alloy and Bronze, Proc. of SVC Conf. Boston, pp. 80-88 [30] Weinert K. et al.. 1998, Machining of Spray Deposited AI-Si Alloys, Production Engineering, Vol. V/2, pp. 19-22 [31] Weinert K., Biermann D., Liedschulte M., 1998, Drilling of Magnesium Matrix Composites, IDPT 98

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