Astrophysics assessment task Discuss Galileos use of the telescope to identify features of the Moon

In 1609, Galileo built refracting telescopes which produced an upright image, and masked out the edge of the front lens of his telescope to overcome spherical aberration. Galileo was the first to use a telescope to make systematic astronomical observations of the features of the Moon as well as observations of the phases of Venus, the moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn and sunspots. In particular Galileo made both qualitative and quantitative observations of the Moon. He observed that the Moon was rough, like the Earth, and drew sketches of vast plains (Mare) and mountains. He also made quantitative measurements of the lengths of the long shadows cast by the mountains of the Moon when they were near the edge of the shadow (called the limb) and directly facing Earth (first or last quarter) by using geometry. From this he was able to estimate that these mountains were at least several kilometres high. Galileos telescope was described as an instrument of the devil as it allowed him to observe properties of the moon and Jupiter which challenged the prevailing Aristotelian view, endorsed by the Church of Rome, that the heavenly bodies were perfect and unchanging and that the Earth was at the centre of the Universe. In 1614, Galileo witnessed the appearance of a new star in the heavens something that wasnt meant to happen according to the Aristotelian view that the heavens were perfect and unchanging. the surface of the moon is not smooth, uniform, and precisely spherical as a great number of philosophers believe it (and other heavenly bodies) to be, but is uneven rough, and full of cavities and prominences, being not unlike the face of the earth, relieved by chains of mountains and deep valleys. Galileo, the Starry Messenger or Sidereus nuncius, 1610

Discuss why some wavebands can be more easily detected from space
The Earths atmosphere absorbs, scatters or reflects some wavelength bands more than others. Some bands are strongly absorbed and do not reach the ground, and are best observed from outside the atmosphere. Other wavebands are absorbed little and penetrate easily to the ground where they can be observed. Gamma rays and x-rays - ionise molecules making up the atmosphere and are therefore strongly absorbed in the upper atmosphere, with very little reaching the ground. These wavebands are more easily detected by telescopes placed in orbit outside Earths atmosphere, such as COBE and Chandra X-ray telescope, than by ground-based telescopes. Ultraviolet radiations - are strongly absorbed by the ozone layer of the atmosphere, but some penetrate to the ground. Visible Light - The atmosphere does not scatter or absorb very much. Consequently these wavelengths pass through the atmosphere relatively unhindered and reach the ground. This is why we have sunlight and starlight, and optical telescopes can be used effectively at ground level. Infrared wavelengths - are only partially absorbed. As an alternative to the expensive procedure of placing them into space, infrared sensitive telescopes may be placed on mountain tops above the densest regions of the atmosphere. Radio waves - are also absorbed to various degrees while others pass easily through the atmosphere. Radio telescopes such as the one at Parkes, NSW, were built to take advantage of this. Very long wavelength radio waves are reflected by the ionosphere. Only visible light, radio waves and some UV and IR make it through to the ground. This in turn means that ground based telescopes can operate only in the visible spectrum or in the radio bands. Observations of other frequencies must be carried out either from a plane or high-altitude balloon in the upper atmosphere or from a spacecraft in the atmosphere.

EM Spectrum Gamma rays X- rays Ultraviolet Visible Light Infra-red Radio waves

Comment Absorbed by the atmosphere Absorbed by the atmosphere Mostly absorbed by the atmosphere Not absorbed by the atmosphere Freely penetrates haze but is incompletely absorbed by the atmosphere A broad grouping of microwaves and radio bands uhf, vhf, hf, mf, and If. Not absorbed by the atmosphere

Type of Radiation Radio Infrared Visible Ultraviolet X-ray Gamma-ray

Wavelength range (nm) > 1 x 103 103 - 106 400 -700 20 - 400 0.01 - 20 <0.01 nm

Frequency range (Hz) < 3 x 1011 3 x 1011 - 4 x 1014 4 x 1014 - 7.5 x 1014 7.5 x 1014 - 3 x 1016 3 x 1016 - 3 x 1019 > 3 x 1019

Typical Sources Interstellar medium, cool gas, electrons cool clouds of dust and gas; planets, exterior of stars supernova remnants, very hot stars supernova remnants, gas in clusters of galaxies, stellar corona hypernova, accretion disks around black holes

Temperature of radiating object < 10 K 10 - 103 K 103 - 105 K 105 - 106 K 106 - 108 K > 108 K

Examples of telescopes ATCA, Parkes Spitzer Space Telescope AAT, Gemini, HST FUSE Chandra, XMMNewton INTEGRAL, GLAST

For Electromagnetic Radiation

V=xf 3.0 x 10 ms-1= x f

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The energy of the wave is purely a function of its frequency, the higher the frequency, the more energetic the wave hence radio waves are less energetic than X-rays as they are lower in frequency are longer in wavelength. The energy is given by the relationship:

E = h f where h is Planck's constant and has a value of 6.626 x 10-34J.s. Define the terms resolution and sensitivity of telescopes
The resolution (or resolving power) of a telescope is a measure of the ability of the telescope to reveal fine detail. Resolution is usually described in terms of the smallest angle of separation between two points of light, such as two stars close together in the sky that can be seen as two distinct images. Resolution depends on the diameter of the objective lens or mirror and on the wavelength of the light. A telescope with low resolution will see closely positioned stars as fuzzy and blurred together, while a telescope with high resolution will produce sharp, distinct images. Resolution may be limited by atmospheric conditions and the quality of the optics. For most large astronomical telescopes, resolution is stated in arc second (1 arc second (1) = 1/3600 degree). The resolution of an optical instrument depends on: Aberrations: The quality of the optical units (lenses, mirror and prisms). Impurity inclusions, even dissolved gases or gas bubbles. Trueness of shape: incorrectly shaped lenses and mirrors can easily refract of reflect unevenly and cause interference between different parts of the image, so reducing the quality of the overall picture. Eg. The Hubble Telescope suffered severe limitations in resolution when it was first launched, because lenses and mirrors were incorrectly shaped when the instrument was assembled on earth, distorted when they were not subject to earths gravity. Correcting lenses needed to be taken up in the shuttle and inserted to correct this problem.

Diffraction interference as waves pass near/past small apertures within the instrument so reducing the overall quality of the image produced. The sensitivity of a telescope is a measure of the minimum intensity of light that needs to fall on the telescope to form a suitable image. Sensitivity is proportional to the area of the light collecting surface, so doubling the diameter of a telescopes objective should result in a four fold increase in sensitivity. Thus the sensitivity of a telescope is often referred to as its light gathering ability. In practice, the sensitivity of any particular instrument can also depend on other things such as the quality and age of the optics. The relative sensitivity of two telescopes may easily be compared qualitatively by comparing the brightness of the image produced by the same object in each telescope. A telescope with greater sensitivity produces brighter images and can detect fainter stars than a lower sensitivity telescope. Magnification of a telescope

Magnification = Telescope focal length (m) Eyepiece focal length (m)

Theoretical resolving - power of a telescope is its ability to distinguish two close objects as separate images. It is measured as an angle:

= 1.22 Radians D
(radians) (m) D = diameter of aperture (m)

= 2.1 x 105 arcsec D

(arcsec or arc seconds)

Discuss the problems associated with ground-based astronomy in terms of resolution and absorption of radiation and atmospheric distortion
Aberrations caused by impurities in the medium (air) as the radiation passes through it. This has the effect of reducing the ability to clearly resolve detail in distant objects Scattering of light is strongest when the wavelength of the light is of the same order of magnitude as the diameter of the scattering particles. Visible light, therefore, is more readily scattered by dust and mist than infrared. Seeing- refers to the twinkling and blurring of a stars light due to atmospheric distortion. Variations in density of the atmosphere in a line of sight with an object cause intensity fluctuations. The variations in the refractive index of a cell of air above a telescope will alter the apparent position of an object, normally over a range of a few arc seconds. Collectively these effects combine to make point sources such as stars appear to dance about. This rapid change in brightness and position is termed scintillation. You may have used this to distinguish between a star and a planet merely by observing the night sky. Stars twinkle more than the bright planets because they are so much more distant that they are effectively a point source. Their light gets smeared across a seeing disc a few arc seconds in diameter. Planets, with an angular diameter of ~10-30 arc seconds are extended sources and thus less affected. Scintillation effects are worse for stars near the horizon where refraction effects are greater, leading to dispersion of light. Turbulent cells of air in the atmosphere limit the actual resolution of telescopes in the optical wavebands to typically no better than that obtained by a 20-cm telescope. The seeing at any location depends upon many factors and changes due to temperature, weather, pollutants and local microclimate. Good locations may achieve a typical seeing of 1 arc second but most sites are worse than this. Even the best sites rarely achieve seeing of better than 0.5 arc seconds. If the resolution a telescope achieves is limited by the seeing rather than its diffraction limit it is said to be seeing limited. Absorption becomes another significant factor within the atmosphere. As light passes through the atmosphere particulate matter may absorb the light energy and convert it to heat, for re-emission. Further other materials may partially reflect or generally cause dispersion and the light passes through the air (much like perhaps viewing objects through frosted glass) the combined effect is collectively called scattering. This has the effect of reducing the sensitivity of ground based optical instruments. Consider the patterns in diversity in colours in sun set and sun rise where the dispersion within form a single source (the sun) lead to the myriad of colours and patterns Ultra violet and X-ray radiation are almost completely absorbed in the stratosphere, by ozone molecules. Infra Red radiation is mostly reflected from the outer atmospheric layers, absorbed by the atmosphere, especially by water molecules. If it does pass into the atmosphere it is easily absorbed, stored and re-radiated from water molecules. This re-radiation being so severe that it becomes impossible to resolve any detail from all but the closest IR objects. Radio waves are also distorted and reflected by the ionosphere

As a result ground based observations using visible light, some radio frequencies and perhaps microwave parts of the spectrum are possible. But none are optimum medium to read detailed information from space. The only real option if astronomers want to make these observations then remains to take their instruments beyond the atmosphere. As a result, instruments have been mounted on high altitude balloons, sub-orbital high altitude rockets, satellites and instruments in explorer probes.

Outline methods by which the resolution and/or sensitivity of ground-based systems can be improved, including: adaptive optics interferometry active optics
One straight-forward way to reduce the atmospheric distortion and allow a telescope to operate near its theoretical resolution is to place the telescope as high in the atmosphere as possible. This means placing ground-based telescopes on high mountaintops, above the densest part of the atmosphere, above most of the moisture in the air (which blocks microwave radiation), and above most of the air currents arising from weather patterns and convection. High mountaintops also have the advantage of remoteness from human activity so light pollution is less serious. Astronomical instruments are sometimes carried aloft in high-altitude balloons or aircraft. Adaptive optics: This uses a system of electronically controlled thrusters or supports which adjust the shape or the angle of the telescope mirror to compensate for image distortion caused by the atmosphere. Sensors quickly detect atmospheric distortion which is then analysed by a computer. Thrusters are then used to bend the flexible mirror or adjust multiple mirrors into the shape to produce the best possible image. The success of adaptive optics relies on the detection and correction taking place very quickly compared to the length of time over which the distortion lasts. The process basically involves determining what the conditions applying at the time an observation is being made then adjusting the data to correct the observation for the conditions that applied at that time. The system requires computer analysis to sample the conditions applying at the time then applying correcting processes to the optics of the system to correct the conditions. The correcting processes involve first sampling the incoming light signal using a wavefront sensor to determine the amount of atmospheric distortion. Then sampling is analysed to determine the degree of bending in the wavefront caused by the conditions prevailing at that the time. The computing systems then uses this information to drive servo units that can adjust minor characteristics of the optical system such as the positioning of lens elements or curvature of a reflecting mirror. (the latter being the most common for dynamic adjustments during observations). Interferometry: The reason that a large diameter mirror gives a sharper image is because the reflections of the wavefront at various points across the diameter add via the law of superposition in such a way as to produce a sharper image. This suggests that it may be possible to produce a sharp image by carefully adding the wavefronts of two or more smaller telescopes separated by a large distance to give an image sharpness that is theoretically equivalent to one single larger telescope. This procedure, known as interferometry, is very effectively used with radio telescopes, where two or more telescopes in different parts of the world are linked into an array. Active optics: To increase the sensitivity of a telescope, the area of the primary mirror needs to be large. Unfortunately the larger area of a mirror, the more susceptible it is to becoming distorted and the thicker it needs to be to retain an accurate shape with changes in temperature and telescope orientation. For many years this meant that there was a fundamental limit to the largest sized telescope that could be built. However by using a thin, sometimes segmented, primary mirror and slowly monitoring the reflection of the wavefront off it, it is possible to apply pressure to various parts of the primary and correct for the deforming effects. The monitoring must be done slowly enough so that changes observed in the wavefront are indeed due to correctable changes in the optics and not to rapid random changes caused by uncontrollable atmospheric effects. Bibliography Andriessen, M. et. al. (2003). Physics 2 HSC course (second edition). Qld, Australia: John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd. Weicek, C. et. al. (2004). Physics in Context: the force of life HSC. South Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press. CSIRO. (2004). Observing the Sky. [Internet]. Australia: CSIRO. Available from: http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/astrophysics/observingtop.html : [Accessed 4th March, 2005].