Phased Array Technical Guidelines Useful Formulas, Graphs, and Examples

R/D Tech Corp.

Introduction

One of the major contributors to the reliability of any nondestructive testing (NDT) method is the human factor. The personnel involved in the phased array ultrasonic inspection must be trained and certified. Through his or her skills, education, and training, the NDT practitioner must demonstrate that he or she can handle specific requirements related to the procedure and equipment (phased array ultrasonic instrument, scanners, probes, software, analysis layouts, and reporting). The practitioner must be familiar with the basic features of phased array ultrasonic technology applied to specific components. The customer-oriented philosophy of R/D Tech resulted in the publication of the first book dedicated to phased array ultrasonic technology: Introduction to Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology Applications: R/D Tech Guideline. This Guideline was intended for a large audience, with extensive chapters on basic ultrasonic testing, data representation and scanning patterns, phased array probes, and applications. The Guideline contains more general information compared to the booklet. The Guideline can be purchased by e-mail order through our Web site. The Phased Array Technical Guidelines booklet was written for the NDT practitioner as an aide-mmoire of the basic phased array ultrasonic technology. It is oriented toward day-to-day activities, and know-how and how-to problems (procedure compliance, calibration, characterization, new setup construction, and solved inspection problem). By its contents and dimensions, the booklet was designed to fit into a pocket. The booklet must withstand field conditions, hence we produced the book on water- and tear-resistant synthetic paper, with a sturdy cover and binding. The Phased Array Technical Guidelines booklet contains the following: Chapter 1, Phased Array Ultrasonic TechnologyGeneral Features Describes the PAUT principles, and presents the main hardware components and type of phased array beam forming and movement (linear, azimuthal, depth, plane, and 3-D). Chapter 2, Phased Array ProbesGeneral Features Describes the PA probes and their main features required to be used for day-to-day inspections. The examples are based on the

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Introduction 1

1-D planar linear array, the most commonly used type of probe for many applications. Chapter 3, Focal LawsGeneral Examples Illustrates the basic steps in defining focal laws for Tomoscan III PA (TomoView 2.2R9) and OmniScan PA for linear array probes. Chapter 4, Scanning Patterns, Views, and Layouts Presents the major data representations (A-scans, S-scans, B-scans, C-scans, and D-scans) and the basic layouts and scanning patterns for Tomoscan III PA (TomoView 2.2R9) and OmniScan PA. Recommended layouts for specific applications are also noted. Chapter 5, Ultrasound Settings, Calibration, and Periodic Checking Presents basic examples for ultrasonic settings and optimization, equipment calibration, and in-the-field periodic checking. Chapter 6, Useful Tables, Charts, and Formulas Is a useful review of the main formulas, such as: Snells law, nearfield length, wavelength, beam width, half-angle beam spread. Special emphasis is focused on defect sizing using different methods. Besides tables and formulas, the chapter incorporates graphs for a quick evaluation of specific features: refracted angle, equivalent delay, and reflector size. Appendix A: Unit Conversion Provides the metric-English conversions for units used in this booklet. Appendix B: Support and Training Presents the R/D Tech Web site section where you can find or post added information related to this booklet. Selected References Lists basic materials, which support and enrich the booklet ideas. The booklet is written as an open dialog; we include hints, important marks, and caution or warning signs for specific activities. As the R/D Tech CEO and President mentioned in the preface of this booklet, we welcome your opinion, comments, and ideas to improve on the Phased Array Technical Guidelines booklet with the aim of making a second edition. Please use the Web site forum link, at www.rd-tech.com, for a realtime communication. Our marketing team thanks you in advance for your input and will contact you for specific problems you may raise. We hope this booklet will be a great help in carrying out phased array ultrasonic inspections. Nol Dub Business Development Vice-President, R/D Tech

Introduction

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1. Phased Array Ultrasonic TechnologyGeneral Features

The phased array ultrasonic technology is based on the following technical features: a) Multiplexing of a large number of identical crystals as a single probe b) Control of the focal depth c) Control of the steering angle d) Control of the beam width e) Program of the virtual probe aperture (VPA) [see Figure 1-1] f) Scan with a large number of A-scans g) Display of the UT data in a generic view called S-scan
VPA2 VPA1

Probe 2

Probe 1

+1 -2

F1

F2

Sweep range 1

Sweep range 2

Figure 1-1 Multielement probe focusing at different depths and for different angles. Note that the sweep range could be positive and/or negative; different numbers of elements may be grouped to form a virtual probe aperture (VPA).

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Phased Array Ultrasonic TechnologyGeneral Features

Specific features of phased array technology include the following: a) Probe design is based on modeling. b) Each active element of a multielement probe is excited by an independent pulser (see Figure 1-2). c) The excitation time is computer-controlled and delayed according to Fermat principle in such a way that the cylindrical (spherical) wave front will reach in the same time (in phase) the specific points in space. d) The beam is cylindrically or spherically focused (see chapter 2 for more details). e) The wave front reflected by the defect reaches the reception; time of flight is delayed according to the focal point, refracted angle, and number of active elements. f) The individual amplitudes from each active element are summed up (amplitude and same phase). g) The focal law calculator determines the time delay on individual elements to steer and focus the beam at different depths and angles. See Figure 1-3 for an example of delay value (in nanoseconds [109 s], that is, a billionth part of a second!). More details are presented in chapter 3. h) Analog signals are rectified, smoothed, averaged, and may be compressed in an 8-bit or 12-bit option (see Figure 1-4). i) Beam movement is linked with scanner axes and part geometry. Data may be viewed in a single plane or through a projection between reference and measurement cursors (see chapter 5 for more details). j) The focus pattern of S-scan may be changed (see Figure 1-5). k) Inspection data is displayed in multiple views or layout; defect amplitude is color-coded based on specific color palette (rainbow, gray, unrectified, specific custom-built); data is plotted into 2-D specimen for each view (see chapter 4 for more details). l) Data analysis is more reliable and efficient with customized defect table and merging A-scans (see chapter 5 for more details).

Chapter 1

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Emitting
Trigger

Probe
Pulses

Incident wave front

Acquisition unit

Phased array unit

Flaw

Reflected wave front

Receiving
Acquisition unit Phased array unit

Echo signals

Flaw

Figure 1-2 Principle of phased array emitting and receiving with a multielement probe. The main advantages of phased array technology can be summarized below: 1. Faster. Phased array inspections with linear scanning are typically an order of magnitude faster than conventional single probe raster scanning. This saves significantly in plant downtime and operator costs. 2. Flexibility. A single array can inspect many different components with different inspection patterns, using electronic setup files. 3. Complex inspections. Phased arrays can be programmed to inspect geometrically complex components, for example automated welds or nozzles, with relative ease. Phased arrays can also be programmed to perform special scans, for example tandem, multiple angles, multiple modes, and zone discrimination. 4. Small array size. The small size of arrays makes them perfect for specific applications, for example turbines and discs, where space is limited. 5. Mechanical reliability. Fewer moving parts make a more reliable inspection system. Replacing mechanics with electronics reduces wear and tear, as well as increases significantly system reliability. 6. Increase the detectability of misoriented defects. Focus beam increases the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The multitude of A-scans grouped in a sector with specific angular resolution contributes to detection probability.

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Phased Array Ultrasonic TechnologyGeneral Features

Filters

Analog rectification

Smoothing

A/D

Averaging

Compression

Figure 1-3 Block diagram for RF signal processing on the receiving chain, after the summation of individual amplitudes (see Figure 1-2).

32

32

32

-30

30

Figure 1-4 Example of delay values on individual elements for steering the beam of a longitudinal wave from 30 to +30.

a a

b b

c c

d d

Figure 1-5 Different types of focusing will generate different S-scan views: (a) projection S-scan is very useful for narrow-gap weld inspection; (b) true depth is useful for detection and sizing defects at a constant depth (for example, inner wall fatigue cracks); (c) half-path S-scan is the most commonly used S-scan; (d) focal plane S-scan is useful for detection of lack of fusion along the weld geometric preparation.

Chapter 1

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Examples of pattern recognition are given in Figure 1-6 to Figure 1-8.

Figure 1-6 Multiangle inspection of a calibration block with stacked side-drilled holes. Left: inspection setup; right: ultrasound displaysectorial scan.

Figure 1-7 Linear (electronic) scan with a static probe over a test piece with artificial defect of variable shape and depth. Top: scanning pattern; bottom: ultrasound displayside (B) view.

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Phased Array Ultrasonic TechnologyGeneral Features

 start

finish

UT

ran g

0.5 t

1.5 t

Figure 1-8 Example of UT range selection and sweep range for a crack detection and sizing with skip angles. Top: principle and UT range setting; bottom: OmniScan results for a fatigue crack of 8 mm height.

Tip: For a reliable detection and sizing of inner-surface breaking cracks ( h crack < ( 1 3 )t piece ), set the ultrasonic range between ( 0.5 1.5 ) t piece cos optimum , to display the crack facets in direct and skip detection the crack (see Figure 1-9). Use the zoom and software color palette functions for a better sizing and crack orientation.

Chapter 1

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 Set the sweep range in such a way to detect the crack by at least two angles at a difference of >10 degrees when the probe is moved backward (see Figure 1-9).

Figure 1-9 Example of UT sweep range for a crack detection by two angles at difference >10 degrees. Left: detection with 38.5; right: detection with 60. Remark the crack facets, detected also by skip, at 60. Data analysis and defect characteristics (height, orientation, location) is very reliably performed by plotting UT data into 2-D and 3-D specimen (see Figure 1-10).

Courtesy of Ontario Power Generation Inc., Canada

Figure 1-10 Example of UT data plotting (VC S-scan) of a crack into an isometric view of a turbine component.

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Phased Array Ultrasonic TechnologyGeneral Features