Marine engineering is an integration of

many engineering disciplines directed to

the development and design of systems of
transport, warfare, exploration, and
natural-resource retrieval which have one
thing in common: operation in or on a
body of water.

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Marine engineers are responsible for the

engineering systems required to propel,
work, or fight ships. They are responsible
for the main propulsion plant;
the powering and mechanization aspects
of ship functions such as steering,
anchoring, cargo handling, heating,
ventilation, air conditioning, etc.; and
other related requirements.

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They usually have joint

responsibility with naval architects in
areas of propulsor design; hull
vibration excited by the propeller or main
propulsion plant; noise reduction
and shock hardening, in fact, dynamic
response of structures or machinery, in
general; cargo-handling pumping systems;
and environmental control and
habitability.

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Marine engineering is a distinct

multidiscipline and characteristically a
dynamic, continuously advancing
technology

THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

Marine engineers must be familiar with
their environment so that they may
understand fuel and power requirements,
vibration effects, and propulsion-plant
strength considerations.
The outstanding characteristic of the open
ocean is its irregularity in storm winds as
well as under relatively calm conditions.
The irregular sea can be described by
statistical mathematics based on the
superposition of a large number of regular
waves having different lengths, directions,
and amplitudes. The characteristics of
idealized regular waves are fundamental
for the description and understanding of
realistic, irregular seas. Actual sea states
consist of a combination of many sizes of
waves often running in different
directions, and sometimes momentarily
superimposing into an exceptionally large
wave.

The effects of the marine environment

also vary with water depth As a ship
passes from deep to shallow water, there
is an appreciable change in the potential
flow around the hull and a change in the
wave pattern produced. Additionally, silt,
sea life, and bottom growth may
affect seawater systems or foul heat
exchangers

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MARINE VEHICLES
The platform is additionally a part of
marine engineers environment
Ships are supported by a buoyant force
equal to the weight of the volume of water
displaced.
For surface ships, this weight is equal to
the total weight of the structure,
machinery, outfit, fuel, stores, crew,
and useful load.

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The principal sources of resistance to

propulsion are skin friction and the energy
lost to surface waves generated by moving
in interface between air and water.

Minimization of one or both of these

sources of resistance has generally been a
primary objective in the design of marine
vehicles

Displacement Hull Forms

Displacement hull forms are the familiar
monohull, the catamaran, and the
submarine. The moderate-to-fulldisplacement monohull form provides the
best possible combinations of highpayload-carrying ability, economical
powering characteristics, and good sea
keeping qualities.

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A more slender hull form achieves a

significant reduction in wavemaking resistance, hence increased speed;
however, it is limited in its ability to carry
topside weight because of the low
transverse stability of its narrow beam.

The catamaran provides a solution to the

problem of low transverse stability. It is
increasingly popular in sailing yachts and
is under development for high-speed
passenger ferries and research and
small support ships. Sailing catamarans,
with their superior transverse
stability permitting large sail-plane area,
gain a speed advantage over
monohull craft of comparable size.

A powered catamaran has the

advantage of increased deck space and
relatively low roll angles over a
monohull ship. The submarine, operating
at depths which preclude the formation of
surface waves, experiences significant
reductions in resistance compared to a
well-designed surface ship of equal
displacement

Planing Hull Forms

The planing hull form, although
most commonly used for yachts
and racing craft, is used
increasingly in small, fast
commercial craft and in coastal
patrol craft. The weight of the
planing hull ship is partially borne
by the dynamic lift of the water
streaming against a relatively flat
or V-shaped bottom. The
effective displacement is hence
reduced below that of a ship
supported statically, with
significant reduction in
wavemaking resistance at higher
speeds

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High-Performance Ships
In a search for high performance
and higher speeds in rougher
seas, several advanced concepts
to minimize wave-making
resistance have been
investigated. These concepts
have been or are being
developed in hydrofoil craft,
surface-effect vehicles, and small
water-plane-area twin hull
(SWATH) forms (Fig. 11.3.1).

The hydrofoil craft has a

planing hull that is raised clear of
the water through dynamic lift
generated by an underwater foil

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(SES)

(SWATH) forms
(.11.3.1).

system.
The surface-effect vehicles
ride on a cushion of compressed
air generated and maintained in
the space between the vehicle
and the surface over which it
hovers or moves.
The most practical vehicles
employ a peripheral-jet principle,
with flexible skirts for obstacle or
wave clearance.
A rigid sidewall craft, achieving
some lift from hydrodynamic
effects, is more adaptable to
marine construction techniques.

The SWATH gains the

advantages of the catamaran,
twin displacement hulls, with the
further advantage of minimized
wave-making resistance and
wave-induced motions achieved
by submarine-shaped hulls
beneath the surface and the
small water-plane area of the
supporting struts at the air-water
interface.

SEAWORTHINESS
Seaworthiness is the quality of a
marine vehicle being fit to
accomplish its intended mission.
In meeting their responsibilities
to produce seaworthy vehicles,
marine engineers must have a
basic understanding of the effects

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SWATH

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of the marine environment with

regard to the vehicles (1)
structure, (2) stability and
motions, and (3) resistance
and powering requirements.

Units and Definitions

The introduction of SI units to the
marine engineering field presents
somewhat of a revolutionary
change.

Displacement, for instance, is a

force and therefore is expressed
in newtons (N) or meganewtons
(MN); what for many years has
been known as a 10,000-ton ship
therefore becomes a 99.64-MN
ship. To assist in the change,
examples and data have been
included in both USCS and SI
units.
The displacement D is the
weight of the water displaced by
the immersed part of the vehicle.
It is equal (1) to the buoyant
force exerted on the vehicle and
(2) to the weight of the vehicle
(in equilibrium) and everything on
board.
Displacement is expressed in
long tons equal to 1.01605 metric
tons or 2,240 lb (1 l= 5 4.448 N).
The specific weight of seawater
averages about 64 lb/ft; hence,
the displacement in seawater is
measured by the displaced
volume divided by 35. In fresh

(1)
, (2)

(3)



SI


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10,000
99.64- .



SI
D


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(1)

(2)
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1.01605 metric tons or 2,240
lb (1 lb = 4.448 N).

64 lb/ft; ,

water, divide by 35.9.

35. ,
35.9

(Specific weight of seawater 5

10,053 N/m3; 1 MN = 99.47 m3; D
= 99.47 MN; in fresh water 1 MN
= 102 m3.) Two measurements of
a merchant ships earning
capacity that are of significant
importance to its design and
operation are deadweight and
tonnage.

( =
10,053 N/m3; 1 MN= 5 99.47 m3; D
=99.47 MN; 1 MN =
102 m3.)




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The deadweight of a ship is the ,
weight of cargo, stores, fuel,
( stores), ,
water, personnel, and effects that ,
the ship can carry when loaded to
a specific load draft. Deadweight

is the difference between the
.
load displacement, at the

minimum permitted freeboard,

and the light displacement, which
comprises hull weight and

machinery.



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Deadweight is expressed in long
tons (2,240 lb each) or MN. The

volume of a ship is expressed in

tons of 100 ft3 (2.83 m3) each
(2,240 lb ) MN.
and is referred to as its tonnage.
(100 . 2.83 m3)

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Charges for berthing, docking,
passage through canals and
,
locks, and for many other

facilities are based on tonnage.

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Gross tonnage is based on
cubic capacity below the tonnage

deck, generally the uppermost

complete deck, plus allowances
for certain compartments above,
which are used for cargo, passengers,
crew, and navigating equipment

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Deduction of spaces for propulsion
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machinery, crew quarters, and

other prescribed volumes from the gross

tonnage leaves the net tonnage.
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The dimensions of a ship may refer to the
molded body (or form defined by the

outside of the frames), to general outside
.
or overall dimensions, or to dimensions on (
which the determination of tonnage or of

classification is based.
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There are thus (1) molded dimensions,
.
(2) overall dimensions, (3) tonnage
(1)
dimensions, and (4) classification
, (2) (3)
dimensions. The published rules and
, (4)
regulations of the classification societies
.
and the U.S. Coast Guard should be

consulted for detailed information

The designed load waterline (DWL) is

the waterline at which a ship would float
freely, at rest in still water, in its normally (DWL)
,
loaded or designed condition. The keel
,
line of most ships is parallel to DWL.
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Some are designed to slope downward

toward the stern, termed designed drag

,(DWL).



A vertical line through the intersection of

DWL and the foreside of the stem is

called the forward perpendicular, FP.

A vertical line through the intersection of

DWL with the after side of the straight
portion of the rudder post, with the after
side of the stern contour, or with the
centerline of the rudder stock (depending
upon stern configuration), is called the
after perpendicular, AP.

The length on the designed load

waterline, LWL, is the length measured at
the DWL, which, because of the stern
configuration, may be equal to the length
between perpendiculars, Lpp. The
classification society length is commonly
noted as Lpp. The extreme length of the
ship is the length overall, LOA.
The molded beam B is the extreme
breadth of the molded form. The extreme
or overall breadth is occasionally used,
referring to the extreme transverse
dimension taken to the outside of the
plating.
The draft T (molded) is the distance from
the top of the keel plate or bar keel to the
load waterline. It may refer to draft
amidships, forward, or aft.

Trim is the longitudinal inclination of the

ship usually expressed as the difference
between the draft forward, TF, and the
draft aft, TA.

(DWL)
(FP)


(DWL)
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(DWL),
(DWL),


, Lbp.

Lpp.
, LOA.

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, TF,
, TA

Coefficients of Form Assume the

following notation: L=length on waterline;
B = beam; T = draft;
= volume of displacement;
AWP =area of water plane;
AM = area of midship section, up to draft T;
v = speed in ft/s (m/s); and
V = speed in knots.

L=
, B = , T =
, = ,
AWP = ,
AM = ,
, v = ft/s (m/s);
V = .

Block coefficient, CB 5 = /LBT, may

vary from about 0.38, for high powered
yachts and destroyers, to greater than 0.90
for slow-speed seagoing cargo ships and is a
measure of the fullness of the underwater
body.

, CB = /LBT
0.38,
, 0.90


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Midship section coefficient,

CM = AM /BT, varies from about 0.75 for
tugs or trawlers to about 0.99 for cargo
ships and is a measure of the fullness of the
maximum section.

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CM = AM /BT, 0.75
0.99

Prismatic coefficient, , CP = /LAM =

CB /CM, is a measure of the fullness of the
ends of the hull, and is an important
parameter in powering estimates.

, CP = /LAM = CB
/CM ,


Water-plane coefficient, CWP = AWP/LB,
ranges from about 0.67 to 0.95, is a measure
of the fullness of the water plane, and may
be estimated by CWP = 23CB + 13.

Displacement/length ratio,
L = /(L/100)3, is a measure of the
slenderness of the hull, and is used in
calculating the power of ships and in
recording the resistance data of models.
A similar coefficient is the volumetric
coefficient, CV = /(L/10)3, which is
commonly used as this measure.
Table 11.3.1 presents typical values of the
coefficients with representative values for
Froude number = v/gL.

Structure
The structure of a ship is a complex
assembly of small pieces of material.
Common hull structural materials for small
boats are wood, aluminum, and fiberglassreinforced plastic.
Large ships are nearly always constructed of
steel.
Past practices of using aluminum in
superstructures are usually nowadays
limited to KG-critical ship designs.
The analysis of a ship structure is
accomplished through the following
simplified steps:
(1) Assume that the ship behaves like a
box-shaped girder supported on a simple
wave system;
(2) estimate the loads acting on the ship,

, CWP
= AWP/LB, 0.67 0.95

,
CWP = 23CB + 13
/ ,
L = /(L/100)3

,
CV = /(L/10)3,
.

11.3.1

Froude = v/gL.

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(1)

using simplified assumptions regarding

weight and buoyancy distribution;
(3) calculate the static shear forces and
bending moments;
(4) analyze the resulting stresses; and
(5) iterate the design until the stresses are
acceptable.

The maximum longitudinal bending stresses

which result from such simplified loading
assumptions are used as an indicator of the
maximum stress that will be developed, and
an approximate factor of safety is
introduced to allow for stresses induced
from other types of external loading, from
local loadings, from stress concentration,
and from material fatigue over the life of the
ship.
Weight, buoyancy, and load curves
(Figs. 11.3.2 and 11.3.3) are developed for
the ship for the determination of shear force
and bending moment. Several extreme
conditions of loading may be analyzed.
The weight curves include the weights of
the hull, superstructure, rudder, and
castings, forgings, masts, booms, all
machinery and accessories, solid ballast,
anchors, chains, cargo, fuel, supplies,
passengers, and baggage.
Each individual weight is distributed over a
length equal to the distance between frames
at the location of that particular weight..

The traditional method of calculating the

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(3)

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(5)
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(Figs. 11.3.2 11.3.3)


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