1.0 i. ii. iii. iv. v. 2.

OBJECTIVE To examine how shear force varies with an increasing point load To examine how shear force varies at the cut position of the beam for various

loading condition To establish the relationship between strut length (Columns length) and buckling load. To study the effect of end condition on the buckling load To inelastic buckling of a strut. LEARNING OUTCOMES i. Able to apply the engineering knowledge in practical application. ii. To enhance technical competency in structure engineering through laboratory application. iii. Communicate effectively in group. iv. To identify problem, solving finding out appropriate solution through laboratory application.

3.0

INTRODUCTION In this section we will determine the critical buckling load for a column that is pin supported as shown in Fig. 1a. The column to be considered is an ideal column, meaning one that is perfectly straight before loading, is made of homogeneous material, and upon which the load is applied through the centroid of the cross section. It is further assumed that the material behaves in a linear-elastic manner and that the column buckles or bends in a single plane. In reality, the conditions of column straightness and load application are never accomplished; however, the analysis to be performed on an ideal column is similar to that used to analyze initially crooked columns or those having an eccentric load application. These more realistic cases will be discussed later in this chapter. Since an ideal column is straight, theoretically the axial load P could be increased until failure occurs by either fracture or yielding of the material. However, when the critical load Per is reached, the column is on the verge of becoming unstable, so that a small lateral force F, Fig. 1b, will cause the column to remain in the deflected position when F is removed, Fig. 1c. Any slight reduction in the axial load P from P. will allow the column to straighten out, and any slight increase in P, beyond Per, will cause further increases in lateral deflection.

Figure 1 Whether or not a column will remain stable or become unstable when subjected to an axial load will depend on its ability to restore itself, which is based on its resistance to bending. Hence, in order to determine the critical load and the buckled shape of the column, we will apply EIdv/dx = M(X), which relates the internal moment in the column to its deflected shape, i.e., EIdv/dx = M (0) Recall that this equation assumes that the slope of the elastic curve is small* and that deflections occur only by bending. When the column is in its deflected position, Fig. 2, the internal bending moment can be determined by using the method of sections. The free-body diagram of a segment in the deflected position is shown in Fig. 2. Here both the deflection v and the internal moment M are shown in the positive direction according to the sign convention used to establish Eq. (0) Summing moments, the internal moment is M = -Pv. Thus Eq. (0) becomes EIdv/dx = -Pv, dv/dx + (P/EI)v = 0 (1) This is a homogeneous, second-order, linear differential equation with constant coefficients. It cans he shown by using the methods of differential equations, or by direct substitution into Eq. (1), that the general solution is V = c1sin((P/EI)x) + c2 cos ((P/EI)x ) (2)

The two constants of integration are determined from the boundary conditions at the ends of the column. Since v = 0 at x = 0, then C2 = 0. And since v 0 at x = L, then C1Sin((P/EI)L) = 0

This equation is satisfied if C1 = 0; however, then v = 0, which is a trivial solution that requires the column to always remain straight, even though the load causes the column to become unstable. The other possibility is for Sin((P/EI)L) = 0 which is satisfied if (P/EI)L = n

FIGURE 2 Or P = nEI/L n = 1,2,3. (3)

The smallest value of P is obtained when n = 1, so the critical load for the column is therefore P = EI/L

This load is sometimes referred to as the Euler load, after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, who originally solved this problem in 1757. The corresponding buckled shape is defined by the equation V = C1Sin(x/L) Here the constant C1 represents the maximum deflection, Vmax, which occurs at the midpoint of the column, Fig. 3a. Specific values for C1 cannot be obtained, since the exact deflected form for the column is unknown once it has buckled. It has been assumed, however, that this deflection is small. Realize that n in Eq. 3 represents the number of waves in the deflected shape of the column. For example, if n 2, then from Eqs. 2 and 3, two waves will appear in the buckled shape, Fig.3, and the column will support a critical load that is 4Pcr just prior to buckling. Since this value is four times the critical load and the deflected shape is unstable, this form of buckling, practically speaking, will not exist. We can represent the load-deflection characteristics of the ideal column by the graph shown in Fig. 4. The bifurcation point represents the state of neutral equilibrium, at which point the critical load acts on the column. Here the column is on the verge of impending buckling. Also note that the load-carrying capacity of a column will increase as the moment of inertia of the cross section increases. Thus, efficient columns are designed so that most of the columns cross-sectional area is located as far away as possible from the principal centroidal axes for the section. This is why hollow sections such as tubes are more economical than solid sections. Furthermore, wide-flange sections, and columns that are built up from channels, angles,

plates, etc., are better than sections that are solid and rectangular.

FIGURE 3

FIGURE 4

It is also important to realize that a column will buckle about the principal axis of the cross section having the least moment of inertia (the weakest axis). For example, a column having a rectangular cross section, like a meter stick, as shown in Fig. 137, will buckle about the aa axis, not the b b axis. As a result, engineers usually try to achieve a balance, keeping the moments of inertia the same in all directions. Geometrically, then, circular tubes would make excellent columns. Also, square tubes or those shapes having Iy Ix are often selected for columns.

4.0

THEORY 4.1 To predict the buckling load Euler buckling formula is used. The critical value in Euler Formula is the slenderness ratio, which is the ratio of the length of the strut to its radius of gyration (L/K). 4.2 4.3 The Euler formula become inaccurate for struts with L/K ratio of less than 1.125 and this should be taken into account in any design work. Euler buckling formula for pin struts : Pe = 2EI / L2 Where ; Pe = Euler buckling load (N) E = Youngs Modulus (Nm-2) I = Second moment of area (m4) L = Length of strut (m) Eulers Theory The simple analysis below is based on the pinned-pinned arrangement. The other arrangements are derived from this by replacing the length L by the effective length b. For the pinned-pinned case the effective length b = L. For the Fixed -Fixed case the effective length b = L/2. For the Fixed-Free case the effective length b = L x 2. For the Fixed-Pinned case the effective length b approx. L x 0,7.

Curvature Quick derivation for curvature (1/R)

Beam equation M/I=/y=E/R

When x = 0 y = 0 and 0 = A cos0 + B.0 = A therefore A = 0 When x = b , y = 0 and so B sin b = 0. B cannot be 0 because there would be no deflection and no buckling which is contrary to experience. Hence sin b = 0. therefore b = 0, , 2, 3 etc (W/EI) b 2 = 2, 4. 2, 9. 2 etc therefore W = 2 E.I / b2 , 2 E.I / (b / 2) 2, 2 E.I / (b / 3) 2,

As the moment of inertia I = A.k 2 and the end force W = A. The formula can be rewritten W = A = 2 E A k 2 / b2 Therefore = 2 E / (b / k)2

5.0

APPARATUS

Point load gauge Panel control

Reading meter

Fig 1: Machine Of Buckling Of Struts

Fig 3: Struts

Fig 4: Top & Bottom Chuck

6.0

PROCEDURE

6.1

Fit the bottom chuck to the machine and remove the top chuck (to give two pinned ends). Select the shortest strut, number 1, and measured the cross section using the vernier provided and calculated the second moment of area, I, for the strut. (bd3/12)

6.2

Adjust the position of the sliding crosshead to accept the strut using the thumbnut to lock off the slider. Ensure that there is the maximum amount of travel available on the handwheel threat to compress the strut. Finally tighten the locking screw.

6.3

Carefully back-off the handwheel so that the strut is resting in the notch but not transmitting any load. Rezero the forcemeter using the front panel control.

PANEL CONTROL 6.1.4 Carefully start to load the strut. If the strut begin to buckle to the left, flick the strut to the right and vice versa (this reduces any error associated with the straightness of strut). Turn the handwheel until there is no further increase in load (the load may peak and then drop as it settles in the notches). 6.1.5 Record the final load in Table 1. Repeat with strut numbers 2,3,4 and 5 adjusting the crosshead as required to fit the strut.

7.0

RESULT AND CALCULATION 7.1 RESULT (PART 1)

Pinned-Pinned: Strut Length Number 1 2 3 4 5 (m) 0.32 0.37 0.42 0.47 0.52

Buckling Load (N) (Experiment) 86.00 67.00 51.00 37.00 30.00 Table 1

Buckling Load (N) (Theory) 88.48 68.12 51.36 41.01 33.51

1/L2 (m-2) 9.77 7.30 5.67 4.53 3.70

Pinned-Fixed: Strut Number 1 2 3 4 5 Fixed-Fixed: Strut Number 1 2 3 4 5 Length (m) 0.28 0.33 0.38 0.43 0.48 Buckling Load (N) (Experiment) 448.00 282.00 207.00 181.00 85.00 Table 3 7.2 CALCULATION Buckling Load (N) (Theory) 462.00 332.69 250.50 195.94 157.24 1/L2 (m-2) 12.76 9.18 6.93 5.41 4.34 Length (m) 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 Buckling Load (N) (Experiment) 191.00 130.00 101.00 79.00 64.00 Table 2 Buckling Load (N) (Theory) 201.22 147.84 113.19 89.43 72.44 1/L2 (m-2) 11.11 8.13 6.25 4.94 4.00

FIX : FIX CONDITION

Given; E = 69 GNm-2 = 69x109 Nm-2 B = 2cm = 0.02m D = 0.2cm = 0.002m Leq

u

Moment of Area, I = bd 12

= 0.02 x (0.002) 12 = 1.33x10-11m4

Euler Buckling Load, P = 4EI L = 4 x x (69x109) x (1.33x10-11) 0.23 = 462 N

PIN : FIX CONDITION

Given; E = 69 GNm-2 = 69x109 Nm-2 B = 2cm = 0.02m D = 0.2cm = 0.002m Lequ

Moment of Area, I = bd3 12 = 0.02 x (0.002) 12 = 1.33x10-11m4

Euler Buckling Load, P = 2EI L = 2 x x (69x109) x (1.33x10-11) 0.30 = 201.27 N

PIN : PIN CONDITION

Given; E = 69 GNm-2 = 69x109 Nm-2 B = 2cm = 0.02m D = 0.2cm = 0.002m Lequ

Moment of Area, I = bd3 12 = 0.02 x (0.002) 12 = 1.33x10-11m4

Euler Buckling Load, P = EI L = x (69x109) x (1.33x10-11) 0.32 = 88 N

7.3

RESULT (PART 11)

Pinned Pinned*

Experimental gradient Experimental ratio Theoretical ratio

9.23 1.00 1.0

Pinned Fixed 15.98 1.73 2.0

Fixed Fixed 42.76 4.63 4.0

8.0

DISCUSSION Referring to the results from the calculation, we can conclude that, the different between the theoretical and experimental results are very big for all of the Experiment 1, 2, and 3. Thus, the percentage (%) of the difference between the theoretical and experimental results are extremely big and high. From the experiment done, we can notice that, the span with longer length will give us the bigger value of deflection when the load is place at the mid span for both theoretical and experimental results. While for the span with shorter length, the deflection is slightly small compare to the longer span. From the results we get from this experiment, though the different between the theoretical and experimental results are very big, but the deflection in the span increase when the load is increase. Besides that, the value of deflection also increase when the length of span used is longer. Thus, we conclude that, the deflection of span is proportional to the load we place on it and the length of the span we used.

10.0

CONCLUSION From this experiment, our group managed to determine the relationship between span and deflection. In determining the deflections of the beams under load, elastic theory is used. From the experiment and the results we get from this experiment, we notice that, the span with longer length will give us the bigger value of deflection when the load is place at the mid span for both theoretical and experimental results. While for the span with shorter length, the deflection is slightly smaller compare to the longer span though the load used is same with the longer one. Though the different between the theoretical and experimental results are very big, but the deflection in the span also increase when the load is increase. Thus, we conclude that, the deflection of span is proportional to the length of the span and the load we place on it.

11.0

REFERENCES Yusof Ahamad (2001). Mekanik Bahan Dan Struktur. Malaysia: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Skudai Johor Darul Tazim. R. C. Hibbeler (2000). Mechanic Of Materials. 4th. ed. England: Prentice Hall International, Inc.