Tomasi Outlined

Electronics Systems and Technologies
Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
CHAPTER 1 :Introduction to Electronic Communications

the transmission, reception and processing of information between two or more locations using electronic circuits electronic communications analog signals
signals that are time-varying voltages or currents that are continuously changing, such as cosine and sine waves. It contains an infinite number of values
signals that are voltages or currents that change in discrete steps or levels he invented the first workable telegraph
digital signals Samuel Finley Morse (1837) electromagnetic induction Breese
it is used to transfer information in the form of dots, dashes and spaces between a simple transmitter and receiver using a transmission line consisting of a length of metallic wire
they were the first to successfully transfer human conversation over a crude metallic-wire communication system using a device they called telephone
Alexander Graham Bell Thomas A. Watson decibel (dB)
a logarithmic unit that can be used to measure ratios of virtually anything a transmission-measuring unit used to express relative gains and losses of electronic devices and for describing relationships between signals and noise
decibel
another name for power loss a collection of one or more electronic devices or circuits that converts the original source information to a form more suitable for transmission over a particular transmission medium it provides a means of transporting signals between a transmitter and a receiver and can be as simple as a pair of copper wires any unwanted electrical signals that interfere with the information signal a collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts the transmitted signals from the transmission medium and then converts those signals back to their original form higher-frequency analog signal the process of changing one or more properties of the analog
attenuation
transmitter transmission medium or communications channel system noise receiver carrier modulation

Licuanan, CCNA carrier in proportion with the information signal a system in which energy is transmitted and received in analog form, both the information and the carrier are analog signals
Engr. Jaime P.
Analog system Digital system
communication
it covers a broad range of communication techniques including digital and digital radio a true digital system where digital pulses are transferred between two or more points in communication system the transmittal of digitally modulated analog between two or more points in communication system carriers
communication
digital transmission digital radio Amplitude (AM) Frequency (FM) modulator modulated wave modulated signal or modulation modulation
the information signal is analog and the amplitude of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal the frequency is varied proportional to the information signal a circuit performing modulation in a transmitter a carrier that has been acted on by an information signal the
the reverse process of modulation and converts modulated carrier back to the original information
demodulation channel intelligence signal frequency translation electromagnetic energy
it is often used to refer to a specific band of frequencies allocated a particular service another name for information signal
the process of converting a frequency or band of frequencies to another location in the total frequency spectrum it can propagate as a voltage or current along a metallic wire as emitted radio waves through free space or as light waves down an optical fiber simply the number of times a periodic motion such as sine wave of voltage or current occurs in a given period of time an international agency in control of allocating frequencies and services with the overall frequency spectrum
frequency International Telecommunications Union (UTI) Extremely frequencies Voice frequencies low
signals in the 30-Hz to 300-Hz range and include ac power distribution signals (60Hz) and low frequency telemetry signals
signals in the 300-Hz to 3000-Hz range and include

Licuanan, CCNA frequencies generally associated with human speech, standard telephone channels
Engr. Jaime P.
signals in the 3-kHz to 30-kHz range which include the upper end of the human hearing range, specialized government and military system (submarine communications)
Very low frequencies
signals in the 30-kHz to 300-kHz range and used primarily for marine and aeronautical navigation signals in the 300-kHz to 3-MHz range and are used primarily for commercial AM radio broadcasting (535 kHz to 1605 kHz)
Low frequencies
Medium frequency
signals in the 3-MHz to 30-MHz range and are used for twoway radio communications, Voice of America and Radio Free Europe broadcast, amateur radio and citizens band (CB) radio
High frequencies
signals in the 30-MHZ to 300-MHz and are used for mobile radio, marine, and aeronautical communications, commercial FM broadcasting (88 MHz to 108 MHz), and commercial television broadcasting of channels 2 to 13 (54 MHz to 216 MHz)
Very high frequencies
signals in the 300-MHz to 3-GHz range and are used by commercial television broadcasting of channels 14 to 83, land mobile communication services, cellular telephones, certain radar and navigation systems, and microwave and satellite radio systems
Ultrahigh frequencies
signal in the 3-GHz to 30-GHz range used for microwave and satellite radio communication system signals in the 30-GHz to 300-GHz range and seldom used for radio communication system signal in the 0.3-THz to 300-THz electromagnetic radiation generally associated with heat
Superhigh frequencies Extremely frequencies Infrared high
range. It refers to
the length that one cycle of an electromagnetic wave occupies in space. It is inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave and directly proportional to the frequency of the wave and directly proportional to the velocity of propagation speed of light the two most significant limitations on the performance of a communication system simply the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies in the information
wavelength
3 x 108 m/s noise bandwidth bandwidth of information signal an

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that the channel will allow to pass through a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate information through electronic communications system a measure of how much information can be propagated through a communications system and is a function of bandwidth and transmission time simply the number of bits transmitted during one second and is expressed in bit per second any undesirable electrical energy that falls within the passband signal
bandwidth of a communication channel
Information theory
Information capacity
Bit rate Electrical noise correlated
implies a relationship between the signal and the noise. Exist only when a signal is present noise present all the time whether there is signal or not noise that is generated outside the device or circuit
uncorrelated external noise Atmospheric noise
naturally occurring electrical disturbances that originate within Earths surface like lightning another name for atmospheric noise frequency of atmospheric noise
Static electricity 30 MHz Extraterrestrial noise Deep-space noise Cosmic noise Black-body noise Man-made noise Industrial noise internal noise
consists of electrical signal that originate from outside Earths atmosphere another name for extraterrestrial noise continuously distributed throughout the galaxies another name for cosmic noise simply noise that is produced by mankind another name for man-made noise electrical interference generated within a device or circuit
caused by random arrival of carriers at the output element of an electronic device such as diode, field effect transistor or bipolar transistor
Shot noise

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
any modification to a stream of carriers as they pass from the input to the output of a device produces an irregular random variation
Transit-time noise Thermal noise
the rapid and random movement of electrons within a conductor due to thermal agitation another names for thermal noise:
white noise Brownian noise Johnson noise Harmonic distortion Harmonics Amplitude distortion Intermodulation distortion Impulse noise Interference
occurs when unwanted harmonics of a signal are produced through nonlinear amplification integer multiples of the original signal another name for harmonic distortion
the generation of unwanted sum and difference frequencies produced when two or more signals mix in a nonlinear device
characterized by high-amplitude peaks of short duration in the total noise spectrum a form of external noise meaning to disturb or detract from
when information signals from one source produce frequencies that fall outside their allocated bandwidth and interfere with information signals from another source
Electrical interference
the ratio of the signal power level to the noise power level
Signal-to-noise ratio
power
CHAPTER 2: Signal Analysis and Mixing

the only two levels possible in a digital signal four-level signals binary signal quaternary digital signal Electrical signals Periodic Time domain Oscilloscope
the voltage- or current-time variations that can be represented by a series of sine or cosine waves a waveform which repeats at a uniform rate a description of a signal with respect to time a time-domain instrument

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
an amplitude-versus-time representation of the signal a description of a signal with respect to its frequency a frequency-domain instrument
Signal waveform Frequency-domain representation Spectrum analyzer Sinusoidal wave
any repetitive waveform that is comprised of more than one harmonically related sine or cosine wave any periodic waveform that is not a sinusoid such as square waves, rectangular waves and triangular waves a French physicist and mathematician who used a mathematical series to analyze a complex periodic wave a mathematical tool that allows us to move back and forth between time and frequency domains. It is used in signal analysis to represent the sinusoidal components of non-sinusoidal periodic waveforms it describes the symmetry of a waveform in the time domain, that is, its relative position with respect to the horizontal (time) and vertical (amplitude) axes a periodic voltage waveform in symmetric about vertical axis that have axes, or mirror, symmetry a periodic voltage waveform that said to have point, or skew, symmetry a periodic voltage waveform such that the waveform for the first half-cycle repeats itself except with the opposite sign for the second half cycle a waveform consists of all the frequencies contained in the waveform and their respective amplitudes plotted in the frequency domain range of frequencies contained in the spectrum the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies contained in the information the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that the channel will allow to pass through the rate at which energy is dissipated, delivered,
Complex wave
Baron Jean Fourier
Fourier analysis
Wave symmetry Even symmetry Odd symmetry
Half-wave symmetry
Frequency spectrum
Bandwidth

Licuanan, CCNA or used and is a function of the square of the voltage or current a time-domain signal is sampled at discrete times Electrical power
Engr. Jaime P.
Discrete Fourier transform Fast Fourier series Bandlimiting Mixing
the computing time is proportional to n log 2n rather that n2 it reduces the information capacity of the system the process of combining two or more signals and is an essential process in electronic communications two ways in which signals can be combined or mixed: it occurs when two or more signals combine in a linear device, such as passive network or a smallsignal amplifier occurs when two or more signals are combined in a nonlinear device such as a diode or large-signal amplifier undesired harmonics desired harmonics
linearly nonlinearly
Linear summing (linear mixing)
Nolinear mixing Harmonic distortion Frequency multiplication
CHAPTER 3 : Oscillators, Phase-Locked Loops, and Frequency Synthesizers

to fluctuate between two states or conditions, to vibrate or to change a device that produces oscillations Oscillate Oscillator Feedback oscillators
an amplifier with a feedback loop (i.e., a path to propagate from the output back to input) four requirements for a feedback oscillator:
amplification positive feedback frequencydetermining components power source
an untuned oscillator RC phase shift oscillator that uses both positive and negative feedback
Wien-bridge oscillator

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
oscillator circuits that utilize tuned LC tank circuits for the frequency-determining components the ability of an oscillator to remain at a fixed frequency and is of primary importance in communication systems feedback oscillator circuits in which the LC tank circuit is replaced with a crystal for the frequencydetermining component the study of the form, structure, properties, and classifications of crystals. It deals with lattices, bonding and the behavior of slices of crystal material that have been cut at various angles with respect to the crystals axes it occurs when oscillating mechanical stresses applied across a crystal lattice structure generate electrical oscillations and vice versa another name for mechanical vibrations
LC oscillators
Frequency stability
Crystal oscillators Crystallography
Piezoelectric effect Bulk Acoustic Waves (BAWs) Crystal oscillator module Graded junction
it is consist of a crystal-controlled oscillator and a voltage-variable component such as varactor diode it is often used when describing varactor diode fabrication
CHAPTER 4 : Amplitude Modulation Transmission

the process of impressing low-frequency information signal onto a high-frequency the reverse process where the received signals are transformed back to their original form the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively high frequency carrier signal in proportion with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal frequencies that are high enough to be efficiently radiated by an antenna and propagated through free space the most commonly used amplitude modulation Modulation Demodulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM) Radio frequency AM double side-band full carrier (AM DSBFC) Coefficient of modulation
a term used to describe the amount of amplitude change present in an AM waveform

Licuanan, CCNA gives the percentage change in the amplitude of the output wave when the carrier is acted on by a modulating signal it use a unique arrangement of transistors and FETs to perform signal multiplication, which is a characteristic that makes them ideally suited for generating AM waveforms typically a sensitive class A linear voltage amplifier with a high input impedance a low-gain, high-input impedance linear amplifier used to isolate the oscillator from the high-power amplifiers it is sometimes called upward or downward modulation and has absolutely nothing to do with the frequency of the carrier. A form of amplitude distortion introduced when positive and negative alternations in the AM modulated signal are not equal are complex waveforms comprised of two or more frequencies are complex waves made up of two or more harmonically related sine waves and include square, rectangular and triangular waves a form of amplitude modulation where signals from two separate information sources modulate the same carrier frequency at the same time without interfering with each other
Engr. Jaime P.
Percent modulation
Linear integrated-circuit function generators Preamplifier
Buffer amplifier
Carrier shift
Nonsinusoidal signals
Complex repetitive
Quadrature modulation
amplitude
CHAPTER 5 : Amplitude Modulation Reception

several parameters commonly used to evaluate the ability of a receiver to successfully demodulate a radio signal selectivity bandwidth sensitivity dynamic range fidelity insertion loss noise temperature
a receiver parameter that is used to measure the ability of the receiver to accept a given band of frequencies and reject all others the noise reduction ratio achieved by reducing
Selectivity Bandwidth Improvement

Licuanan, CCNA the bandwidth the corresponding reduction in the noise figure to the reduction in bandwidth the minimum RF signal level that can be detected at the input to the receiver and still produce a usable demodulated information signal another name for receiver sensitivity the difference in decibels between the minimum input level necessary to discern a signal and the input level that will overdrive the receiver and produce distortion the output power when the RF amplifier response is 1 dB less than the ideal linear-gain response a measure of the ability of a communication system to produce at the output of the receiver, an exact replica of the original source information three forms of distortion that can deteriorate the fidelity of a communication system: (BI)
Engr. Jaime P.
Noise Figure Improvement
Sensitivity Threshold Dynamic range
1-dB compression point
Fidelity amplitude frequency phase
the predominant cause of phase distortion
Filtering Absolute phase shift
the total phase shift encountered by a signal and can generally be tolerated as long as all frequencies undergo the same amount of phase delay it occurs when different frequencies undergo different phase shifts and may have a detrimental effect on a complex waveform it occurs when the amplitude-versus-frequency characteristics of a signal at the output of a receiver differ from those of the original information signal it occurs when frequencies are present in a received signal that were not present in the original source information a parameter associated with the frequencies that fall within the passband of a filter and is generally defined as the ratio of the power transferred to a load with a filter in the circuit to the power transferred to a load without the filter a hypothetical value that cannot be directly measured. An indication of the reduction in the signal-to-noise as a signal propagates through a receiver
Differential phase shift
Amplitude distortion
Frequency distortion
Insertion Loss (IL)
Equivalent Noise Temperature (Te)
10

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
two basic types of radio receivers:
coherent (synchronous) noncoherent (asynchronous)
a type of receiver wherein the frequency generated in the receiver and used for demodulation are synchronized to oscillator frequencies generated in the transmitter a type of receiver where either no frequencies are generated in the receiver or the frequencies used for demodulation are completely independent from the transmitters carrier frequency another name for noncoherent detection because the information is recovered from the received waveform by detecting the shape of the modulated envelope one of the earliest types of AM receivers and probably the simplest designed radio receiver available it means to mix two frequencies together in a nonlinear device or to translate one frequency to another using nonlinear mixing five sections of the superheterodyne receiver:
Coherent
Noncoherent
Envelope detection
Tuned Radio-frequency (TRF) Heterodyne RF section Mixer/converter section IF section Audio detector section Audio amplifier section
a broad-tuned bandpass filter with an adjustable center frequency that is tune to the desired carrier frequency. It reduce the noise bandwidth of the receiver it determines the sensitivity of the receiver
Preselector
RF amplifier Detector Tracking
its purpose is to convert the IF signals back to the original source the ability of the local oscillator in a receiver to oscillate either above or below the selected radio frequency carrier by an amount equal to the intermediate frequency throughout the entire radio frequency band the difference between the actual local oscillator frequency and the desired frequency any frequency other than the selected radio
Tracking error
11

Licuanan, CCNA frequency carrier that if allowed to enter a receiver and mix with the local oscillator will produce a cross-product frequency that is equal to the intermediate frequency a numerical measure of the ability of a preselector to reject the image frequency it occurs when a receiver picks up the same station at two nearby points on the receiver tuning dial its purpose is to down-convert the incoming radio frequencies to intermediate frequencies the most common technique used for coupling IF amplifiers where the voltage that is applied to the primary windings of a transformer is transferred to the secondary windings the ability of a coil to induce a voltage within its own windings the ability of one coil to induce a voltage in another coil the ratio of the secondary flux to the primary flux the transfer of flux from the primary to the secondary windings a circuit that compensates for minor variations in the received signal level where it automatically increases the receiver gain weak RF input levels and automatically decreases the receiver gain when a strong RF signal is received when the receiver becomes less sensitive a circuit that has the purpose to quiet a receiver in the absence of a received signal. It keeps the audio section of the receiver turned off or muted in the absence of a received signal used for removing sporadic, high amplitude noise transients of short duration such as impulse noise another circuit option commonly used for reducing the effects of high amplitude noise pulses where it detects the occurrence of a high-amplitude, short duration noise spike then mutes the receiver by shutting off a portion of the receiver for the duration of the pulse the ratio of the demodulated signal level at the output of the receiver to the RF signal level at the input to the receiver Image frequency
Engr. Jaime P.
Image-frequency ratio Double spotting Mixer / converter
rejection
Inductive coupling
or
transformer
Self-inductance Mutual inductance Coefficient of coupling Flux linkage Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
Automatic desensing Squelch circuit
Diode limiters or clippers Blanking circuit
Net Receiver Gain
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Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
samples of receiver losses:
preselector loss mixer loss detector loss
it includes all the gains and losses incurred by a signal as it propagates from the transmitter output stage to the output of the detector in the receiver and includes antenna gain and transmission line and propagation losses the adjustment for the center frequency of the preselector and the adjustment for the local oscillator it offers higher gain and less conventional cascaded amplifiers noise than
System gain
Gang tuned Cascoded amplifier
CHAPTER 6 Single-Sideband Communications System

a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier is transmitted at full power but only one of the sidebands is transmitted. It requires only half as much bandwidth as conventional double sideband AM a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier is totally suppressed and one of the sidebands removed and considerably less transmitted power a form of amplitude modulation in which one sideband is totally removed and the carrier voltage is reduced to approximately 10% of its unmodulated amplitude a form of amplitude modulation in which a single carrier frequency is independently modulated by two different modulating signals AM Single-sideband Full Carrier (SSBFC)
AM Single-sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC) AM Single Side-band Reduced Carrier (SSBRC)
AM Independent Sideband (ISB)
13

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier and one complete sideband are transmitted but only part of the second sideband is transmitted the rms power developed at the crest of the modulation envelope when the modulating-signal frequency components are at their maximum amplitudes advantages of single-sideband transmission:
AM Vestigial Sideband (VSB)
Peak envelope power (PEP)
power conservation bandwidth conservation selective fading noise reduction complex receivers tuning difficulties
disadvantages of single-sideband transmission:
a circuit that produces suppressed-carrier signal
double-sideband
Balanced Modulator Balanced Lattice Modulator Carrier Leak between 40 dB and 60 Db phase-shift method filter method third method
another name for balanced modulator
a small carrier component always present in the output signal the typical amount of carrier suppression
three transmitter configurations used for singlesideband generation:
it is made from lead zirconate-titanate which exhibits the piezoelectric effect a mechanically resonant transducer that when it receives electrical energy, it converts to mechanical vibrations and then converts the vibrations back to electrical energy at its output four elements that comprise a mechanical filter:
Ceramic filters
Mechanical filter
input transducer series of mechanical resonant metal disks coupling rod output transducer
filters that use acoustic energy rather than electromechanical energy to provide excellent performance for precise bandpass filtering the basic SAW filter
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) filters Bidirectional
14

Licuanan, CCNA it launches the acoustic wave in only one direction a narrow band PLL that tracks the pilot carrier in the composite SSBRC receiver signal and uses the recovered carrier to regenerate coherent local oscillator frequencies in the synthesizer a system that provide narrowband voice communications for land-mobile services with nearly the quality achieved with FM systems and do it using less than one-third the bandwidth a device expansion that performs compression and Unidirectional Recovery circuit
Engr. Jaime P.
Amplitude-compandoring Single-sideband (ACSSB)
Compandor (compressor-expander) Multiplexing
process of combining transmissions from more than one source and transmitting them over a common facility, like metallic or optical fiber cable or a radio-frequency channel an analog method of combining two or more analog sources that originally occupied the same frequency band in such a manner that the channels do not interfere with each other a multiplexing method that uses doublesideband suppressed-carrier transmission to combine two information sources into a single composite waveform that is then transmitted over a common facility without the two channels interfering with each other
Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)
Quadrature Multiplexing (QM)
CHAPTER 7 Angle Modulation Transmission

it results whenever the phase angle modulation of a sinusoidal wave is varied with respect to time varying the frequency of a constant-amplitude carrier directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal varying the phase of a constant-amplitude carrier directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal Angle modulation
Direct Frequency Modulation (FM)
Direct (PM)
Phase
Modulation
the relative angular displacement of the carrier phase in radians in respect to the reference phase the relative displacement of the carrier frequency
Phase deviation () Frequency deviation (f)
15

Licuanan, CCNA in hertz in respect to its unmodulated value four terms with reference to angle-modulation the instantaneous change in the phase of the carrier at a given instant of time and indicates how much the phase of the carrier is changing with respect to its reference phase the precise phase of the carrier at a given instant of time the instantaneous change in the frequency of the carrier and is defined as the first time derivation of the instantaneous frequency deviation the precise frequency of the carrier at a given instant of time and is defined as the first derivative of the instantaneous phase it can be defined as angle modulation in which the instantaneous phase deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal voltage and the instantaneous frequency deviation is proportional to the slope or first derivative of the modulating signal an angle modulation in which the instantaneous frequency deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal and the instantaneous phase deviations is proportional to the integral of the modulating signal voltage the output-versus-input transfer functions for the modulators which give the relationship between what output parameter changes in respect to specified changes in the input signal peak phase deviation the change in frequency that occurs in the carrier when it is acted on by a modulating-signal frequency peak-to-peak frequency deviation
Engr. Jaime P.
instantaneous phase deviation instantaneous phase instantaneous frequency deviation instantaneous frequency phase
Instantaneous deviation
Instantaneous phase
Instantaneous deviation
frequency
Instantaneous frequency Phase modulation
Frequency modulation
Deviation sensitivities
Modulation index Frequency deviation Carrier swing Percent Modulation
the ratio of the frequency deviation actually produced to the maximum frequency deviation allowed by law stated in percent form a circuit in which the carrier is varied in such a way that its instantaneous phase is proportional to
Phase modulator
16

Licuanan, CCNA the modulating signal a single-frequency sinusoid
Engr. Jaime P.
Unmodulated carrier (rest frequency) Frequency modulator (frequency deviator) PM Modulator PM demodulator FM modulator FM demodulator Carsons rule
a circuit in which the carrier is varied in such a way that its instantaneous phase is proportional to the integral of the modulating signal differentiator followed by an FM modulator FM demodulator followed by an integrator integrator followed by a PM modulator PM demodulator followed by a differentiator
rule that approximates the bandwidth necessary to transmit an angle-modulated wave as twice the sum of the peak frequency deviation and the highest modulating-signal frequency, it defines a bandwidth that includes approximately 98% of the total power in the modulated wave the worst-case modulation index and is equal to the maximum peak frequency deviation divided by the maximum modulating-signal frequency the interference produced when the highest side frequencies from one channel are allowed to spill over into adjacent channels the noise voltage at the output of a PM demodulator is constant with frequency, whereas the noise voltage at the output of an FM demodulator increases linearly with frequency a high-pass filter a low-pass filter
Deviation Ratio (DR)
Adjacent Channel Interference Noise Triangle
Preemphasis Network Deemphasis Network Direct FM Direct PM
an angle modulation in which the frequency of the carrier is varied directly by the modulating signal an angle modulation in which the frequency of the carrier is deviated indirectly by the modulating signal a circuit that compares the frequency of the noncrystal carrier oscillator to a crystal reference oscillator and then produces a correction voltage proportional to the difference between two frequencies a purpose to achieve near-crystal stability of the
Automatic Control (AFC)
Frequency
17

Licuanan, CCNA transmit carrier without using a crystal in the carrier oscillator meaning cancel of the deviation thus removing the modulation from the FM wave transmitters that produce an output waveform in which the phase deviation is directly proportional to the modulating signal therefore the carrier oscillator can be a crystal because the oscillator itself is not a modulator the low-pass filter that is simply 1/f filter advantages of angle modulation: AFC loop wipe off
Engr. Jaime P.
Indirect FM transmitters
Predistorter (frequency correction network) noise immunity FM thresholding capture effect power utilization efficiency
and
it allows a receiver to differentiate between two signal received with the same frequency
Capture effect
CHAPTER 8 : Angle Modulation Reception and FM Stereo

it rejects the image frequency Preselector RF amplifier Mixer/converter IF amplifiers Detector
it establishes the signal-to-noise ratio and noise figure down-converts RF to IF
it provides most of the gain and selectivity of the receiver it removes the information from the modulated wave
18

Licuanan, CCNA it is a frequency-dependent circuits designed to produce an output voltage that is proportional to the instantaneous frequency at its input the most common circuits used for demodulating FM signal
Engr. Jaime P.
FM Demodulators slope detector Foster-Seeley discriminator ratio detector PLL demodulator quadrature detector tuned-circuit frequency discriminators Single-ended slope detector
it converts FM to AM and then demodulate the AM envelope with conventional peak detectors it is the simplest form of tuned-circuit frequency discriminators that has the most nonlinear voltageversus-frequency characteristics a simply two single-ended slope detectors connected in parallel and fed 180 out of phase a tuned-circuit frequency discriminator whose operation is very similar to that of the balanced slope detector it is relatively immune to amplitude variations in its input signal, it has a single tuned circuit in the transformer secondary it requires no tuned circuits and automatically compensates for changes in the carrier frequency due to instability in the transmit oscillator it extracts the original information signal from the composite IF waveform by multiplying two quadrature (90 out of phase) signals the minimum dB difference in signal strength between two received signals necessary for the capture effect to suppress the weaker signal the inherent ability of FM to diminish the effects of interfering signals it is used rather than a simple mechanical switch to reduce the static noise associated with contact bounce in a mechanical switches
Balanced slope detector Foster-Seeley discriminator (phase shift discriminator) Ratio Detector
Phase-Locked Loop FM Demodulator
(PLL)
Quadrature FM Demodulator (coincidence detector) Capture Ratio
Capture Effect Electronic push-to-talk (PTT)
CHAPTER 9: Digital Modulation

the transmission, reception, and processing of Electronic communications
19

Licuanan, CCNA information with the use of electronic circuits the transmittal of digitally modulated analog signals (carriers) between two or more points in a communication system sometimes called for digital modulation because digitally modulated signals can be propagated through Earths atmosphere and used in wireless communications systems a digitally modulated signal where in the information signal is digital and the amplitude of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal if the frequency is varied proportional to the information signal if the phase of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate information through electronic communications systems a measure of how much information can be propagated through a communication system and is a function of bandwidth and transmission time the most basic digital symbol used to represent information
Engr. Jaime P.
Digital modulation
Digital radio
Amplitude (ASK) Frequency (FSK)
Shift Shift
Keying Keying
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Information theory
Information capacity Binary digit, bit Bit rate
simply the number of bits transmitted during one second and is expressed in bits per second (bps) he published a paper in the Bell System Technical Journal relating the information capacity of a communication channel to bandwidth and signal-tonoise ratio a term derived from the word binary
Claude E. Shannon, 1948
M-ary
a term that is often misunderstood and commonly confused with bit rate (bps). Like bit rate, is also a rate of change; however it refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation have occurred another name for amplitude-shift keying a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation
Baud
Digital Amplitude Modulation (DAM) Frequency-Shift Keying
20

Licuanan, CCNA similar to standard frequency modulation except the modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels rather than a continuously changing analog waveform the most common circuit used for demodulating binary FSK signals (FSK)
Engr. Jaime P.
Phase-locked Loop (PLL)
another form of angle-modulated, constantamplitude digital modulation; an M-ary digital modulation scheme similar to conventional phase modulation except with PSK the input is a binary digital signal and there are a limited number of output phases possible simplest form of PSK; a form of square-wave modulation of a continuous wave signal other names for BPSK:
Phase-shift Keying (PSK)
Binary Phase-shift (BPSK)
Keying
phase reversal keying (PRK) biphase modulation
it acts as a phase reversing switch in a BPSK transmitter similar to a phasor diagram except that the entire phasor is not drawn, only the relative positions of the peaks of the phasors are shown a balanced modulator wherein the output signal is the product of the two input signals
Balanced modulator Constellation diagram, sometimes called signal state-space diagram Product modulator Quaternary Phase Keying (QPSK), Quadrature PSK Dibits Offset QPSK (OQPSK) I bit (hence the name I for in phase channel) Q bit (hence the name Q for quadrature channel) Shift or
another form of angle-modulated constantamplitude digital modulation. An M-ary encoding scheme where N = 2 and M = 4; four output phases are possible for a single carrier frequency group of two bits
a modified form of QPSK where the waveforms on the I and Q channels are offset or shifted in phase from each other by one-half of a bit time a bit in QPSK transmitter that modulates a carrier that is in phase with the reference oscillator a bit in QPSK transmitter that modulates a carrier that is 90 out of phase or in quadrature with the reference carrier three bits are encoded, forming bits, forming tribits and producing eight different output places; there are eight possible output phases a code used to reduce the number of transmission
8-PSK Gray code (maximum
21

Licuanan, CCNA errors a form of digital modulation similar to PSK except the digital information is contained in both the amplitude and the phase of the transmitted carrier; amplitude and phase-shift keying are combined; this reduce the likelihood or error occurring less bandwidth is required to propagate a given bit rate often used to compare the performance of one digital modulation technique to another; the ratio of the transmission bit rate to the minimum bandwidth required for a particular modulation scheme the process of extracting a phase-coherent reference carrier from a receiver signal the binary data were encoded as a precise phase of the transmitted carrier the function to determine the absolute phase of the received carrier necessary to produce a carrier at the receiver that is phase coherent with the transmit reference oscillator methods of carrier recovery distance code)
Engr. Jaime P.
Quadrature-amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Bandwidth compression Bandwidth efficiency (information density or spectral efficiency) Carrier recovery referencing) (phase
Absolute Phase Encoding Carrier Recovery Circuit
squaring loop Costas loop remodulator Phase-sift
an alternative form of digital modulation where the binary input information is contained in the difference between two successive signaling elements rather than the absolute phase combines encoding and modulation to reduce the probability of error, thus improving the bit error performance the manner in which signal-state transitions are allowed to occur, and transitions that do not follow this pattern are interpreted in the receiver as transmission errors an encoding technique used for over standard telephone circuits the ratio of the average carrier power (the combined power of the carrier and its associated sidebands) the energy of a single bit of information
Differential Keying (DPHK)
Convolutional (tree) codes
Trellis Coding
Trellis Code Modulation (TCM) Carrier-to-noise Power Ratio Energy per bit Noise power density
the thermal noise power normalized to a 1-Hz bandwidth
22

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
used to compare two or more digital modulation systems that use different transmission rates (bit rates) modulation schemes simply the ratio of the energy of a single bit to the noise power present in 1 Hz of bandwidth optimum signaling format
Energy per Power Density Energy per Power Density
Bit-to-noise
Bit-to-noise
Antipodal signaling Noncoherent FSK Coherent FSK
the transmitter and receiver are not frequency or phase synchronized local receiver reference signals are in frequency and phase lock with the transmitted signals
CHAPTER 10: Digital Transmission

primary advantage of digital transmission Noise immunity Digital (DSP) Signal Processing
the processing of analog signals using digital methods and includes bandlimiting the signal with filters, amplitude equalization, and phase shifting one of the most important aspects of any communications system because it is costly and limited consists essentially of sampling analog information signals and then converting those samples into discrete pulses and transporting the pulses from a source to a destination over a physical transmission medium
Bandwidth
Pulse Modulation
sometimes called pulse duration modulation (PDM) or pulse length modulation (PLM), as the width of a constant amplitude pulse is varied proportional to the amplitude of the analog signal at the time the signal is sampled the position of a constant-width pulse within a prescribed time slot is varied according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal the amplitude of a constant width, constantposition pulse is varied according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog
Pulse Width (PWM)
Modulation
Pulse Position (PPM)
Modulation
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
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Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
the analog signal is sampled and then converted to a serial n-bit binary code for transmission; each code has the same number of bits and requires the same length of time transmission he is credited with inventing PCM in 1937 while working for AT&T at its Paris laboratories the function to periodically sample the continually changing analog input voltage and convert those samples to a series of constant-amplitude pulses that can more easily be converted to binary PCM code when tops of the sample pulses retain their natural shape during the sample interval making it difficult for an ADC to convert the sample to a PCM code introduces less aperture distortion than natural sampling and requires a slower analog-to-digital converter the gradual discharge across the capacitor during conversion time caused by the capacitor discharging through its own leakage resistance and the input impedance of voltage follower
Pulse (PCM)
Code
Modulation
Alex H. Reeves Sampling circuit in a PCM transmitter
Natural Sampling
Flat-top sampling Droop
establishes the minimum sampling rate (fs) that can be used for a given PCM system an impairment that occurs if minimum Nyquist sample rate is less than two times maximum analog input frequency the process of converting an infinite number of possibilities to a finite number of conditions type of code wherein the codes on the bottom half of the table are a mirror image of the codes on the top half, except for the sign bit the magnitude difference between adjacent steps
Nyquist sampling theorem
Alias or foldover distortion
Quantization Folded binary code
Quantization Quantum Overload limiting) Resolution
interval
or
it occurs if the magnitude of the sample exceeds the highest quantization interval the magnitude of a quantum
distortion
(peak
any round-off errors in the transmitted signal are reproduced when the code is converted back to analog in the receiver
Quantization Error (Qe)
24

Licuanan, CCNA another name for quantization error the ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest possible magnitude that can be decoded by the digital-to-analog converter in the receiver a numerical indication of how efficiently a PCM code is utilized; the ratio of the minimum number of bits required to achieve a certain dynamic range to the actual number of PCM bits used the magnitude change successive code is the same between any two
Engr. Jaime P.
Quantization Noise (Qn) Dynamic Range (DR)
Coding Efficiency
Linear codes
occurs when the input signal is at its minimum amplitude during times when there is no analog input signal, the only input to the PAM sampler is random, thermal noise the first quantization interval is made larger in amplitude than the rest of the steps the lowest-magnitude positive and negative codes have the same voltage range bas all the other codes this type of coding compares the PAM signal to a ramp waveform while a binary counter is being advanced at a uniform rate; it requires a very fast clock this type of coding determines each digit of the PCM code sequentially; analogous to a balance where known reference weights are used to determine an unknown weight flash encoders and are more complex; however they are more suitable for high-speed applications the process of compressing and then expanding amplified less than the lower-amplitude signals amplified more than the lower-amplitude signals
Signal voltage-toquantization noise voltage ratio (SQR) Idle Channel Noise
Midtread quantizing Midrise quantization Level-at-a-time coding
Digit-at-a-time coding
Word-at-a-time coding Companding Compressed Expanded Analog expansion Digital companding
it was implemented with diodes that were placed just after the low-pass filter in the PCM receiver it involves compression in the transmitter after the input sample has been converted to a linear PCM code and then expansion in the receiver prior to PCM decoding
25

Licuanan, CCNA a single integrated-circuit chip function to encode and decode refers to the most of the more recently developed codecs as they include an antialising (bandpass filter), a sample-and-hold circuit, and an analog-to-digital converter in the transmit section and a digital-toanalog converter, a hold circuit, and a bandpass filter in the receive section special voice encoders/decoders; are designed to reproduce only the short-term power spectrum, and the decoded time waveforms often only vaguely resemble the original input signal three vocoding techniques: Codec Combo chips
Engr. Jaime P.
Vocoders
channel vocoder formant vocoder linear predictive coder
he developed the first channel vocoder
Homer Dudley, 1928 Formants First channel vocoder
the spectral power of most speech energy concentrates at three or four peak frequencies a vocoder that compressed conventional speech waveforms into an analog signal with a total bandwidth of approximately 300 Hz a vocoder that takes advantage of the fact that the short term spectral density of typical speech signals seldom distributes uniformly across the entire voice-band spectrum; it simply determines the location of a vocoder that extracts the most significant portions of speech information directly from the time waveform rather than from the frequency spectrum as with the channel and formant vocoders simply the data rate at which serial PCM bits are locked out of the PCM encoder onto the transmission line; it is dependent on the sample rate and the number of bits in the compressed PCM code it uses a single-bit PCM code to achieve digital transmission of analog signals the slope of the analog signal greater than the delta modulator when the original analog input signal has a relatively constant amplitude, the reconstructed signal has variation that were not present in the original signal a delta modulation system where the step size of
Format vocoders
Linear predictive coders
Line speed
Delta modulation Slope overload Granular noise
Adaptive delta modulation
26

Licuanan, CCNA the DAC is varied, depending on the amplitude characteristic of the analog signal secondary lobes an important consideration in the transmission of pulses over circuits with a limited bandwidth and a nonlinear phase response it equalize the distortion for all frequencies, creating a uniform transmission medium and reducing transmission impairments placed in a communication channel to bandlimit signals and reduce or eliminate predicted noise and interference; also used to produce specific pulse response it resulted when the frequency characteristics of a communication channel depart from the normal or expected values; occurs when the peaks of pulses are reduced causing improper ringing frequencies in the time domain simply the superposition of harmonically related sine waves amplitude and phase relationships a series of with specific
Engr. Jaime P.
Ringing tails Intersymbol (ISI) Equalizers interference
Filters
Pulse distortion
Pulse
it occurs if the relative phase relations of the individual sine waves are altered a convenient technique for determining the effects of the degradations introduced into the pulses as they travel to the regenerator
Phase distortion Eye pattern
CHAPTER 11 : Digital T- Carriers and Multiplexing

the transmission of information from one or ore source to one or more destination over the same transmission medium; the transmission medium may be a metallic wire pair, a coaxial cable, a PCS mobile telephone, a terrestrial microwave radio system, a satellite microwave system, or an optical fiber cable a rather unsophisticated form of multiplexing that simply constitutes propagating signals from different sources on different cables that are contained within the same trench transmissions from multiple sources occur on the same facility but not at the same time; transmissions Multiplexing
Space-division multiplexing (SDM)
Time division multiplexing
27

Licuanan, CCNA from various sources are interleaved in the time domain a communication system that uses digital pulse rather than analog signals to encode information stands for transmission one and specifies a digital carrier system using PCM-encoded analog signals occurs once per frame and is recovered in the receiver where it is used to maintain frame and sample synchronization between the TDM transmitter and receiver consists of 24 193-bit frames totaling 4632 bits, of which 24 are bits a digital interface that provides the physical connection to a digital carrier network can handle bit-rate conversions on both directions Digital carrier
Engr. Jaime P.
T1 Additional bit (framing bit)
Extended format
superframe
Data service unit/channel service unit (DSU/CSU) Multiplexers/demultiplexers (muldem) Digital cross-connect (DSX)
provides a convenient place to make patchable interconnects and perform routine maintenance and troubleshooting a low-quality video transmission for use between nondedicated subscribers involves converting standard logic levels to a form more suitable to telephone line transmission can be used to categorize the type of transmission
Picturephone Digital line encoding Duty cycle Nonreturn to zero (NRZ) Return to zero (RZ) DC wandering
if the binary pulse is maintained for the entire bit time if the active time of the binary pulse is less than 100% of the bit time a condition when a long string of either logic 1s or 0s produces a condition in which a receive may lose its amplitude reference for optimum discrimination between received 1s and 0s a popular type of line encoding that produces a strong timing component for clock recovery and does not cause dc wandering used for encoding SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers) time-code data for recording on videotapes
Digital (Manchester diphase) Biphase M
biphase code or
28

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
forms of delay-modulated codes where a logic 1 condition produces a transition in the middle of the clock pulse and a logic 0 produces no transition at the end of the clock intervals unless followed by another logic 0 used for the transmission of PCM-encoded timedivision multiplexed digital signals filters and shapes the incoming digital signal and raises its power level so that the regenerator circuit can make a pulse-no pulse decision reproduces the clocking information from the received data and provides the proper timing information to0 the regenerator simply a threshold detector that compares the sampled voltage received to a reference level and determines whether the bit is a logic 1 or logic 0 were designed to combine PCM and TDM techniques for short-haul transmission of 24 64-kbps channels with each channel capable of carrying digitally encoded voice-band telephone signals or data a technique used to ensure that sufficient transitions occur in the data to maintain clock synchronization the same as added-digit framing except that digits are added in groups or words instead of as individual bits 2 methods of interleaving PCM transmissions:
Miller codes
T carriers
Amplifier/equalizer
Timing clock recovery
Regenerative repeater
T1 carrier systems
Binary eight substitution (B8ZS) Added-channel framing
zero
bit interleaving word interleaving
a large-scale integration chip designed for use in the telecommunications industry for private branch exchanges, central office switches, digital handsets, voice store-and-forward systems and digital echo suppressors combined codec chips; provide the analog-todigital and the digital-to-analog conversions and the transmit and receive filtering necessary to interface a full-duplex (four wire) voice telephone circuit to the PCM highway of a TDM carrier system multiple sources that originally occupied the same
Codec
Combo chip
Frequency-division
29

Licuanan, CCNA frequency spectrum are each converted to a different frequency band and transmitted simultaneously over a single transmission medium describes the modulating signal (intelligence) in a communications system a double side-band suppressed carrier modulator
Engr. Jaime P.
multiplexing (FDM)
Baseband Balanced modulator Guard bands Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
a void band of frequencies that is not included within any supergroup band involves the transmission of multiple digital signal using several wavelengths without their interfering with one another separate signals with different wavelengths in a manner similar to the way filters separate electrical signals of different frequencies direct signals of a particular wavelength to a specific destination while not separating while not separating all the wavelengths present on the cable specific wavelengths are separated from the other optic signal by reflecting them at different angles a mirror with a surface that has been coated with a material that permits light of only one wavelength to pass through while reflecting all other wavelengths
Demultiplexers or splitters
WDM routers
Diffraction prisms Dichroic filter
gratings
or
CHAPTER 12: Metallic Cable Transmission Media

two general category of transmission media guided unguided
transmission media with some form of conductor that provides a conduit in which electromagnetic signals are contained it transports signals using electric current
Guided transmission media
Copper Cable transmission medium
a guided transmission medium and can be any physical facility used to propagate electromagnetic signals between two locations in a communication system
30

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
include open wire, twin lead and pair copper wire as well as coaxial cable
twisted-
Metallic medium
transmission
the most common means of interconnecting devices in local area networks transmission of digital signals a metallic conductor system used to transfer energy from one point to another using electrical current flow; two or more electrical conductors separated by a nonconductive insulator (dielectric); can be as short as a few inches or span several thousand miles; can be used to propagate dc or lowfrequency ac or to propagate very high frequencies the displacement (amplitude) is in the direction of propagation; surface wave of water the direction of propagation of displacement is perpendicular to the direction of propagation; electromagnetic propagation of electrical power transmission line occurs in the ______________________ along form a of
Cable transmission medium
Transmission lines
Longitudinal waves Transverse waves
Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves Space quadrature
the E and H fields are perpendicular to each other (at 90 angles) at all points electromagnetic waves that travel along transmission line from the source to the load a
Incident waves Reflected waves Sound waves
those that travel from the load back toward the source it travel at approximately 1100 feet per second in the normal atmosphere the rate at which the periodic wave repeats the distance of one cycle occurring in space
Frequency Wavelength Differential or Balanced signal transmission Metallic circuit currents Longitudinal currents
with two-wire balanced lines, both conductors carry current; however, one conductor carries the signal, and the other conductor is the return path currents that flow in opposite directions in a balanced wire pair currents that flow in the same direction
31

Licuanan, CCNA cancellation of common mode signals
Engr. Jaime P.
Common mode rejection Single-ended or Unbalanced signal transmission Balun (balanced unbalanced) Parallel-wire lines Open-wire lines to
with an unbalanced transmission line, one wire is at ground potential, whereas the wire is at signal potential a circuit device used to connect a balanced transmission line to an unbalanced load are comprised of two or more metallic conductors separated by a nonconductive insulating material called a dielectric two-wire parallel conductors; consist simply of two parallel wires, closely spaced and separated by air; its advantage is its simple construction; there is no shielding, radiation losses are high, and the cable is susceptible to picking up signals through mutual induction occurs when a signal on one cable interferes with a signal on an adjacent cable it is called if the sleeve is woven into a mesh
transmission
transmission
Crosstalk Braid Attenuation Crosstalk
it is given in dB of loss per 100 meters of cable with respect to frequency given in dB of attenuation between the transmit signal and the signal is returned due to crosstalk with higher dB values indicating less crosstalk the name given to the area between the ceiling and the roof in a single building or between the ceiling and the floor of the next higher level in a multistory building plenum cables that coated with Teflon, which does not emit noxious chemicals when ignited, or special fire-resistant PVC a coaxial cable with one layer of foil insulation and one layer of braided shielding consist of two layers of foil insulation and two layers of braided metal shielding cables that are relatively expensive to manufacture and to minimize losses, the air insulator must be relatively free of moisture have lower losses than hollow cables and are easier to construct, install and maintain
Plenum
Plenum-grade PVC
Dual shielded Quad shielding Rigid-air filled coaxial
Solid coaxial cables
32

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
sometimes referred to as bayonet mount as they can be easily twisted on or off are threaded and must be screwed on and off
BNC connectors n-type connectors Secondary constants Characteristic impedance (surge impedance)
the transmission characteristics of a transmission line defined as the impedance seen looking into an infinitely long line or the impedance seen looking into a finite length of line that is terminated in a purely resistive load with a resistance equal to the characteristic impedance of the line used to express the attenuation (signal loss) and the phase shift per unit length of a transmission line defined simply as the ratio of the actual velocity of propagation of an electromagnetic wave through a given medium to the velocity of propagation through a vacuum (free space) the relative dielectric constant of air
Propagation constant (propagation coefficient) Velocity factor constant) (velocity
1.0006 Delay lines
transmission lines designed to intentionally introduce a time delay in the path of an electromagnetic wave a phenomenon that when current flows through an isolated round wire, the magnetic flux associated with it is in the form of concentric circles surrounding the wire core the ratio of the ac resistance to the dc resistance of a conductor it caused a difference of potential between two conductors of metallic transmission line the energy radiated if the separation between conductors in a metallic transmission is an appreciable fraction of a wavelength, the electrostatic and electromagnetic fields that surround the conductor cause the line to act as if it were an antenna and transfer energy to a nearby conductive material it occurs whenever a connection is made to or from a transmission line or when two sections of transmission line are connected together
Skin effect
Resistance ratio Dielectric heating Radiation loss
Coupling loss
33

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
a luminous discharge that occurs between the two conductors of a transmission line when the difference of potential between them exceeds the breakdown voltage of the dielectric insulator voltage that propagates from the source toward the load voltage that propagates from the load toward the source a transmission line with no reflected power
Corona
Incident voltage Reflected voltage Flat or nonresonant line Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
defined as the ratio of the maximum voltage to the minimum voltage or the maximum current to the minimum current of a standing wave on a transmission lin used to match transmission lines to purely resistive loads whose resistance is not equal to the characteristic impedance of the line simply a piece of additional transmission line that is placed across the primary line as close to the load as possible; the susceptance is to tune out the susceptance of the load a technique that can be used to locate an impairment in a metallic cable simply a flat conductor separated from a ground plane by an insulating dielectric material simply a flat conductor sandwiched between two ground planes; less likely to radiate; losses are lower
Quarter-wavelength
Transmission-line stub
Time-domain reflectometry (TDR) Microstrip Stripline
CHAPTER 13 : Optical Fiber transmission Media

the bandwidth of an analog communications system is expressed as a percentage of its carrier frequency it was a device constructed from mirrors and Bandwidth utilizations ratio Photophone
34

Licuanan, CCNA selenium detectors that transmitted sound waves over a beam of light he successfully transmitted images through a single glass fiber they experimented with through bundles of fibers light transmission H. Lamm A.C.S van Heel H.H. Hopkins N.S. Kapany 1951 N.S. Kapany
Engr. Jaime P.
it was when the three scientists experimented on a bundle of glass fiber the transmission of light he coined the term fiber optics
they wrote a paper describing how it was possible to use stimulated emission for amplifying light waves as well as microwaves defined as the maximum angle in which external light rays may strike the air/glass interface and still propagate down the fiber other term used for acceptance angle
Charles H. Townes Arthur L. Schawlow
Acceptance angle
Acceptance cone half-angle Numerical aperture
closely related to acceptance angle and is figure of merit commonly used to measure the magnitude of the acceptance angle the refractive index of a glass core only one path for light rays to take down a cable more than one path
1.5 Single mode Multimode Mode
the term that means path in fiber optics technology these parameters propagates dictate how a light
mode or propagation index profile of fiber
the graphical representation of the magnitude of the refractive index across the fiber has a central core with a uniform refractive index no cladding and the refractive index of the core is nonuniform has a central core that is smaller in diameter that any of the multimode cables
Index profile Step-index fiber Graded-index fiber Single-mode step-index fiber
35

Licuanan, CCNA type of fiber has a large light to fiber aperture and allows more external light to enter the cable the light rays that make up the pulse spread out in time, causing a corresponding reduction in the pulse amplitude and stretching of pulse width other term used for pulse spreading UPRZ is the acronym for _____ a condition wherein the energy from pulse a were to fall back one-half of a bit time, it would interfere with pulse b UPNRZ is the acronym for _____ the light energy from pulse a were to fall back one bit time, it would interfere with pulse b and change what was a logic 0 to logic 1 the difference between the absolute delay times of the fastest and slowest rays of light propagating down a fiber of unit length equal to the pulse spreading constant times the total fiber length caused by imperfect physical connections the other term used for gap displacement the typical value of displacement less than 2 loss for an angular
Engr. Jaime P.
Multimode step-index optical fiber Pulse spreading
Pulse-width dispersion Unipolar return to zero UPNRZ transmission
Unipolar nonreturn to zero UPRZ
Pulse spreading constant
Total pulse spread Coupling losses End separation Less 0.5 dB 30 nm to 50 nm Linewidth LED
these are the spectral widths of a standard LED the wavelength equivalent of bandwidth a pn junction diode usually made from a semiconductor material such as aluminum gallium arsenide or gallium arsenide phosphide a group iv atom used to produce light wavelengths in the 800 nm range a small batterylike device that produced a dc output voltage proportional to the amount of light received a special high-intensity, single frequency light source. it produces a very narrow beam of brilliant
Arsenide Photocell
Laser
36

Licuanan, CCNA light of a specific wavelength (color); it can penetrate atmospheric obstacles better than other type of light, commonly used as a light source, this is a semiconductor device that puts out a low-intensity red light beam another commonly used light source, that generates an extremely intense single frequency light beam light sensitive device, used to detect the light pulses; converts the light pulses to electrical signal LED
Engr. Jaime P.
Solid-state laser
Photocell or light detector
CHAPTER 14: Electromagnetic Wave Propagation

a form of electromagnetic radiation that consist of traveling electric and magnetic fields orientation of the electric field vector in respect to the surface of earth the polarization remains constant Radio waves Polarization Linear polarization Horizontal polarization Vertical polarization Circular polarization
a form of linear polarization when the electric field is propagating parallel to the Earths surface if the electric field is propagating perpendicular to the Earths surface if the polarization vector rotates 360 as the wave moves one wavelength through the space and the field strength is equal at all angles of polarization when the field strength varies with changes in polarization shows a surface of constant phase of electromagnetic waves; formed when points of equal phase on rays propagated from the same source are joined together a single location from which rays propagate equally in all directions an invisible force field produced by a magnet, such as a conductor when current is flowing through it
Elliptical polarization Wavefront
Point source Magnetic field
37

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
the rate at which energy passes through a given surface area in free space also an invisible force fields produced by a difference in voltage potential between two conductors a source that radiates power at a constant rate uniformly in all directions the power density is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source reduction in power density and occurs in free space as well as the Earths atmosphere the reduction of power where in it contains particles that can absorb electromagnetic energy the reduction in power density due to nonfreespace propagation sometimes referred to as the bending of the radio-wave path the angle formed between the incident wave and the normal the angle formed between the refracted wave and the normal the ratio of the velocity of propagation of a light ray in free space to the velocity of propagation of a light ray in a given material the ratio of the reflected to the incident voltage intensities a condition when an incident wavefront strikes an irregular surface, it randomly scattered in many directions reflection from a perfectly smooth surface
Power density Electric fields
Isotropic radiator Inverse square law Attenuation Absorption loss Absorption Refraction Angle of incidence Angle of refraction Refractive index
Reflection coefficient Diffuse reflection
Specular reflection
(mirrorlike)
the fraction of power that penetrates medium two
Absorption coefficient
states that a semirough surface will reflect as if it were a smooth surface whenever the cosine of the angle of incidence is greater than /8d, where d is the depth of the surface irregularity and is the wavelngth of the incident wave
Rayleigh criterion
38

Licuanan, CCNA defined as the modulation or redistribution of energy within a wavefront when it passes near the edge of an opaque object; the phenomenon that allows light or radio waves to propagate around corners states that every point on a given spherical wavefront can be considered as a secondary point source of electromagnetic waves from which other secondary waves are radiated outward occurs whenever two or more waves simultaneously occupy the same point in space; states that the total voltage intensity at a given point in space is the sum of the individual wave sectors electromagnetic waves traveling within Earths atmosphere communications between two or more points on Earth direct and ground-reflected waves together Diffraction
Engr. Jaime P.
Huygens principle
Linear superposition
Terrestrial waves Terrestrial communications Space waves Ground wave Sky wave radio
the cumulative sum of the direct, groundreflected, and surface waves depends on the presence of the ionized layers above the Earth that return some of the energy that otherwise would be lost in outer space an earth-guided electromagnetic wave that travels over the surface of Earth; travel essentially in a straight line between the transmit and received antennas occurs when the density of the lower atmosphere is such that electromagnetic waves are trapped between it and Earths surface electromagnetic waves that are directed above the horizon another term for sky wave propagation
Surface waves Direct waves Duct propagation
Sky waves Ionospheric propagation D layer
the lowest layer of the ionosphere and is located approximately between 30 miles and 60 miles above Earths surface
located approximately between 60 miles and 85 miles above the Earths surface; sometimes called Kennelly-Heavyside layer
E layer
39

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
made up of two layers F1 and F2 layers; during daytime, F1 layer is located between 85 miles and 155 miles above the earths surface; the F2 layer is located 85 miles to 185 miles above the Earths surface during winter and 155 miles to 220 miles in the summer defined as the highest frequency that can be propagated directly upward and still be returned to earth by the ionosphere; depends on the ionization density and, therefore varies with the time of day and season the height above earths surface from which a refracted wave appears to have been reflected the highest frequency that can be used for sky wave propagation between two specific points on Earths surface a law that assumes a flat Earth and a flat reflecting layer can never exist 85% of the MUF that provides more reliable communications defined as the minimum distance from a transmit antenna that a sky wave at a given frequency will be returned to Earth usually of little significance, as it tends to be much weaker than the lower ray because it spreads over a much larger area than the lower ray the area between where the surface waves are completely dissipated and the point where the first sky wave returns to Earth often defined as the loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight line through a vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy from nearby objects it occurs simply because of the inverse square law loss attributed to several different phenomena and can include both short- and long- term an additional loss is added to the normal path loss to accommodate temporary fading
F layer
Critical frequency (fc)
Virtual height Maximum (MUF) Secant law Optimum working frequency (OWF) Skip distance Pedersen ray usable frequency
Quiet or skip zone
Free-space path loss
Spreading loss Fading Fade margin
40

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
CHAPTER 15 : Antennas and Waveguide

the plane parallel to the mutually perpendicular lines of the electric and magnetic fields the ratio of radiate to reflected energy Wavefront Radiation efficiency Quarter-wave antenna (vertical monopole sometimes called Marconi antenna) Hertz antenna Dipole
antenna wherein the conductors are spread out in a straight line to a total length of one-quarter wavelength a half wave dipole
meaning two dipoles that is used to radiate more energy by simply spreading the conductors farther apart a basic antenna that cannot amplify a signal, at least not in the true sense of the word a special coupling device that can be used to direct the transmit and receive signals and provide the necessary isolation a polar diagram or graph representing field strength or power densities at various angular positions relative to an antenna
Passive reciprocal device Diplexer
Radiation pattern
primary beam in a 90 direction represent undesired radiation or reception the lobe that receives the most energy
Major lobe Minor lobe Front lobe Side lobes
lobes adjacent to the front lobe (the 180 minor lobe) lobes in a direction exactly opposite the front lobe ratio of the front lobe power to the back lobe power the ratio of the front lobe to a side lobe
Back lobe Front-to-back ratio Front-to-side ratio Line of shoot (point of shoot)
the line bisecting the major lobe, or pointing from the center of the antenna in the direction of maximum radiation refers to the filed that is close to the antenna
Near field
41

Licuanan, CCNA refers to the field pattern that is at great distance sometimes called to near field Far field Induction field Radiation field
Engr. Jaime P.
sometimes called for far field because power that reaches the far field continues to radiate outward and is never returned to the antenna an ac antenna resistance and is equal to the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the square of the current at its feedpoint the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to the sum of the power radiated and the power dissipated or the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the total input power the ratio of the power density radiated in a particular direction to the power density radiated to the same point by a reference antenna, assuming both antennas are radiating the same amount of power the maximum directive gain
Radiation resistance
Antenna efficiency
Directive gain
Directivity Power gain
the same as directive gain except that the total power fed to the antenna is used; it is assumed that the given antenna and the reference antenna is lossless defined as an equivalent transmit power; the equivalent power that an isotropic antenna would have to radiate to achieve the same power density in the chosen direction at a given point as another antenna the power density in space and a somewhat misleading quantity refers simply to the orientation of the electric field radiated from it. simply the angular separation between the two half-power points on the major lobe of an antennas plane radiation pattern, usually taken in one of the principal planes vaguely defined as the frequency range over which antenna operation is satisfactory normally taken as the difference between the half-power frequencies but sometimes refers to variations in the antennas input impedance
Effective Isotropic Power (EIRP)
Radiated
Captured power density Polarization of an antenna Beamwidth
Antenna bandwidth Bandwidth
42

Licuanan, CCNA the point on the antenna where the transmission line is connected the feedpoint presents an ac load to the transmission line an electrically short dipole Feedpoint
Engr. Jaime P.
Antenna input impedance Elementary doublet Resonant antenna Marconi antenna
a multiple of quarter-wavelength long and open circuited at the far end a monopole antenna one-quarter wavelength long, mounted vertically with the lower end either connected to ground or grounded through the antenna coupling network a wire structure placed below the antenna and erected above the ground; should be insulated from earth ground a technique wherein the physical length of an antenna remains unchanged although its effective electrical length is increased a coil (inductor) added in series with a dipole antenna that effectively increases the antennas electrical length a technique where in a metallic array that resembles a spoked wheel is placed on top of the antenna formed when two or more antenna elements are combined to form a single antenna an individual radiator, such as a half- or quarterwave dipole elements that are directly connected to the transmission line and receive power from or are driven by source not connected to the transmission line; they receive energy only through mutual induction with a driven element or another parasitic element a parasitic element that is longer than the driven element from which it receives energy; effectively reduces the signal strength in its direction and increases it in the opposite direction a parasitic element that is shorter than its associated driven element; increases field strength in its direction and reduces it in the opposite direction
Counterpoise
Loading
Loading coil
Top loading
Antenna array Antenna element Driven elements
Parasitic element
Reflector
Director
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Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
one of the simplest types of antenna rays; made by simply placing a several resonant dipoles of equal size in parallel with each other and in a straight line essentially the same element configuration as the broadside array except that the transmission line is not crisscrossed between elements; as a result the field are additive in line with the plane of the array a nonresonant antenna that is capable of operating satisfactorily over a relatively wide bandwidth making it ideally suited for HF transmission essentially a single antenna made up of two elements dipole elements larger in diameter;
Broadside array
End-fire array
Rhombic antenna
Folded dipole Fat dipole Yagi-uda antenna Yagi antenna
antenna named after two Japanese scientists who invented it and describe its operation a linear array consisting of a dipole and two or more parasitic elements: one reflector and one or more directors formed by placing two dipoles at right angles to each other 90 out of phase a class of frequency-independent antennas where in its primary advantage is the independence of their radiation and radiation pattern to frequency; from the initial work of V. H. Rumsey, J. D. Dyson, R. H. DuHamel and D.E. Isbell the ratio of the highest to the lowest frequency over which antenna will satisfactorily operate simply a single-turn coil of wire that is significantly shorter than one wavelength and carries RF current
Turnsile antenna Log-periodic antennas
Bandwidth ratio Loop antenna
a group of antenna or a group of antenna arrays that, when connected together function as a single antenna whose beamwidth and direction can be changed electronically without having to physically move any of the individual antennas or antenna elements within the array
Phased array antenna
44

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
a broadband VHF or UHF antenna that is ideally suited for applications for which radiating circular rather than horizontal or vertical polarized electromagnetic waves; used as a single element antenna or stacked horizontally or vertically in an array to modify its radiation pattern by increasing the gain and decreasing the beamwidth of the primary lobe electromagnetic radiation is in a direction at right angles to the axis of the helix radiation is in the axial direction and produces a broadband, relatively directional pattern defined as the ratio of its maximum gain in the forward direction to its maximum gain in its backward direction used with point-to-point microwave systems
Helical antenna
Normal mode Axial mode Front-to-back ratio
Highly directional antennas
provide extremely high gain and directivity and are very popular for microwave radio and satellite communications skills two main parts of parabolic antenna:
Parabolic reflector antennas
parabolic reflector feed mechanism dish
resemble the shape of a plate or dish; a plane curve that is defined as the locus of a point that moves so that its distance from another point added to its distance from a straight line is of constant length the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the mouth of the parabola the resulting curved surface dish
Parabolic reflectors (parabolic dish, antennas)
Aperture ratio Paraboloid Spillover or leakage
energy near the edge of the dish does not reflect but rather is diffracted around the edge of the dish considers both the radiation pattern of the primary radiator and the effect the ratio of the focal length of the antenna to the reflector diamtere houses the primary antenna which radiates electromagnetic waves toward the reflector
Aperture efficiency Aperture number Feed mechanism
45

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
three primary types of feed mechanism for parabolic antennas:
center feed horn feed cassegrain feed
the primary antenna is placed at the focus
Center feed Horn feed Cassegrein feed
the primary antenna is a small horn antenna rather than a simple dipole or dipole array the primary radiating source is located in or just behind a small opening at the vertex of the paraboloid rather than at the focus consists of a cone that is truncated in a pice of circular waveguide; the waveguide in turn connects the antenna to either the transmitter or the receiver a hollow conductive tube, usually rectangular in cross section but sometimes circular or elliptical the velocity at which a wave propagates; the velocity at which information signals of any kind are propagated; also the velocity at which energy is propagated; can be measured by determining the time it takes for a pulse to propagate a given length of a waveguide velocity at which the wave changes phase; the apparent velocity of a particular phase of the wave; the velocity with which a wave changes phase in a direction parallel to a conducting surface; such as the walls of a waveguide minimum frequency of operation; the absolute limiting frequency; frequencies above the cutoff frequency will not be propagated by the waveguide maximum wavelength that they can propagate; defined as the smallest free-space wavelength that is just unable to propagate in the waveguide the travel of electromagnetic waves down a waveguide in different configurations means that the electric field lines are everywhere transverse (perpendicular to the guide walls) waveguides used in radar and microwave applications when it is necessary or advantageous to propagate both vertically and horizontally
Conical horn antenna
Waveguides
Group velocity
Phase velocity
Cutoff frequency
Cutoff wavelength
Propagation of modes TE
Circular waveguide
46

Licuanan, CCNA polarized waves in the same waveguide waveguide that is more expensive to manufacture than a standard rectangular waveguide; however it allows operation at lower frequencies for a given size consists of a spiral-wound ribbons of brass or copper; used extensively in microwave test equipment
Engr. Jaime P.
Ridged waveguide
Flexible waveguide
CHAPTER 16: Telephone Instruments and Signal

a part of global communications network which uses telephone or a data modem on a telephone network PTN that interconnects subscribers through one or more switches the simplest and most straightforward form of telephone service which involves subscribers accessing the public telephone network through a pair of wires simply an unshielded twisted-pair transmission line (cable pair) consisting of two insulated conductors twisted together; generally comprised of several lengths of copper wire interconnected at junction and cross-connect boxes located in manholes, back alleys, or telephone equipment rooms with large buildings and building complexes Public (PTN) telephone network
Public switch network (PSTN)
telephone
Plain old telephone service (POTS)
Subscriber loop (local loop)
means to connect a telephone set at a subscribers location to the closest telephone office, which is commonly called an end office, local exchange office, or central office enables the subscriber to access the public telephone network the quality of transmission over a telephone depends on:
Subscriber loop
Electronic (ESS)
switching
system
received volume relative frequency response of the telephone circuit degree of interference
helps prevent the speaker from talking too
Sidetone/talkback
47

Licuanan, CCNA loudly pair of wires connecting a subscriber to the closest telephone office one wire on the local loop come from the -inch-diameter two-conductor phone plugs and patch cords used at telephone company switch-boards to interconnect and test circuits Local loop Tip Tip and Ring
Engr. Jaime P.
standards for registered jacks and is sometimes called as RJ-XX; a series of telephone connection interfaces (receptacle and plug) that are registered with the U.S. FCC the most common telephone jack in use today and can have up to six conductors reasons why a dc voltage was used rather than an ac voltage
RJ
RJ-11
prevent power supply hum allow service to continue in the event of a power outage people were afraid of ac
voltage selected to minimize electrolytic corrosion on the loop wires; used for supervisory signaling and to provide talk battery for the microphone in the telephone set examples of supervisory signals
-48 Vdc
on-hook off-hook dial pulsing
placed directly across the tip and ring of the local loop; the purpose of the ringer is to alert the destination party of incoming calls a simple single-throw, double pole (STDP) switch placed across the tip and ring; mechanically connected to the telephone is idle (on hook) is open; when the telephone is in use (off hook) is closed completing an electrical path through the microphone between the tip and ring of the local loop combinations of passive components that are used to regulate the amplitude and frequency response of the voice signals
Ringer circuit
On/off hook circuit (switch)
Equalizer
the receiver for the telephone; converts electrical signals received from the local loop to
Speaker
48

Licuanan, CCNA acoustical signals (sound waves) that can be heard and understood by a human being; connected to the local loop through the hybrid network; typically enclosed in the handset of the telephone along with the microphone the transmitter for the telephone; converts acoustical signals in the form of sound pressure waves from the caller to electrical signals that are transmitted into the telephone network through the local subscriber loop a special balanced transformer used to convert a two-wire circuit (the local loop) into a four-wire circuit (the telephone set) and vice versa, thus enabling full duplex operation over a two-wire circuit enables the subscriber to output signals representing digits and this enables the caller to enter the destination telephone number; either an electronic dial-pulsing circuit or a Touch-Tone keypad which sends various combinations of tones representing the called digits are acknowledgement and status signals that ensure the processes necessary to set up and terminate a telephone call are completed in an orderly and timely manner the exchange of signaling messages over local loops between stations (telephone) and telephone company switching machines the exchange of signaling messages between switching machines indicate a request for service such as going off hook or ringing the destination telephone provide call status information, such as busy or ring-back signals provide information in the form announcements such as number changed another number, a number no longer in service of to Microphone
Engr. Jaime P.
Hybrid network (hybrid coil or duplex coil)
Dialing circuit
Call progress tones and call progress signals
Station signaling
Interoffice signaling Alerting signals Supervising signals Controlling signals
provide the routing information such as calling and called numbers
Addressing signals
Call Progress Tone Summary Tone or Frequency
Duration/Range
49

Licuanan, CCNA Signal Dial tone DTMF
Engr. Jaime P.
350 Hz plus 440 Hz 697 Hz, 770 Hz, 852 Hz, 941 Hz, 1209 Hz, 1336 Hz, 1477 Hz, 1633 Hz
MF
700 Hz, 900 Hz, 1100 Hz, 1300 Hz, 1500 Hz, 1700 Hz
Dial pulses Station busy Equipment busy Ringing Ring-back Receiver on hook Receiver off hook Receiver-leftoffhook alert
Open/closed switch 480 Hz plus 620 Hz 480 Hz plus 620 Hz 20 Hz, 90 vrms (nominal) 440 Hz plus 480 Hz Open loop Dc current 1440 Hz, 2060 Hz, 2450 Hz, 2600 Hz
Continuous Two of eight tones On, 50-ms minimum Off, 45-ms minimum 3-s minimum Two of six tones On, 90-ms minimum 120-ms maximum On, 39 ms Off, 61 ms On, 0.5 s Off, 0.5 s On, 0.2 s Off, 0.3 s On, 2 s Off, 4 s On, 2 s Off, 4 s Indefinite 20 mA minimum 80 mA maximum On, 0.1 s Off, 0.1 s
a 2600-Hz frequency tone placed on a circuit to indicate the circuit is not currently in use a multifrequency control tone comprised of 1100 Hz plus 1700 Hz ranging from 90 ms to 120 ms; used to indicate the beginning of a sequence of MF digits the method originally used to transfer digits from a telephone set to the local switch is sent from the switching machine back to the calling station whenever the called telephone number is off hook; a two-tone signal comprised of 480Hz and 620 Hz sent from the switching machine back to the
IDLE signal Key Pulse (KP) signal
Dial pulsing pulsing)
(rotary
dial
Station busy signal
Equipment
busy
signal
50

Licuanan, CCNA calling station complete the unavailability whenever the call because system cannot of equipment (congestion available) Blocking Ringing signal
Engr. Jaime P.
tone/no-circuits-
whenever the system is overloaded and more calls are being placed than can be completed sent from a central office to a subscriber whenever there is an incoming call; the purpose is to ring the bell in the telephone set to alert the subscriber that there is an incoming call sent back to the calling party at the same time the ringing signal is sent to the called party; the purpose is to give some assurance to the calling party that the destination telephone number has been accepted, processed, and is being rung simply tones that operate cords attached to the handset; a full duplex, battery-operated , portable radio transceiver that communicates directly with a stationary transceiver located somewhere in the subscribers office enables the destination of a telephone call to display the name and telephone number of the calling party before the telephone is answered; allows subscribers to screen incoming calls and decide whether they want to answer the telephone; a simplex transmission sent from the central office switch over the local loop to a caller ID display unit at the destination simplex wireless communications system deigned to alert subscribers of awaiting messages; relay radio signals and messages from wire-line and cellular telephones to subscribers carrying portable receivers
Ring-back signal
Cordless telephone
Caller ID
Paging transmitters
CHAPTER 17 : The Telephone Circuit

the network bandwidth for a standard voiceband message channel the only facility required by all voice-band circuits, as it is the means by which subscriber locations are connected to the local telephone company 4 kHz Local subscriber loop
51

Licuanan, CCNA a metallic transmission line comprised of two insulated copper wires (a pair) twisted together an actual loss of signal strength Local loop Attenuation
Engr. Jaime P.
occurs when two or more frequencies undergo different amounts of phase shift depend on the wire diameter, conductor spacing, dielectric constant of the insulator separating the wires and the conductivity of the wire refers to the electrical characteristics of a cable uniformly distributed along its length the largest cable used in a local loop, usually 3600 pair of copper wire placed underground or in conduit a cross-connect point used to distribute the larger feeder cable into smaller distribution cables a smaller version of a feeder cable containing less wire pairs a device that serves as the demarcation point between local telephone company responsibility and subscriber responsibility for telephone service the final length of cable pair that terminates at the SNI that portion of the local loop that is strung between poles the location where individual cable pairs within a distribution cable are separated and extended to the subscribers location on a drop wire an irregularity found in cables serving subscriber locations; unused sections of cable that are connected in shunt to a working cable pair the basic yardstick used for making power measurements in communications defined as the optimum level of a test tone on a channel on a channel at some point in a communications system the ratio in dB of the power of a signal at that point to the power the same signal would be at a 0dBm transmission level point
Phase distortions Transmission characteristics
Distributed parameters Feeder cable (F1)
Serving area interface (SAI) Distribution cable (F2) Subscriber or standard network interface (SNI) Drop wire Aerial Distribution cable and dropwire cross-connect point Bridge tap
Decibel, dB
Transmission (TLP)
level
point
Transmission level (TL)
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Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
a parameter used as a reference for data transmission used primarily in Europe; assumes a perfect receiver; therefore, its weighting curve corresponds to the frequency response of the human ear only apply to dedicated private-line data circuits that utilize the private sector of the public telephone network circuits with bandwidths comparable to those of standard voice-grade telephone channels that do not utilize the public switched telephone network direct locations connections between two or more
Data level point (DLP) Psophometric noise weighting
Transmission parameters
Private-line circuits Attenuation distortion (frequency response, differential gain and 1004-Hz deviation) Envelope delay distortion Line conditioning C-type conditioning
the difference in circuit gain of a reference frequency an indirect method of evaluating the phase delay characteristics of a circuit the process used to improve a basic telephone channel; improves the high frequency response of a message channel and reduces power loss specifies the maximum limits for attenuation and envelope delay distortion; pertains to line impairments for which compensation can be made with filters and equalizers telephone systems provided by local telephone companies dedicated to a single customer, usually with a large number of stations a relatively low-capacity switching machine where the subscribers are generally limited to stations within the same building or building complex the time delay encountered by a signal as it propagates from a source to a destination delay measured in angular units, such as degrees or radians the actual time required for a particular frequency to propagate from a source to a destination through a communications channel evaluate not the true phase-versus-frequency characteristics but rather the phase of a wave that is the result of a narrow band of frequencies
Private switched networks
Private (PBX)
branch
exchange
Propagation time Phase delay Absolute phase delay
Envelope delay
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Licuanan, CCNA
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the phase difference at the different carrier frequencies; indicates the relative delays of the various carrier frequencies with respect to the reference frequency neither reduces the noise on a circuit nor improves the signal-to-noise ratio; a requirement and does not add anything to the circuit and it cannot be used to improve a circuit; it simply places higher requirements on circuits used for high-speed data transmission unwanted frequencies multiples of the transmitted
Envelope delay distortion
D-type conditioning
Harmonic distortion Intermodulation distortion (fluctuation noise or crossmodulation noise) 1004-Hz test tone C-message noise C-notched noise
cross products [sums and differences] of the transmitted frequencies the purpose is to simulate the combined signal power of a standard voice-band data transmission determine the average weighted rms noise power differ from standard C-message noise measurements only in the fact that a holding tone is applied to the transmit end of the circuit while the noise measurement is taken ensures that the circuit operation simulates a loaded voice or data transmission a communications term that indicates the presence of a signal power comparable to the power of an actual message transmission characterized by high-amplitude peaks (impulses) of short duration having an approximately flat frequency spectrum; can saturate a message channel; the primary source of transmission errors in data circuits a sudden, random change in the gain of a circuit resulting in a temporary change in the signal level a decrease in circuit gain of more than 12 dB lasting longer than 4 ms; characteristics of temporary open-circuit conditions and are generally caused by deep fades on radio facilities or by switching delays
Holding current Loaded
Impulse noise
Gain hit
Dropout
54

Licuanan, CCNA sudden, random changes in the phase of a signal; are classified as temporary variations in the phase of a signal lasting longer than 4 ms a form of incidental phase modulation-a continuous, uncontrolled variation in the zero crossings of a signal; occurs at a 300 Hz rate or lower and its primary cause is low-frequency ac ripple in power supplies the presence of one or more continuous, unwanted tones within a message channel unwanted tones caused by crosstalk or cross modulation between adjacent channels in a transmission system due to system nonlinearities occurs in coherent SSBSC systems, such as those using frequency-division multiplexing when the received carrier is not reinserted with the exact phase relationship to the received signal as the transmit carrier possessed used to match impedances and to provide isolation between the two directions of signal flow used to convert two-wire circuits to four-wire circuits similar to the hybrid coil found in standard telephone sets eliminate the echo electrically subtracting it from the original signal rather than disabling the amplifier in the return circuit used to eliminate echo Phase hits (slips)
Engr. Jaime P.
Phase jitter
Single-frequency interference Spurious tones Phase intercept distortion
Hybrid set Hybrid circuits
Echo cancellers
Echo suppressors Crosstalk
can be defined as any disturbance created in a communications channel by signals in other communications channels; a potential problem whenever two metallic conductors carrying different signals are located in close proximity to each other; was originally coined to indicate the presence of unwanted speech sounds in a telephone receiver caused by conversations on another telephone circuit crosstalk cause by inadequate control of the transfer characteristics or transmittance of networks electromagnetic coupling between two or more physically isolated transmission media; crosstalk that occurs at the transmit end of a
Transmittance crosstalk
Coupling crosstalk Near-end crosstalk (NEXT)
55

Licuanan, CCNA circuit and travels in the opposite direction as the signal in the disturbing channel occurs at the far-end receiver and is energy that travels in the same direction as the signal in the disturbing channel referenced to the level on the cable that is being interfered with
Engr. Jaime P.
Far-end crosstalk (FEXT)
dBx for crosstalk
CHAPTER 18 : The Public Telephone Network

identifies and connects the subscribers to a suitable transmission path supply and interpret control and supervisory signals needed to perform the operation involves the actual transmission system of a subscribers messages and any necessary control signals referred to the leased lines designed and configured for their use only equipment and facilities that are available to all the public subscribers to the network which includes transmission facilities and telephone switches sometimes companies called to public telephone Switching functions Signaling functions Transmission functions
Private-line (dedicated lines)
circuits
Common usage equipment
Service providers Local loop
simply the dedicated facility used to connect an instrument at a subscribers station to the closest telephone office similar to local loop except trunk circuits used to interconnect two telephone offices; a common usage connection; can be simple as a pair of copper wires twisted together or as sophisticated as an optical fiber cable allows any telephone connected to it to be interconnected to any of the other telephones connected to the exchange without requiring separate cable pairs and telephones for each connection
Trunk circuit
Telephone exchange
56

Licuanan, CCNA the first telephone exchanges where manual interconnects were accomplished using patchcords and jacks each telephone line that could have 10 or more subscribers connected to the central office exchange using the same loop a programmable matrix that allows circuits to be connected to one another; interconnect input loop or trunk circuits to output loop or trunk circuits local exchanges centrally located within the area they serve; can directly interconnect any two subscribers whose local loops are connected to the same local exchange a telephone call completed within a single local exchange calls placed between two stations that are connected to different local exchanges an exchange without any local loops connected to it called switchers switch trunk circuits that terminate in tandem switches Switchboards
Engr. Jaime P.
Party line
Circuit switch
Central offices (CO)
Intraoffice call)
call
(intraswitch
Interoffice calls Tandem office Tandem switch Tandem trunks (intermediate trunks) North American Telephone Numbering Plan (NANP)
was established to provide a telephone numbering system for the United States, Mexico, and Canada that would allow any subscriber in North America to direct dial virtually any other subscriber without the assistance of an operator allows many subscribers to share a limited number of lines to a central office switch splits the two directions of signal propagation so that the actual long-distance segment of the route can be accomplished on a four-wire basis allows a certain degree of route selection when establishing a telephone call simply a path between two subscribers and is comprised of one or more switches, two local loops, and possibly one or more trunk circuits an equipment busy signal received by the
Concentrator Terminating set (hybrid)
Switching hierarchy
Route
Blocking
57

Licuanan, CCNA calling party if a call cannot be completed because the necessary trunks or circuits are not available a local exchange where subscriber loops terminated and received dial tone; end offices interconnected subscriber loop to other subscriber loops and subscriber loops to tandem trunks, interoffice trunks, and toll-connecting trunks provided no operator assistance
Engr. Jaime P.
Class 5 end office
Class 3 primary center Class 2 sectional center
provide service to geographical regions varying in size from part of a state to all of several states, depending on population density the highest-ranking office in the DDD network in terms of the size of the geographical area serves and trunking options available a global standard for telecommunications defined by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) Telecommunications Sector (ITU-T); was developed as an alternate and much improved means of transporting signaling information through the public telephone network; a telecommunications term that describes the legal boundaries for the responsibility of maintaining equipment and transmission lines; a demarcation point separating two companies allows customers to change to a different service and still keep the same telephone number store information about subscribers services, routing of special service numbers and calling card validation for fraud protection and provide information necessary for advanced call-processing capabilities provides access from one level of the protocol to another level
Class 1 regional center
Common channel no. 7 (SS7 or C7)
signaling
Point-of-presence
Porting Databases
Primitive
CHAPTER 19 : Cellular Telephone Companies

utilized frequency modulation and were generally assigned a single carrier frequency in the 35 MHz to 45 MHz range that was used by both the mobile unit and the base station Mobile telephone systems (MTSs) (manual telephone system)
58

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
small handsets, easily carried by a person in their pocket or purse suggested any radio transmitter, receiver, or transceiver that could be moved while in operation described a relatively small radio unit that was handheld, battery powered, and easily carried by a person moving at walking speed similar to two-way mobile radio in that most communications occurs between base stations and mobile units; best describe by pointing out the primary difference between it and two-way mobile radio push-to-talk examples of two-way mobile radio
Mobile telephone stations Mobile Portable
Cellular telephone
PTT
citizens band (CB) public land mobile radio
Evolution of Cellular Telephone July 28, 1945 : Saturday Evening Post, E. K. Jett, then the commissioner of the FCC hinted of a cellular telephone scheme that he referred to as simply s small zone radio telephone system June 17, 1946 : in St. Louis Missouri, AT&T and Southwestern Bell introduced the first American commercial mobile radio-telephone service to private customers. In the same year, similar services were offered to 25 major cities throughout the United States early 1950s : the FCC doubled the number of mobile telephone channels by reducing the bandwidth to 60 kHz per channel 1960 : AT&T introduced direct-dialing, full-duplex mobile telephone service with other performance enhancements 1966 : Don Adams, in a television show called Get Smart, unveiled the most famous mobile telephone to date: the fully mobile shoe phone 1968 : AT&T proposed the concept of cellular mobile system to the FCC with the intent of alleviating the problem of spectrum congestions in the existing mobile telephone system 1974 : the FCC allocated an additional 40-MHz bandwidth for cellular telephone service 1975 : the FCC granted AT&T the first license to operate a development cellular telephone service in Chicago 1976 : the Bell Mobile Phone service for metropolitan New York City offered only 12 channels that could serve a maximum of 543 subscribers. FCC granted authorization to the American Radio Telephone Service (ARTS) to install a second developmental system in the Baltimore- Washington, D.C., area 1983
59

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
: the FCC allocated 666 30 kHz half-duplex mobile telephone channels to AT&T to form the first U.S. cellular telephone system called Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) 1991 : the first digital cellular services were introduced in several major U.S. cities, enabling a more efficient utilization of the available bandwidth using voice compression November 17, 1998 : a subsidiary of Motorola Corporation implemented Iridium, a satellite-based wireless personal communications satellite system (PCSS) the pattern that fits the cellular concept Honeycomb Cell
defined by its physical size; its physical size varies depending on user density and calling patterns the smallest cells used most often in highdensity areas such as found in large cities and inside buildings; exhibit milder propagation impairments such as reflections and signal delays these is used in well-shielded areas or areas with high levels of interference normally used in center-excited cells (center of the cell) are used in edge- and corner- excited cells (three of the cells six vertices) the process in which the same set of frequencies (channels) can be allocated to more than one cell, provided the cells are separated by sufficient distance a geographic cellular radio containing three groups of cells coverage area
Microcells
Picocells Omnidirectional antennas Sectored directional antennas Frequency reuse
Clusters Cell splitting
when the area of a cell, or independent component coverage area of a cellular system is further divided, thus creating more cell areas; to increase the channel capacity and improve the availability and reliability of a cellular telephone network the point when a cell reaches maximum capacity occurs when the number of subscribers wishing to place a call at any given time equals the number of channels in the cell decreasing co-channel interference while increasing capacity by using directional antennas placing two receive antennas; improves reception by effectively providing a larger target for
Maximum traffic load
Sectoring Space diversity
60

Licuanan, CCNA signals radiated from mobile units
Engr. Jaime P.
divides a group of channels into smaller groupings or segments of mutuality exclusive frequencies; cell sites, which are within the reuse distance, are assigned their own segment of the channel group; a means of avoiding co-channel interference, lowers the capacity of a cell by enabling reuse inside the reuse distance means of avoiding full-cell splitting where the entire area would otherwise need to be segmented into smaller cells the locations of these radio-frequency transceivers; serves as central control for all users within that cell
Segmentation
Dualization
Base stations
when mobile unit moves possibly from one companys service area into another companys service area the transfer of a mobile unit from one base stations control to another base stations control a connection that is momentarily broken during the cell-to-cell transfer a flawless handoff; no perceivable interruption of service and normally takes approximately 200 ms which is imperceptible to voice telephone users although the delay may be disruptive when transmitting data a protocol aligns with a subprotocol of the SS7 protocol stack that facilitates communications among databases and other network entities; allow mobile units to roam and to perform handoffs of calls already in progress when a mobile unit moves from one cellular system into another without subscriber intervention the process where a mobile unit notifies a serving MTSO of its presence and location through a base station controller operates under the direction o switching center (MTSO); manage each of the radio channels at each site, supervises calls, turns the radio transmitter and receiver on and off, injects data onto the control and voice channels and performs diagnostic tests second part of the base station controllers
Roaming
Handoff (handover) Hard handoff Soft handoff
IS-41
Autonomous registration
Cell-site controller
Base (BTS)
transceiver
station
61

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
also a part of the base station subsystem; used with cellular telephone system voice channels can be either narrowband FM for analog system generally used to connect switching centers to cell sites and to the public telephone network governs the way telephone calls are established and is disconnected the actual voice channel where mobile users communicate directly with other mobile and wireline subscribers through a base station is used for transferring control and diagnostic information between mobile users and a cellular telephone switch through a base station
Radio transceivers
Four-wire leased lines Communications protocol User channel
Control channel
CHAPTER 20 Cellular Telephone Systems

a standard cellular telephone service (CTS) initially placed into operation on October 13, 1983; the idea was to eliminate the possibility of a monopoly and provide the advantages that generally accompany a competitive environment a transmission mode transmit in both directions that simultaneously Advanced Mobile System (AMPS) Telephone
Duplexing Mobile identification number (MIN) Electronic (ESN) Four-bit (SCM) serial number mark
a 34-bit binary code comprised of a three-digit area code, a three-0digit prefix (exchange number), and a four-digit subscriber (extension) number a 32-bit binary code permanently assigned to each mobile unit indicates whether the terminal has access to all 832 AMPS channel ; specifies the maximum radiated power for the unit a 15-bit binary code issued by the FCC to an operating company when it issues it a license to provide AMPS cellular service to an area combination of cellular telephone networks and
station
class
System identifier (SID)
Personal
Communications
62

Licuanan, CCNA the Intelligent Network which is the entity of the SS7 interoffice protocol that distinguishes the physical components of the switching network System (PCS)
Engr. Jaime P.
a database that stores information about the user, including home subscription information and what supplementary services the user is subscribed to a database that stores information about subscribers in a particular MTSO serving area a database that stores information pertaining to the identification and type of equipment that exist in the mobile unit allows all calls to pass through the network to the subscriber except for a minimal number of telephone numbers that can be blocked the PCS equivalent to caller ID; the name of the calling party appears on the mobile units display, which allows PCS users to screen calls all calls except those specified by the subscriber are automatically forwarded to a forwarding destination without ringing the subscribers handset no calls are allowed to pass through to the subscriber was originally intended to provide a short-term solution to the traffic congestion problem in the AMPS system used by mobile units to request access to the cellular telephone system; a unidirectional channel specified for transmissions from mobile-to-base units only used to transmit information from base stations to specific mobile stations; channels used to carry generic, system-related information; a unidirectional base station-to-mobile unit transmission shared by all mobile units an access method used with standard analog AMPS was first used by the military to ensure reliable
Home location register (HLR)
Visitor location register (VTR)
Equipment registry (EIR) Available mode
identification
Screen mode
Private mode
Unavailable mode Narrowband AMPS (N-AMPS)
RACH
SPACH BCCH
FDMA Frequency-hopping spread
63

Licuanan, CCNA antijam and to secure communications in a battlefield environment; the fundamental concept is to break a message into fixed-size blocks of data with each block transmitted in sequence except on a different carrier frequency a high-bit rate pseudorandom code is added to a low-bit rate information signal to generate a highbit-rate pseudorandom signal closely resembling noise that contains both the original data signal and the pseudorandom code a second-generation cellular telephone system initially developed to solve the fragmentation problems inherent in first-generation cellular telephone system basic parameters of GSM spectrum
Engr. Jaime P.
Direct-sequence spectrum
spread
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
GMSK modulation (Gaussian MSK) 50 MHz bandwidth FDMA/TDMA accessing eight 25-kHz channels w/in each 200-kHz traffic channel 200 kHz traffic channel 992 full-duplex channels supplementary integrated services digital network (ISDN) services
a satellite-based wireless personal communications network designed to permit a wide range of mobile telephone services, including voice, data, networking, facsimile and paging uses 66 satellites the unique key to the Iridium system and the primary differentiation between Iridium relay information to the terrestrial gateways and the system control segment located at the earth stations
Iridium
Satellite cross-links Feeder links
CHAPTER 21: Introduction to Data Communications and Networking

Data are systems of interrelated computers and computer equipment and can be as simple as a network personal computer connected to a printer or two personal computers connected together through communications
64

Licuanan, CCNA the public telephone network one of the earliest means of communicating electrically coded information when a proposal submitted to a Scottish magazine suggested running a communications line between villages comprised of 26 parallel wires Carl Friedrich gauss developed an unusual system based on a five by five matrix representing 25 letters 1753
Engr. Jaime P.
1833
the first successful data communications system was invented. the first practical data communications code. Morse secured an American patent for the telegraph. the first telegraph line was established between Baltimore and Washington dc with the first message conveyed over this system. high speed printers were available
1832 Morse code 1840 1844
1860
Emile Baudot invented a telegraph multiplexer which allowed signals from up to six different telegraph machines to be transmitted simultaneously over a single wire. the telephone graham bell was invented by Alexander
1874
1875 1899 1920 Konrad Zuis 1940 1960s
Guglielmo Marconi succeeded in sending radio telegraph messages the first commercial radio stations carrying voice information were installed he demonstrated a sometime in the late 1930s computing machine
the first special purpose computer using electromechanical relays for performing logical operations batch processing systems were replaced by online processing systems with terminals connected directly to the computer through serial or parallel communications lines. the year introduced microprocessor controlled microcomputers.
1970s
65

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
personal computers became an essential item in the home and workplace.
1980s
ATM components
routers and switches to connect carrier on global basis backbone devices to connect all the lans within a large organization switches and adapters which link desktop computers to high speed atm connection for running multimedia applications 1.4 Gbps ISDN
ATM speeds a digital telecommunications technology that can simultaneously transmit voice and data over the same pair of telephone wires ISDN channels:
B-channel (Bearer channel)

D channel H channel
used to carry the digital information; build block of the ISDN; 64 kbps used to carry signaling and supervisory information to the network; kpbs (bri) or 64 kbps (pri) provide for user information at higher bit rates; combination of several b channels for business with larger data needs; American 23b + d(t1 = 1.544mbps); European 30b + d (e1= 2.048 mbps) 150 mbps; for future HDTV projects; h channels
B-channel D channel
H channel PRI
Broadband ISDN
CHAPTER 22: Fundamental Concepts of Data Communications

the first fixed-length character code developed for machines rather than for people; named after Emile Baudot, an early pioneer in telegraph printing; a fixed-length source code; all characters are represented in binary and have the same number of symbols (bits) Baudot Code
66

Licuanan, CCNA the standard character set for source coding the alphanumeric character set that humans understand but computers do not; a seven-bit fixed length character set an eight-bit fixed-length character developed in 1962 by the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM); used almost exclusively with IBM mainframe computers and peripheral equipment are those omnipresent black-and-white striped stickers that seem to appear on virtually every consumer item in the United States and most of the rest of the world; a series of vertical black bars separated by vertical white bars has spaces or gaps between characters; each character within the bar code is independent of every other character does not include spaces between characters
Engr. Jaime P.
United States of America Standard Code for Information Exchange (ASCII) Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
Bar codes
Discrete code
Continuous code 2D code
stores data in two dimensions in contrast with a conventional linear bar code
uses an alphanumeric code similar to the ASCII code; consists of 36 unique codes representing the 10 digits and 26 uppercase letters developed sometime in the early 1970s to identify the products of the grocery industry; found on virtually every grocery item from a candy bar to a can of beans only one bit within a given data string is in error; affects only one character within a message when two or more non-consecutive bits within a given data string are in error; can affect one or more characters within a message the first fixed length character code developed for machines rather than people a French postal engineer who developed the Baudot code RTTY is the acronym for _____ a fixed length source code
Code 39 (Code 3 of 9, 3 of 9 Code) Universal Product Code (UPC)
Single bit error Multiple bit error
Baudot code Thomas Murray Radio teletype Baudot code
67

Licuanan, CCNA the standard character set for source coding the alphanumeric character set that humans understand an eight bit fixed length character set developed in 1962 by IBM EBCDIC is the acronym for ___ when two or more consecutive bits within a given data string re in error; can affect one or more characters within a message the process of monitoring data transmission and determining when errors have occurred; not to prevent errors from occurring but to prevent undetected errors from occurring duplicating each data unit for the purpose of detecting errors; an effective but rather costly means of detecting errors, especially with long messages adding bits for the sole purpose of detecting errors probably the simplest error-detection scheme ASCII
Engr. Jaime P.
EBCDIC Extended binary coded decimal interchange code Burst error
Error detection
Redundancy
Redundancy checking Vertical redundancy checking (VRC) (character parity, parity) Parity bit Marking parity Checksum
own error-detection bit
the parity bit is always a 1; useful only when errors occur in a large number of bits another relatively simple form of redundancy error checking where each character has a numerical value assigned to it; appended to the end of the message
a redundancy error detection scheme that use parity to determine if a transmission error has occurred with a message and is therefore sometimes called message parity the bit sequence for the LRC
Longitudinal Checking (LRC)
Redundancy
Block check sequence (BCS) or Frame check sequence (FCS) Cyclic (CRC) redundancy checking
probably the most reliable redundancy checking technique for error detection; a convolutional scheme; approximately 99.999% of all transmission errors are detected
68

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
include enough redundant information with each transmitted message to enable the receiver to determine when an error has occurred include sufficient extraneous information along with each message to enable the receiver to determine when an error has occurred and which bit is in error two primary methods used for error-correction:
Error-detecting codes
Error-correcting codes
retransmission forward error correction
CHAPTER 23: Data-Link Protocols and Data Communications Networks

the primary goal is to give users of a network the tools necessary for setting up the network and performing data flow control arrangements between people or processes Network architecture
Protocols Data-link protocol
a set of rules implementing and governing an orderly exchange of data between layer two devices such as line control units and front-end processors all stations have equal access to the network, but when they have a message to transmit, they must contend with the other stations on the network for access to the transmission medium determines which device is transmitting and which is receiving at any point in time coordinates the rate at which data are transported over a link and generally provides an acknowledgement mechanism that ensures that data are received at the destination a solicitation sent from the primary to a secondary to determine if the secondary has data to transmit how the primary designates a secondary as a destination or recipient of data the transmitting station sends one message frame and then waits for an acknowledgement
Peer-to-peer network
Line discipline Flow control
Poll
Selection Stop-and-wait flow control
69

Licuanan, CCNA before sending the next message frame a source station can transmit several frames in succession before receiving an acknowledgement refers to imaginary receptacles at the source and destination stations with the capacity of holding several frames of data interpret a frame of data as a group of successive bits combined into predefined patterns of fixed length usually eight bits a discipline for serial-by-bit information transfer over a data communications channel are relatively simple, character-oriented generally used on two-point networks using asynchronous data and asynchronous modems remote stations can have more than one PC or printer group of computers, printers, and other digital devices a synchronous character-oriented data-link protocol developed by IBM; sometimes called bisync or bisynchronous communications a synchronous bit-oriented protocol developed in the 1970s by the IBM for use in system network architecture environment an information field is not allowed; cannot be used to transfer numbered information causes all previously set functions to be cleared by the secondary causes the secondary to turn on or turn off
Engr. Jaime P.
Sliding window flow control Sliding window
Character-oriented protocols
Bit-oriented protocol Asynchronous protocols Synchronous protocols Cluster Binary synchronous communications (BSC) data-link
data-link
Synchronous data-link control (SLDC) Supervisory frame Clear Beacon test Monitor mode Wrap Transparency Public switched data network (PDN or PSDN) Packet switching
causes the addressed secondary station to place itself into the monitor mode causes a secondary station to transmission directly to its receiver input loop its
make a receiver transparent to all data located
a switched data communications network similar to the public telephone network except it is designed for transferring data only involves dividing data messages into small
70

Licuanan, CCNA bundles of information and transmitting them through communications networks to their intended destinations using computer-controlled switches logically equivalent to a two-point dedicated private-line circuit except slower users send small packets of data into the network the integrating of a wide range of services into a single multipurpose network; a network that proposes to interconnect an unlimited number of independent users through a common communication network provides the most economical and effective means of handling local data communication needs the time it takes a signal to travel from a source to a destination Permanent (PVC)
Engr. Jaime P.
virtual
circuit
Datagram (DG) Integrated service network (ISDN) digital
Local area network (LAN) Propagation delay
CHAPTER 24: Microwave Radio Communications and System Gain

described as electromagnetic waves with frequencies that range from approximately 500 MHz to 300 GHz or more systems are those used to carry information for relatively long distances propagate signals through Earths atmosphere between transmitters and receivers often located on top of towers spaced about 15 miles to 30 miles apart the composite signal that modulates the FM carrier a preemphasis network precedes the FM deviator; provides an artificial boost in amplitude to the higher baseband frequencies a receiver and a transmitter placed back to back or in tandem with the system another name for local oscillator and is considerably lower in frequency than either the received or the transmitted radio frequencies Microwave
Long-haul microwave systems Microwave radios
Baseband Microwave transmitter
Microwave repeaters Shift oscillator
71

Licuanan, CCNA the reduction in signal strength Radio fade Diversity
Engr. Jaime P.
it suggests that there is more than one transmission path or method of transmission available between a transmitter and a receiver; used to increase the reliability of the system by increasing its availability simply modulating two different RF carrier frequencies with the same IF intelligence, then transmitting both RF signals to a given destination the output of a transmitter is fed to two or more antennas that are physically separated by an appreciable number of wavelengths a single RF carrier is propagated with two different electromagnetic polarizations using more than one receiver for a single radiofrequency channel it combines frequency, space, polarization and receiver diversity into one system somewhat specialized form of diversity that consists of a standard frequency-diversity path where the two transmitter/receiver pairs at one end of the path are separated from each other and connected to different antennas that are vertically separated as in space diversity provide protection for a much larger section of the communications system that generally includes several repeaters spanning a distance of 100 miles or more two types of protection switching arrangement:
Frequency diversity
Space diversity
Polarization diversity Receiver diversity Quad diversity Hybrid diversity
Protection arrangement
switching
hot standby diversity
each working radio channel has a dedicated backup or spare channel a single backup channel is made available to as many as 11 working channels points in the system where baseband signals either originate or terminate points in a system where baseband signals may be reconfigured or where RF carriers are simply repeated or amplified
Hot standby protection Diversity protection
Terminals Repeater stations
72

Licuanan, CCNA a balanced modulator that when used in conjunction with a microwave generator, power amplifier, and bandpass filter, up-converts the IF carrier to an RF carrier and amplifies the RF to the desired output power a unidirectional device often made from a ferrite material; used in conjunction with a channelcombining network to prevent the output of one transmitter from interfering with the output of another transmitter this occurs when three stations are placed in a geographical straight line in the system preventing the power that leaks out the back and sides of a transmit antenna from interfering with the signal entering the input of a nearby receive antenna the line-of-sight path directly between the transmit and receive antennas the portion of the transmit signal that is reflected off Earths surface and captured by the receive antenna consists of the electric and magnetic fields associated with the currents induced in Earths surface the portion of the transmit signal that is returned back to Earths surface by the ionized layers of Earths atmosphere often defined as the loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight line through a vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy from a nearby objects a phenomena where in no electromagnetic is actually lost or dissipated it merely spreads out as it propagates away from the source resulting in lower relative power densities the reduction in receive signal level; reduction in signal strength at the input to a receiver; it applies to propagation variables in the physical radio path that affect changes in the path loss between transmit and receive antennas the difference between the nominal output power of a transmitter and the minimum input Transmit (transmod)
Engr. Jaime P.
modulator
Isolator
Multihop interference Ring around
Free-space path Ground-reflected wave
Surface wave
Sky wave
Free-space path loss
Spreading loss
Fading
System gain
73

Licuanan, CCNA power to a receiver necessary to achieve satisfactory performance; must be greater than or equal to the sum of all gains and losses incurred by a signal as it propagates from a transmitter to a receiver essentially a fudge factor included in system gain equations that considers the nonideal and less predictable characteristics of radiowave propagation, such as multipath propagation and terrain sensitivity; these characteristics cause temporary, abnormal atmospheric conditions the minimum wideband carrier power at the input to a receiver that will provide a usable baseband output simply a ratio of input signal-to-noise ratio to output signal-to-noise ratio indicates how much the signal-to-noise ratio deteriorates as a waveform propagates from the input of a circuit
Engr. Jaime P.
Fade margin (link margin)
Receiver threshold sensitivity) Noise factor Noise figure
(receiver
CHAPTER 25 : Satellite Communications

in astronomical terms, a celestial body that orbits around a planet; in aerospace terms, a space vehicle launched by humans and orbits Earth or another celestial body a microwave repeater in the sky that consists of a diverse combination of one or more of the following: receiver, transmitter, amplifier, regenerator, filter, onboard computer, multiplexer, demultiplexer, antenna, waveguide and about nay other electronic communications circuit ever developed called a transponder Satellites
Communications satellite
Satellite radio repeater Satellite system
consists of one or more satellite space vehicles, a ground-based station to control the operation of the system and a user network of earth stations that provides the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial communications traffic includes control mechanisms that support the payload operation the actual user information conveyed through the system
Bus Payload
74

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
a continuously transmitted unmodulated carrier that an earth station can lock on to and use to determine the exact location of a satellite so the earth station can align its antennas accomplished transmission meaning lightning Keplers laws: the first transatlantic
Beacon
Echo Molniya the planets move in ellipses with the sun at one focus the line joinining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time (laws of areas) the square of the time of revolution of a planet divided by the cube of its mean distance from the sun gives a number that is the same for all planets (harmonic law)
closest approach to the earth farthest point from earth
Perigee Apogee Orbital (nonsynchronous) satellites
rotate around the Earth in an elliptical or circular pattern the orbit if the satellite is orbiting in the same direction as Earths rotation (counterclockwise) and at an angular greater than that of earth the orbit if the satellite is orbiting in the opposite direction of Earths rotation or in the same direction with an angular velocity less than that of Earth a system utilizing a 66-satellite constellation orbiting approximately 480 miles above Earths surface; the main advantage is that the path loss between earth stations and space vehicles is much lower than for satellites revolving in medium- or high-altitude orbits operate in the 1.2 GHz to 1.66 GHz frequency band and orbit between 6000 miles and 12000 miles above the Earth
Prograde or posigrade orbit
Retrograde orbit
Low Earth Orbit
Medium Earth Orbit
high-altitude
earth-orbit
satellites
operating
Geosynchronous satellites
75

Licuanan, CCNA primarily in the 2 GHz to 18 GHz frequency spectrum with orbits 22 300 miles above the Earths surface the line joining the perigee and apogee the center of Earth the line perpendicular to the major axis and halfway between the perigee and apogee half the distance of the minor axis
Engr. Jaime P.
Major Axis (line of apsides) Minor axis Semiminor axis Geocenter
all satellites rotate around Earth in an orbit that forms a plane that passes through the center of gravity of Earth are virtually all orbits except those that travel directly above the equator or directly over the North and South Poles the angle between the Earths equatorial plane and the orbital plane of a satellite measured counterclockwise at the point in the orbit where it crosses the equatorial plane traveling from south to north traveling from south to north
Inclined Orbits
Angle of inclination
Ascending node Descending node Line of nodes Equatorial orbit Polar orbit
the point where a polar or inclined orbit crosses the equatorial plane traveling from north to south the line joining the ascending an descending nodes through the center of Earth when the satellite rotates in an orbit directly above the equator, usually in a circular path when the satellite rotates in a path that takes it over the North and South poles in an orbit perpendicular to the equatorial plane causing elliptical orbits to rotate in a manner that causes the apogee and perigee to move around the Earth satellites appear to remain in a fixed location above one spot on earths surface the process of maneuvering a satellite within a preassigned window the circumference of a geosynchronous orbit the velocity of a geosynchronous satellite
Rotation of the line of apsides
Geosynchronous geostationary) Station keeping 264 790 km 6840 mph
(stationary
or
76

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
sometimes referred to geosynchronous earth orbit direction of maximum gain of an earth station antenna azimuth and elevation angle are jointly referred to __________ a point on the surface below the satellite
Clarke orbit or Clarke belt Boresight Look angles Subsatellite point (SSP) Angle of elevation
the vertical angle formed between the direction of travel of an electromagnetic wave radiated from an earth station antenna pointing directly toward a satellite and the horizontal plane the horizontal angular distance from a reference direction either the southern or northern most point of the horizon defined as the horizontal pointing angle of an earth station antenna determine the farthest satellite away that can be seen looking east or west of the earth stations longitude uses the angular momentum of its spinning body to provide roll and yaw stabilization the body remains fixed relative to Earths surface, while an internal subsystem provides roll and yaw stabilization the geographical representation of a satellite antennas radiation pattern; the area on Earths surface that the satellite can receive from or transmit to the smallest beams; concentrate their power to very small geographical areas and, therefore, typically have proportionately higher EIRPs than those targeting much larger areas because a given output power can be more concentrated typically target up to 20% of the Earths surface and, therefore, have EIRPs that are 3 dB or 50% lower than those transmitted by spot beams that typically cover only 10% of the Earths surface have a beamwidth of approximately 42% of Earths surface which is the maximum view of any one geosynchronous satellite
Azimuth
Azimuth angle Line-of-sight limits
Spinner satellite Three-axis stabilizer satellites
Footprint (footprint map)
Spot beams
Hemispherical antennas
downlink
Earth coverage
77

Licuanan, CCNA increasing the size of an antenna, the beamwidth of the antenna is also reduced thus, different beams of the same frequency can be directed to different geographical areas of Earth consists of an input bandlimiting device (BPF), an input low-noise amplifier (LNA), a frequency translator, a low-level power amplifier, and an output bandpass filter used when it is necessary to communicate between satellites high power amplifiers used in earth station transmitters and the traveling-wave tubes typically used in a satellite transponders the amount the output level is backed off from rated levels equivalent to a loss defined as an equivalent transmit power Frequency reuse
Engr. Jaime P.
Satellite transponder
Cross-links or intersatellite links (ISLs) Nonlinear devices
Back-off loss Effective isotropic power (EIRP) radiated
a hypothetical value that can be calculated but cannot be measured; often used rather than noise figure because it is more accurate method of expressing the noise contributed by a device or a receiver when evaluating its performance the noise power normalized to a 1-Hz band width, or the noise power present in a 1-Hz bandwidth the average wideband carrier power-to-noise density ratio the combines power of the carrier and its associated sidebands the thermal noise present in a normalized 1-Hz bandwidth
Equivalent noise temperature
Noise density
Carrier-to-noise density ratio Wideband carrier power Noise density
CHAPTER 26: Satellite Multiple Accessing Arrangements
sometimes
called
multiple
destination
Multiple accessing
78

Licuanan, CCNA because the transmission from each earth station are received by all the other earth stations in the system method of assigning adjacent channels different electromagnetic polarization an Eskimo word meaning little brother Frequency reuse Anik
Engr. Jaime P.
a method required when three or more earth stations wish to communicate with each other sometimes called to multiple accessing because the transmissions from each earth station are received by all the other earth stations in the system when it is used, a given number of the available voice-band channels from each other station are assigned a dedicated station voice-channels are assigned on an as-needed basis; provides more versatility and more efficient use of the available frequency spectrum each earth stations transmissions are assigned specific uplink and downlink frequency bands within an allotted satellite; transmissions are separated in the frequency domain
Multiple accessing Multiple destination
Preassignment
Demand assignment
FDMA
each earth station transmits a short burst of information during a specific time slot (epoch); transmissions are separated in the time domain; the entire transponder bandwidth and power are used for each transmission but for only a prescribed interval of time the entire satellite transponder bandwidth is used by all stations on a continuous basis; signal separation is accomplished with envelope encryption/decryption techniques an alternate channel allocation scheme
TDMA
CDMA
Demand-assignment, access (DAMA) SPADE
multiple
an acronym for single-channel-per-carrier PCM multiple-access demand-assignment equipment a time-division-multiplexed transmission that is frequency-division multiplexed into the spectrum below the QPSK-encoded voice-band channels with a 160 KHz bandwidth called when each stations can transmit only
Common signaling channel (CSC)
Store-and-forward system
79

Licuanan, CCNA during their specified time slot although incoming voice-band signals are continuous a unique binary word the
Engr. Jaime P.
Chip code Direct-sequence spectrum (DS-SS) Frequency hopping Channel compression Competitive clipping Time-assignment interpolation (TASI) Navigation speech spread
produced when a bipolar data-modulated signal is linearly multiplied by the spreading signal in a special balanced modulator a form of CDMA where a digital code is used to continually change the frequency of the carrier there can be more TCs assigned than there are SCs a phenomenon when speech energy is detected on a TC and there is no SC to assign it to a form of analog channel compression that has been used for suboceanic cables for many years can be defined as the art or science of plotting, ascertaining, or directing the course of movements; knowing where you are and being able to find your way around the most ancient and rudimentary method of navigation; is simply continuing to travel about until you reach your destination direction and distance are determined from precisely timed sightings of celestial bodies including the stars and moon; a primitive technique that dates back thousand of years another rudimentary method of navigation; fixing a position and direction with respect to familiar, significant landmarks, such as railroad tracks, water towers, barns, mountain peaks and bodies of water a navigation technique that determines position by extrapolating a series of measured velocity increments used quite successfully by Charles Lindbergh in 1927 during his historic 33 hour transatlantic journey and quite unsuccessfully by Amelia Earhart in 1937 during her attempt to make first around-the-world flight the most accurate navigation technique; position is determined by measuring the travel time of an electromagnetic wave as it moves from a transmitter to a receiver
Wandering
Celestial navigation
Piloting
Dead reckoning
Radio or electronic navigation
80

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
consist of 24 operational satellites revolving around Earth in six orbital planes approximately 60 apart with four satellites in each plane; there are 21 working satellites and three satellites reserved as spaces this unique number is used to encrypt the signal from that satellite a term generally associated with a table showing the position of a heavenly body on a number of dates in a regular sequence, in essence, an astronomical almanac
Space segment
Pseudorandom noise (PRN) code Ephemeris
the Navstar control segment which includes all the fixed-location ground-based monitor stations located throughout the world a master control station (MCS), and uplink transmitters makes GPS even more accurate; works by canceling out most of the natural and man-made errors that creep into normal GPS measurements
Operational (OCS)
control
system
Differential GPS
-end-
81

Licuanan, CCNA
Engr. Jaime P.
82

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Electronics Systems and Technologies

CHAPTER 1 :Introduction to Electronic Communications

digital signals Samuel Finley Morse (1837) electromagnetic induction Breese

Alexander Graham Bell Thomas A. Watson decibel (dB)

Electronics Systems and Technologies

Analog system Digital system

demodulation channel intelligence signal frequency translation electromagnetic energy

signals in the 300-Hz to 3000-Hz range and include

Electronics Systems and Technologies

Very low frequencies

Very high frequencies

Superhigh frequencies Extremely frequencies Infrared high

3 x 108 m/s noise bandwidth bandwidth of information signal an

Electronics Systems and Technologies

bandwidth of a communication channel

Bit rate Electrical noise correlated

uncorrelated external noise Atmospheric noise

Electronics Systems and Technologies

Transit-time noise Thermal noise

CHAPTER 2: Signal Analysis and Mixing

Electronics Systems and Technologies

Signal waveform Frequency-domain representation Spectrum analyzer Sinusoidal wave

Baron Jean Fourier

Wave symmetry Even symmetry Odd symmetry

Electronics Systems and Technologies

Discrete Fourier transform Fast Fourier series Bandlimiting Mixing

Linear summing (linear mixing)

Nolinear mixing Harmonic distortion Frequency multiplication

CHAPTER 3 : Oscillators, Phase-Locked Loops, and Frequency Synthesizers

amplification positive feedback frequencydetermining components power source

Electronics Systems and Technologies

Crystal oscillators Crystallography

CHAPTER 4 : Amplitude Modulation Transmission

a term used to describe the amount of amplitude change present in an AM waveform

Electronics Systems and Technologies

Linear integrated-circuit function generators Preamplifier

CHAPTER 5 : Amplitude Modulation Reception

Selectivity Bandwidth Improvement

Electronics Systems and Technologies

Noise Figure Improvement

Sensitivity Threshold Dynamic range

1-dB compression point

Fidelity amplitude frequency phase

the predominant cause of phase distortion

Filtering Absolute phase shift

Differential phase shift

Insertion Loss (IL)

Equivalent Noise Temperature (Te)

Electronics Systems and Technologies

two basic types of radio receivers:

coherent (synchronous) noncoherent (asynchronous)

RF amplifier Detector Tracking

Electronics Systems and Technologies

Image-frequency ratio Double spotting Mixer / converter

Automatic desensing Squelch circuit

Diode limiters or clippers Blanking circuit

Net Receiver Gain

Electronics Systems and Technologies

samples of receiver losses:

preselector loss mixer loss detector loss

Gang tuned Cascoded amplifier

CHAPTER 6 Single-Sideband Communications System

AM Single-sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC) AM Single Side-band Reduced Carrier (SSBRC)