40E

80E

120E

120N

TERTIARY

COMPUTER MODELING OF SLOPE STABILITY IN MINING THE TAR SAND OF DAHOMEY BASIN, SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA
David Afolayan ALAO and Mopa BASSAGI DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND MINERAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN P.M.B. 1515, ILORIN, KWARA STATE, NIGERIA
Abstract The need to have stable slopes in open pit mining of the tar sand deposit of the Dahomey Basin, Southwestern Nigeria is emphasized in this study. In the Loda village, Southwestern Nigeria, samples of the lateritic soil and alluvial sand which overlie the tar sand occurrence were subjected to geotechnical tests. Computer simulation of bench face angles was carried out using the SLOPE/W software to determine the bench face angle(s) with the least susceptibility to failure. Slope failure might lead to loss of lives and valuable heavy equipment thus increasing overall expense of running the mine. Geotechnical tests carried out helped to determine the unit weight (g), cohesion (c) and angle of o friction (f) values. For the lateritic soil, g = 25 kN/m3, c = 45 kPa and f = 41 . Also, values of g = 18 3 o kN/m , c = 0 kPa and f = 34 were obtained for the alluvial sand. These values were inputted into the software program to simulate different bench face angles that could be cut into the two lithologic o o units. Factor of safety values were obtained for 10 to 90 bench face angles at 1 metre, 4 metres and greater than 40 metres ground water level, respectively. 10 metre bench width and 6 metre bench height were used while 20 metre bench width and 6 metre bench height were also utilized to make room for heavier equipment. Factor of safety values ranging between 3.58 and 1.73 were obtained o o for bench face angles between 10 and 30 making this range least susceptible to failure even when inundation is considered. Consequently when mining commences, a utilization of slope angles ranging from 10 to 30 coupled with adequate drainage conditions like digging of perimeter trenches and use of submersible pumps would go a long way in ensuring optimum output for huge economic gain and revenue generation. This will make Nigerian tar sand exploitation viable for sustainable growth of the economy of the country in the foreseeable future. ________________
Corresponding author: Tel. +2348037553842 E-mail address: lomalao@yahoo.com
o o

Stratigraphic correlation chart

90N
Abuja

0.8m

Lateritic overburden (LD1C)

1.0m

Lateritic overburden (LD2C) Reddish brown loose sand (Alluvium) (LD2B)

Table 2: Coefficients of permeability for the samples analysed, using Hazen's formula
1.5m

Lateritic overburden (LD2C)

Table 5: Dry density values of samples obtained from the study area Sample No LD1A LD1B LD1C LD2A LD2B LD2C LD3A LD3B LD3C Dry Density (Mg/m ) 1.77 1.82 2.62 1.85 1.88 2.56 1.89 1.90 2.54 (degrees) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 25 18 45 0 41 34 90 Morgenstern-Price Method of Analysis Slope Angle Piezometric Piezometric Piezometric Level 1 m 3.37 2.03 1.56 1.35 1.18 1.05 0.79 0.65 0.35 Level 4 m 3.91 2.26 1.61 1.39 1.37 1.24 1.22 1.07 1.02 Level >40 m 4.20 2.44 1.82 1.58 1.51 1.35 1.25 1.15 1.09 Morgenstern-Price Method of Analysis Slope Angle Piezometric Piezometric Piezometric (degrees) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Level 1 m 3.58 2.41 1.73 1.66 1.52 1.19 0.96 0.83 0.59 Level 4 m 4.20 2.66 1.85 1.51 1.30 1.42 1.28 1.18 1.02 Level >40 m 4.51 2.72 2.16 1.85 1.82 1.59 1.40 1.25 1.09 Table 7. Table showing factor of safety values obtained for different models of bench face angles using a bench width of 10metres and bench height of 6metrres. Table 8. Table showing factor of safety values obtained for different models of bench face angles using a bench width of 20metres and bench height of 6metres.
3

AGE

EOCENE

Lagos

Loda

Akure

30N

PALEOCENE MAASTRICHT IAN TURONIAN BERREMIAN

CRETACEOUS

ABEOKUTA GROUP

Study Area Phanerozoic Sediments Cretaceous Recent Sediment Pre-Cambrian basement Complex 0 300Km

FORMATION Ako et al., 1980 Omatsola and Adegoke 1981 Ilaro formation Ilaro formation Oshosun Oshosun formation formation Ewekoro Ewekoro formation formation ABEOKUTA Araromi FORMATION Afowo Ise

LITHOLOGY
2.6m

Permeability Values Obtained

Reddish brown loose sand (Alluvium) (LD3B)

Equivalent Values in (10 cm/s) 6.76 to 10.1 1.96 to 2.94 4.84 to 7.26 6.25 to 9.38 1.96 to 2.94 3.24 to 4.86 1.96 to 2.94 1.94 to 2.94 3.24 to 4.86
-2

Reddish brown loose sand (Alluvium) (LD1B) Whitish loose sand (Alluvium) (LD1A Tar sand seepages
4.5m

Sample No from Hazens Formula (10 m/s) LD1A 6.76 to 10.1 1.96 to 2.94 4.84 to 7.26 6.25 to 9.38 1.96 to 2.94 3.24 to 4.86 1.96 to 2.94 1.94 to 2.94 3.24 to 4.86 LD1B LD1C LD2A LD2B LD2C LD3A LD3B LD3C

-4

Sandstone Shale
0.5m

Whitish loose sand (Alluvium) (LD2A)

2.5m

Whitish loose sand (Alluvium) (LD3A Tar sand seepages

Limestone
0.8m

0.4m

Tar sand seepages

Shale Sandstone and shale Sandstone

Figures 5a, b and c: Lithologic section of the three Locations L1 L2 and L3.

Figure 1. Location of the study area, Loda village, Southwestern Nigeria within the Dahomey Basin. (Modified from Bankole et al., 2006)
PRECAMBRIAN BASEMENT COMPLEX
0 2.44m

Laterite

Loose sand

32.61m

Table 3: Classification of soil permeability (from Lambe, 1951)

Bituminous sand

Table 6: Summary of data inputted into the Geostudio SLOPE/W Computer program for the calculation of factor of safety values at various bench face angles SLOPE/W Average Unit Layer Layer 1 Lateritic Soil Layer 2 Alluvium (loose sand) Weight (kN/m3) Average Cohesion Average Friction Intercept (kPa) Angle (degrees)

Permeability (cm/s)
57.91m

Degree of Permeability High Medium Low Very Low Impermeable

Shale
70.44m

>10-1 10-1 to 10-3 10-3 to 10-5 10-5 to 10-7 <10-7

Basement rock

Diagram of Core-log drilled at Loda Village, Southwestern Nigeria. (Bitumen Project Implementation Committee Report, 2002

Figure 2: Location of the study area Map of Nigeria (modified from Kogbe, 1989) Table 1. Proportion of Particle sizes present in each of the samples analyzed. Coarse LD1A LD1B LD1C LD2A LD2B LD2C LD3A LD3B Figure 4: Picture of one of the locations (L2) Figure 3. Google Earth image of southwest Nigeria. LD3C Fine 5 30 30 5 20 50 5 30 15 Medium 90 60 40 90 70 30 90 60 20 Coarse 5 5 15 5 5 35 5 5 40 Fine 5 15 5 30 5 20 Medium

Table 4: Comparison of permeability values obtained for each of the samples with Lambe's (1951) classification to indicate the degree of permeability Range of Permeability Sample No LD1A LD1B LD1C LD2A LD2B LD2C LD3A LD3B LD3C Values in (10-2 cm/s) 6.76 to 10.1 1.96 to 2.94 4.84 to 7.26 6.25 to 9.38 1.96 to 2.94 3.24 to 4.86 1.96 to 2.94 1.94 to 2.94 3.24 to 4.86 Degree of Permeability (Based on Lambes (1951) Classification) Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium

0 2.44m
? ?

Laterite

3.364 34 3 1 6 32 30 11 4

12 8 9

Loose sand
Depth (m)

28 26 24 22 20 18 16

4 1 3 32 28 24 20

4.203 2 6 8 9

Depth (m)

Sample No Silt (%) Sand (%) Sand (%) Sand (%) Gravel (%) Gravel (%) 5

32.61m

GWL 1m GWL 4m Layer 1 Laterite

Bituminous sand
57.91m

2
14 12 10 8

GWL 1m GWL 4m Layer 1 Laterite Layer 2 Alluvium (Loose sand)

16 12 8 4 7 0 0
60 70

Layer 2 Alluvium (Loose sand)

Shale
70.44m

6 4 2 7 0 10 0 10 20 30 40 50

10 10 20 30
o

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

Basement rock

X -Sectional (m)

Figure 6: Diagram showing a pass at how excavation might occur from different bench face angles at the study area when mining commences. (Modified from Bitumen Project Implementation Committee Report, 2002).

Figure 7: Modeling of 10 bench face angles to determine the corresponding factor of safety for 10m bench width and 6m bench height

X-Sectional Length (m) Figure 10: Modeling of 10 bench face angles to determine the corresponding factor of safety for 20m bench width and 6m bench height

1.589

34 32 30 28

1.859 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Depth (m)

26 24

Depth(m)

INTRODUCTION The Dahomey Basin located in West Africa runs parallel to the coastal margins of Ghana, Togo, Republic of Benin and Southwestern Nigeria. It is an extensive basin starting from Southeastern Ghana through Togo and the Republic of Benin to Southwestern Nigeria where it is separated from it by the Niger Delta (Bankole et al., 2006). Tar sand occurrences in the Dahomey Basin are restricted to the eastern portion of the basin and are contained generally in Upper Cretaceous sediments. Extensive bituminous seepages and sediments impregnated with tarry oil define a o narrow band about 5-8km wide between latitude 6 37N and 6o48N stretching from east of Ijebu-Ode town (Ogun State) to the banks of the tributaries of the Siluko river at Ofosu village in Edo State an approximate distance of 110km (MSMD Report, 2005). A lot of work has been carried out on reservoir estimation (Adegoke et al., 1976), physical and chemical characteristics (Adegoke and Ibe, 1972; Enu, 1985), clay mineral suite (Enu et al 1981.), exploitation options (Coker, 1990; Nwachukwu, 2003) and natural radioactivity (Fasasi et al., 2003) of the Nigerian tar sand. Some of the recent works carried out which relate to the geotechnics of the Nigerian tar sand include the work of Alao and Obielodan (2006). However, Adegoke et al., (1980) gave an estimate of 30o to 35o for slope angles when mining of the tar sand deposit commences. This was based on approximations and estimations without actually carrying out laboratory tests. Hence, the need for exact determination of the geotechnical parameters (such as shear strength, unit weight and angle of internal friction) is necessary for bench face slope design. This paper seeks to examine the geotechnical properties of sediments associated with and overlying the tar sand deposit of Southwestern Nigeria using Loda Village as a case study. This would be used in finding out the bench face angle(s) safe for mining. Field activities consist of sediment description, identification and collection. Also core drill data was obtained from the Bitumen Project Implementation Committee (BPIC) an arm of the National Agency charged with the responsibility of disseminating information regarding tar sand exploitation and exploration. Geotechnical tests were carried out on samples obtained and the results were utilized for computer simulation using the Geostudio SLOPE/W software. LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA The study area located on longitude 4 55N is Loda village, Ondo State, Southwestern Nigeria. It exists within the Dahomey Basin of Southwestern Nigeria (Figure 1) and is about 150km from Akure the capital city of Ondo State, Southwestern Nigeria. Also, it is within the 120km long and about 5-6km wide belt of tar sand outcrop which trends approximately East-West (Adelu and Fayose, 1991). Location of the study area on the
o

geologic map of Nigeria is shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 is a Google Earth image of Southwest Nigeria. GEOMORPHOLOGY, VEGETATION AND CLIMATE Loda Village, Ondo State, Southwestern Nigeria is made up of undulating topography with rolling hills. The topography generally rises from the coastal area in the south to the rugged hills in the northeastern portion. The natural vegetation is high forest type, composed of many varieties of hardwood timber. The climate of the area is of the lowland tropical rain forest type, with distinct wet and dry seasons. The mean o o monthly temperature is 27 C with a mean monthly range of 2 C, while mean relative humidity is less than 70%. Rainfall is common throughout the year but the months of November, December and January may be relatively dry. The mean annual total rainfall exceeds 2000 mm. SELECTED LOCATIONS AND SAMPLE COLLECTION The sediments associated with and overlying the tar sand deposit at Loda village Southwestern Nigeria were sampled for geotechnical analyses. Lateritic soil samples and alluvial sand samples were obtained from the study area. These two lithologies were observed to be overlying the tar sand deposit at the three locations examined 200 metres apart. Samples were collected from three different points on a road cut at three locations (L1 L2 and L3). Moreover, at each location, samples were picked from the basal part of the road cut to the topmost part of it (Figure 4). Lithologic sections of each of the three locations examined are shown below in Figures 5a, b and c. GEOTECHNICAL TESTS The unit weight, cohesion and angle of internal friction are essential values necessary for factor of safety determination. For the SLOPE/W software this is also the case. The geotechnical test carried out on the samples are grain size analysis, density determination and direct shear test. All the samples were subjected to these tests and values were obtained for each of these geotechnical test. The grain size analysis was carried out using the mechanical dry sieve method in accordance with B.S 1377, 1975. The density bottle was used to determine the density of the samples while the direct shear test was carried out using the shear box 2 machine which accommodates 60mm soil sample and is 20mm high (the sample compartment). COMPUTER MODELING For the computer modeling, the Geostudio SLOPE/W software was used courtesy of Geoslope International. A hypothetical bench dimension of 10 metres and 20 metres was used separately with the same bench height of 6 metres for both. The bench face angles were increased from

10 to 90 and Factor of Safety values was calculated using the Morgenstern-Price method of analysis. Groundwater levels of 1 metre, 4 metres and greater than 40 metres was employed for each of the bench width used. This is necessary bearing in mind the prominent role inundation plays in slope stability (Mandzic, 1992). RESULTS OBTAINED AND DISCUSSION GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS One of the primary objectives of carrying out grain size analysis is to provide a descriptive term for soil samples analysed. This is done by using the particle size distribution graphs to estimate the range of sizes present in the most representative fraction of the soil. Also, permeability values 2 could be obtained using Hazen's formula: K = CK(D10) m/s, where (D10) is the grain size (in mm) and CK is a coefficient varying between 0.01 and 0.015 (Institution of Civil Engineers, 1976). All these calculations were carried out on the readings obtained from grain-size graphs of the samples analyzed. From visual Inspection of the grain-size graphs, steep graph lines indicate that a narrow range of particle sizes characterize the alluvium samples thus the alluvium sample can be said to be poorly graded (Read, 1992). For the lateritic soil sample, a gentle line was obtained on the graph indicating wide range of particle sizes present in the soil samples this makes the sample well graded. The proportion of particle sizes shown in Table 1 is a confirmation of the interpretation from the graphs Using the Hazen's formula the co-efficient of permeability values were obtained for each of the samples using the grain size analysis data (Table 2). Results obtained were compared with Lambe's (1951) classification to indicate the degree of permeability (Table 3). However, from the coefficient of permeability values obtained in Table 2, the alluvium samples (LD1A, LD1B, LD2A, LD2B, LD3A and LD3B) have -2 -1 values ranging from 1.94x10 cm/s to 1.01x10 cm/s while the lateritic soil -2 samples (LD1C, LD2C and LD3C) have values ranging from 3.24x10 to -2 7.26x10 cm/s. Lambe's (1951) classification is shown in Table 4 for the samples in Table 2. Both the lateritic soil and the alluvium soil have medium degree of permeability, showing the ease with which fluid will flow through them. Relatively the alluvium sample has a higher permeability value than the lateritic soil sample, this poses a threat when mining commences especially when inundation is considered. DRY DENSITY DETERMINATION From the dry density determination table shown below (Table 5) the alluvium samples (LD1A, LD2B, LD3A and LD3B) have values between 3 3 1.77 Mg/m and 1.90 Mg/m , which is low when compared with those

obtained for the lateritic soil samples (LD1C, LD2C and LD3C). The 3 3 lateritic soils have values ranging from 2.5 Mg/m to 2.62 Mg/m . From Table 5, the lateritic soils have density values higher than the alluvium soil showing a more compact grain size. Slopes cut into loose soils are more susceptible to failure than denser soils if drainage conditions, proper slope design and other factors are put in place. A dense soil has high shear strength which makes the soil less susceptible to failure. SHEAR STRENGTH TEST Direct shear test were carried out on the alluvial soil and lateritic soil to develop the relation between shear stress (kPa) and normal stress (kPa). The values obtained for angle of internal friction (f) and cohesion (c) are o o 33 and 0kPa respectively for the alluvium soil. Also, 41 and 40kPa were obtained for f and c. Thus the values obtained confirms the fact that the alluvial soil is cohesionless while the lateritic soil has a measure of cohesion suggesting that it is relatively more stable than the alluvium soil, when a slope is cut into them. MODELING OF BENCH FACE ANGLES Schroeder and Dickenson (1996) observed that in order to estimate Factor of Safety (which is the measure of stability or instability) for any slope surface, the shear strength parameters, slope geometry and groundwater level must be determined or defined. The Geostudio SLOPE/W was used to model the different bench face angles cut into the two lithologies overlying he tar sand deposit in the study area. Table 6 shows a summary of the geotechnical data inputed into the SLOPE/W computer program. Also, groundwater levels used were based on the two seasons that exist in the study area. For the dry season which extends from November to April, the groundwater level used for the modeling is 4m, while 1metre was used for the wet season which runs from May to October of the subsequent year. All these parameters and conditions were inputed and factor of safety values were obtained for the different bench width dimensions and bench face angles. Diagram showing a pass at bench face angle determination and how excavation might be planned for a proposed open pit mine at the study area is shown below in Figure 6. Computer modeling was carried out for 10metre bench width and 20metre bench width separately. Also, a bench height of 6metre was used for both bench width dimensions based on the suggested bench height of 4-8 metres given by Peters (1978). Diagrams obtained for the 10metre bench width and 6metre bench height are shown below in Figures 7, 8 and 9 for 10o, 40o and 90o bench face angles respectively. Diagrams obtained for the 20 metre bench width and 6metre bench height are shown below in

Figures 10, 11 and 12. Factor of Safety values are summarized in Tables 7 and 8 respectively for various bench face angles. It is obvious from Tables 7 and 8 that the factors of safety values decrease as bench face angles become steeper for both the 10 and 20metre bench width respectively. From Figures 7, 8 and 9 the factor of safety values obtained for the 10metre bench width and 1metre ground o o o water level are 3.37, 1.35 and 0.35 for 10 , 40 and 90 respectively. For the 20metre bench width in Figures 10, 11 and 12 the factors of safety values are 3.58, 1.66 and 0.59 respectively. The factor of safety values for the 4metre ground water level and greater than 40metres level also decrease as the bench face angles increase or become steeper. However, the great influence that groundwater level or groundwater pressure has on open pit mine stability is expressed in the values obtained for various ground water levels used in Tables 7 and 8. It can be observed that the factor of safety values are higher for very deep ground water level conditions (which is safer) than those of shallow groundwater condition. In open pit mining practice more than 40% of slope instability risk depends on ground water conditions in the slope (Mandzic, 1992). Also, Duncan et al., (2004) gave a factor of safety range of 1.2 to 1.4 for rock slopes in open pit mines. Thus, for soil slopes such as those in the area higher factor of safety values must be proposed. Consequently upon this the factor of safety values obtained from Tables o o o 7 and 8 for bench face angles of 10 to 30 are safer than those above 30 . This range is chosen to give room for groundwater level fluctuations due to inundation. RECOMMENDATIONS The two lithologic units overlying the tar sand deposit at Loda village were sampled with geotechnical tests carried out on them. These tests were carried to determine the parameters necessary for slope stability analysis as it relates to future mining operations on the tar sand deposit of Southwestern Nigeria using Loda village Ondo State Southwestern Nigeria as a case study. However, the crucial engineering problem of slope instability or stability has been simulated to determine the bench face angle that would be safe for excavating the lithologies overlying the tar sand deposit at the study area. Therefore, for a proposed open pit mine at Loda village, Southwestern Nigeria. The following measures need to be put in place in the design and operation of the mine; 1. Installation of piezometers in investigative boreholes to measure the water pressure constantly. 2. Benches must be surveyed regularly to see if small movements are taking place.

3. The use of state-of-the art monitoring equipment like extensometers is suggested. 4. Digging of wide perimeter trenches which would help to provide good drainage network for he flow of surface water from rainfall and groundwater from the subsurface in the proposed mine. 5. The use of high capacity submersible pumps for dewatering. 6. The need to carry out core drilling to have a large data base for detailed and accurate calculations of safety factors. CONCLUSION Earlier works carried out on the tar sand deposit of Southwestern Nigeria made observations based on approximations of geotechnical parameters. Detailed geotechnical tests that relate to slope stability analysis were not carried out. This paper has gone a bit further by carrying out geotechnical tests on the lithologies overlying the deposit at a designated location. Also computer software is used to model the bench face angles appropriate for excavation. However, increasing the slope angle decreases the stability of slope although this depends on the geologic structure, soil and rock properties involved. An attempt has been made in designing the best bench face angles for excavating the lithologic units overlying the shallow tar sand occurrence at Loda village Southwestern Nigeria. Not only is an attempt made, a range of bench face angles has been suggested for future mining operations on the tar sand deposit of o Southwestern Nigeria. Adherence to slope angles ranging between 10 o and 30 with controlled ground water conditions would go a long way in ensuring safe mine slopes with minimum instability risk, thereby optimizing the operations of the proposed open pit mine for maximum economic gain. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors express their sincere appreciation to Mr. Femi for the geotechnical tests carried out at the soil laboratory of the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ilroin; to Mr. Ola Sayomi for downloading the Geostudio SLOPE/W Software; to Mrs. Sayomi for typing the manuscript and to all reviewers for their constructive comments that helped to improve the quality of this paper. REFERENCES Adegoke, O.S., Ako, B.D., Enu, E.I, Petters, s.W., Adegoke, A.C.W., Odebode, M.O. and Emofurieta, W.O. (1976). Tar sand Project Phase II; Estimation of Reserves, Materials Testing and Chemical Analyses. Unpublished report, Geological Consultancy Unit, Department of Geology, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, 75p.

Adegoke, O.S., Ako, B.D., Enu, E.I., Petters, S.W., Adegoke A.C.W., Odebode, M.O. and Emofurieta, W.O. (1980). Geotechnical Investigations of the Ondo State Bituminous Sands. Report by the Geological Consultancy Unit, Department of Geology, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, 25p. Adegoke, O.S. and Ibe, A.C. (1982). The Tar sand and Heavy Crude Resources of Nigeria. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Tar sands and Heavy crude, pp 280-285. Adelu, R.D. and Fayose, E.A. (1991). Development Prospects for the Bituminous Deposits in Nigeria. In: R.F. Meyer (Ed.) 5th UNITAR International Conference on Heavy Crude and Tar sands, Edmonton, AOSTRA technical reports, pp 509-515. Alao, D.A. and Obielodan, J.B. (2006). Hydrocarbon Potential of Nigerian Tar Sand and its Application in Construction: Call for a New Policy. A paper presentation at the Southern Interdisciplinary Roundtable on African Studies (SIRAS), Kentucky State University Frankfort, Kentucky U.S.A. 20p. Bankole, S.I. Shrank, E., Erdtmann, B.D. and Akande, S.O. (2006). Palynostratigraphic Age and Paleoenvironments of the newly exposed section of the Oshosun Formation in the Shagamu quarry Dahomey basin, Southwestern Nigeria. NAPE Bulletin, Vol.19 No.1, pp 25-34. Bitumen Project Implementation Committee Report (2002). Report on Appraisal wells drilled along the Nigerian Tar sand belt. Unpublished Report, 30p. Coker, S.J.L. (1990). Exploration of he Nigerian Oilsand Deposits. In: B.D. Ako and E.I. Enu (Eds). Occurrence, Utilization and Economics of Nigerian tar sands. NMFS, Ibadan Chapter publication, pp 30-49. Duncan, C.W. and Wyllie, C.W. (2004). Rock Slope Engineering. 4th edition, spon press, UK. 480p Enu, E.I. (1985). Textual Characteristics of the Nigerian Tar sands. Sedimentary Geology vol. 44, pp 65-81. Enu, E.I, Adegoke, O.lS., Robert, C., Ako, B.D., Ajayi, T.R., Adediran, S.A. and Oriyomi, A. (1981). Clay mineral Distribution in the Nigerian tar sand sequence. In: Van Olphen and F. Variable (Eds.). International Clay Conference 1981. Development in Sedimentology, 35. Elsevier Amsterdam, pp 321-323. Fasasi, M;K., Oyawale, A.A., Mokobia, C.E., Tchokossa, P., Ajayi, T.R. and Balogun, F.A. (2003). Natural Radioactivity of the Tar sand Deposits of Ondo State, Southwestern Nigeria. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, A. 505, pp 449-453.

Geological Survey Agency of Nigeria, (2005). Geological and Minerals Map of Ondo State. Produced by the Geological Survey Agency of Nigeria. Institution of Civil Engineers (1976). Manual of Applied Geology for Engineers. 1st Edition, Institution of Civil Engineers, London 378p. Lambe, T.W. (1951). Soil Testing for Civil Engineers, John Wiley and Sons, New York. Mandzic, E.H. (1992). Mineral water Risk in Open pit slope Stability. Mine water and the Environment, Vol. Ii No.4, pp 35-42. Ministry of Solid Minerals Development, (2005). Nigerian tar sands and Bitumen; Exploration Opportunities. Unpublished Report, 6p. Nwachukwu, J.I. (2003). Exploitation of the Bitumen Deposits of Nigeria. In: A.A. Elueze (Ed.). Prospects for Investment in Mineral Resources of Southwestern Nigeria. NMGS, Ibadan Chapter Special Publication, pp 67-74. Peters, W.C. (1978). Exploration and Mining Geology, 1st edition, John Wiley and Sons Inc. New Jersey, 694p Read, K.H. (1992). Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing Volume 1, 2nd Edition, Pentech Press, London, 380p. Schroeder, W.L. and Dickenson, S.E. (1996). Soils in Construction, 4th Edition, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, U.S.A.. 317p

22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 10 20 30 40

GWL 1m GWL 4m Layer 1 Laterite Layer 2 Alluvium (Loose sand)

GWL 1m GWL 4m Layer 1 Laterite Layer 2 Alluvium (Loose sand)

50

60

70

X-Sectional Length(m )

70

80

90

X-Sectional Length (m)

Figure 8: Modeling of 40 bench face angle to determine the corresponding factor of safety for 10m bench width and 6m bench height

Figure 11: Modeling of 40 bench face angle to determine the corresponding factor of safety for 20m bench width and 6m bench height

35

1.099

30

1.099 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 10 20 30
25

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

20

GWL 1m GWL 4m Layer 1 Laterite Layer 2 Alluvium (Loose sand)

15

GWL 1m GWL 4m Layer 1 Laterite Layer 2 Alluvium (Loose sand)

10

40

50

60

70

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

X-Sectional Length (m)

X-Sectional Length (m )

Figure 9. Modeling of 90o bench face angle to determine the corresponding factor of safety for 10m bench width and 6m bench height

Figure 12. Modeling of 90o bench face angle to determine the corresponding factor of safety for 20m bench width and 6m bench height