ANTHROPOLOGY

The term anthropology has been coined from two Greek words anthropos which means 'man' and logy which stands for ' the science of'. It involves the study of the human species at any place on earth, at any given time; be it in the busy neighbourhood of Los Angeles or the dense forests of the Amazon. There are anthropologists who study fossils to solve the riddles of human evolution, whereas there are others who try to understand the effect of modernization on contemporary societies. While subjects like economics and biology focus on specific aspects of human life, anthropology is the only discipline that addresses all facets of human existence.

BRANCHES OF ANTHROPOLOGY Cultural Anthropology Culture is an important tool for human survival. It is a complex whole of knowledge, morals, traditions, arts and customs that we have learned as being part of a society. It is transferred over generations non-biologically, through words and symbols. Cultural anthropologists try to understand the logic behind cultural norms. They believe that no tradition or cultural practice is wrong. For example, scarring of the body might seem bizarre to us. However, a study of the culture of the African tribes that follow this ritual has shown that this is a highly relevant practice. During their research, cultural anthropologists live within a community, observe their customs, and try to understand them in comparison to the practices of other societies. Cultural anthropologists may study a society living on the far end of the globe, or may concentrate on certain segments of our own society, like the corporate sector, labourers, or slum dwellers. Linguistic Anthropology Language is an important agent of transmission of culture. It is accomplishment of the human species that has given it an edge over the rest of the animals in the living world. In their endeavour to understand the origin and evolution of a language and oral traditions, linguistic anthropologists gain valuable insights into the culture of a community. They understand prehistoric links between various societies and explore the meaning of verbal concepts to learn about the conditions that existed in the past, and how humans adjusted to those. Besides studying language in a cultural aspect, linguistic anthropologists also try to understand the biological implications of language. This involves studying changes in the human brain and body that enabled us to organize sounds in a meaningful way, to evolve language. Archaeology

Archaeology deals with studying the tangible remains of a culture. Fortunately, human beings leave clues about their ways of life, not only in words and alphabets, but also in the form of material remains like pot sherds, foundation of houses, stone tools and burials. These reveal important information about the beliefs and traditions of a particular civilization or community. For example, paintings on walls of tombs may throw light on the status of the person buried there. Such paintings often depict practices prevalent in a society. Study of burial sites can help archaeologists understand the religious beliefs of a group of people. Biological Anthropology Biological anthropology, also known as physical anthropology, deals with tracing the biological origins, evolutionary changes, and the genetic diversity of the human species. In the process, biological anthropologists study primate behaviour and anatomical variations between primates and human beings in order to understand physical changes that have taken place in humans during their evolutionary journey from apes. They may also take up genetic analysis and anthropometric studies to find reasons behind the physical differences between people of various groups. Besides these major branches, anthropology also has other divisions like forensic anthropology, medical anthropology, and ecological anthropology. Although each branch is a specialized field of study, they are inter-related. This gives anthropologists an edge over researchers from other fields in addressing human problems, as they study human existence not in isolation but in totality.

NATURE OF CULTURE Culture is based on the uniquely human capacity to classify experiences, encode such classifications symbolically, and teach such abstractions to others. It is usually acquired through enculturation, the process through which an older generation induces and compels a younger generation to reproduce the established lifestyle; consequently, culture is embedded in a person's way of life. Culture is difficult to quantify, because it frequently exists at an unconscious level, or at least tends to be so pervasive that it escapes everyday thought. This is one reason that anthropologists tend to be skeptical of theorists who attempt to study their own culture. Anthropologists employ fieldwork and comparative, or cross-cultural, methods to study various cultures. Ethnographies may be produced from intensive study of another culture, usually involving protracted periods of living among a group. Ethnographic fieldwork generally involves the investigator assuming the role of participant-observer: gathering data by conversing and interacting with people in a natural manner and by observing people's behaviour unobtrusively. Ethnologies use specialized monographs in order to draw comparisons among various cultures.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE First is that culture is learned, this is the first essential characteristics of culture. Culture is learned by any individual, especially if he/she grows up with that particular culture. He/she can learn behaviour patterns including language and many other attributes. We can learn the culture of others especially if we acquaint with them and get influence with their personality and lifestyle. The second characteristic of culture is that culture is shared by a group of people. We can consider a thought or an action as a culture if it is commonly shared and believed or practiced by a group of people. If it is commonly shared and believed by a group of individuals then it can be considered as their culture. The third characteristic of culture is that culture is cumulative. Different knowledge embodied in culture can be passed from one generation to another generation. More and more knowledge is added in the particular culture as time passes by. Each may work out solutions to problems in life that passes from one generation to another. This cycle remains as the particular culture goes with time. The fourth characteristic of culture is that cultures change. Not all cultures accumulate. There is knowledge; thoughts or traditions that are lost as new cultural traits are added, with that there are possibilities of cultural changes with the particular culture through time. The fifth characteristic of culture is that culture is dynamic. It was considered that there is no culture remains on the permanent state. Culture is changing constantly as new ideas and new techniques are added in time modifying or changing the old ways. This is the characteristic of culture that stems from the cultures cumulative quality. The sixth characteristic of culture is that culture is ideational. Culture forms ideal pattern of behaviours that followed by individuals expectedly. It serves as guidelines that must be followed by members to gain social acceptance from the people with the same culture. The seventh characteristic of culture is that culture is diverse. It was considered that culture was formed by many separate cultures. It is a system that has several mutually interdependent parts. Although these parts are separate, they are interdependent with one another forming culture as a whole. The eight characteristic of culture is that culture gives us a range of permissible behaviour patterns. Culture provides us with the norms of appropriate behavioural patterns. It involves how an activity should be conducted, how an individual should appropriately act, as husband, wife, parents, child, and others. It tells us how to dress based on gender, occasions, statue and many more.

FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE 1. Culture shapes behaviour 2. Culture provides a standard by which we evaluate others behaviour 3. Culture gives meaning to events or acts 4. Culture allows for communication of events or acts 5. Culture provides boundary maintenance.

The Basic Function of Culture Culture is a complex, abstract, and pervasive matrix of social elements that functions as an all-encompassing form or pattern for living by laying out a predictable world in which an individual is firmly oriented. Culture enables us to make sense of our surroundings, aiding the transition from the womb to this new life. From the instant of birth, a child is formally and informally taught how to behave Children, regardless of their culture quickly learn how to behave in a manner that is acceptable to adults. Within each culture, therefore, there is no need to expend energy deciding what an event means or how to respond to it. The assumption is that people who share a common culture can usually be counted on to behave "correctly" and predictably. Hence, culture reduces the chances of surprise by shielding people from the unknown. Try to imagine a single day in your life without access to the guidelines your culture provides. Without the rules that govern your actions, you would soon feel helpless. From how to greet strangers to how to spend our time, culture provides us with structure. To lack culture is to lack structure. We might even go so far as to say that "our primary mode of biological adaptation is culture, not anatomy."