DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAW OF PATENTS AND INDUSTRIAL DESIGNS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

Eddy D. Ventose Brasenose College, Oxford FIRST DRAFT February 2002 Done under the auspices of the Oxford Intellectual Property Research Centre at St Peters College, Oxford, and under the supervision and editorship of Professor David Vaver, the Centre Director

1.

Major Resource Areas in Intellectual Property, Industrial Designs and Patent Law
International Organisations WIPO: http://www.wipo.int/ Regional Organisations EU: http://www.european-patent-office.org/ Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Patent, Copyright and Competition Law: http://www.intellecprop.mpg.de/Enhanced/English/H omepage.HTM Intellectual Property Institute: http://www.ipinstitute.org.uk/index.html Governmental Organisations USA: http://www.uspto.gov/ Australia: http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/patents/P_home.htm UK: http://www.patent.gov.uk/ Canada: http://cipo.gc.ca/ Japan: http://www.jpo.go.jp/ University Centres Oxford University: http://www.oiprc.ox.ac.uk/ Cambridge University: http://www.law.cam.ac.uk/ipunit/home.htm Washington University: http://www.law.washington.edu/Casrip/ Berkeley University: http://www.law.berkeley.edu/institutes/bclt/ Edinburgh University: http://www.law.ed.ac.uk/script/home.htm

(a) (i) (b) (i) (ii)

(iii) (c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (d) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

2. General Publications

Intellectual

Property

Bently, L & Sherman, B, Intellectual Property Law, Oxford University Press, 2001 Cornish, WRC Intellectual Property. Patents, Copyright, Trademarks and Allied Rights, Sweet & Maxwell, London, 1999 DAmato, A & Long, DE (eds.), International Intellectual Property Law, Kluwer Law International, Boston, MA, 1997 Firth, A (ed.), The Prehistory and Development of Intellectual Property Systems, Sweet & Maxwell, London, 1997 Firth, A Introduction to Intellectual Property, Butterworths, London, 1995 Frankel S & Smith (eds.), Essays on Intellectual Property Law and Policy, Victoria University Law Review, Wellington, 2001 Halpern, SW, Nard CA, and Port KL, Fundamentals of US Intellectual Property Law, Kluwer Law Int., Cambridge, Mass, 1999 Holyoak, J & Torremans, P, Intellectual Property Law, 3rd ed. by Torremans, Butterworths, London, 2001 Merges, RP and Lemley, M Intellectual Property in the New Technological Age, Aspen, Gaithesburg, New York, 2000 Packer, A. Innovation and the Intellectual Property System, Kluwer, Deventer, 1996

Prime T European Intellectual Property Law, Ashgate, Aldershot, Hampshire, 2000 Sherman B and Bentley L The Making of Modern Intellectual Property Law: the British experience, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999 Tritton G Intellectual Property in Europe, Sweet & Maxwell, London, 1995 Vaver, D, Intellectual Property Law: Copyright, Patents, Trade-marks, Irwin Law, Toronto, 1997

3. Current Research Areas in Patent Law

(a) Antitrust Limitations to Patent Settlements This research examines the role of antitrust (i.e., procompetition) concepts in relation to patent settlements, including negotiated licences. The implications of these arrangements are examined to determine whether such settlements have the capacity to violate antitrust laws. A cost/benefit analysis of settlements is undertaken to show why antitrust limitations are necessary to prevent abuses. References: Research Centres: Berkeley Centre for Law and Technology Studies: Shapiro, C: Antitrust Limits to Patent Settlements Working Paper 5-01 (May, 2001) Articles: Donahey, TI Antitrust Counterclaims in Patent Infringement Litigation: Clarifying the Supreme Courts Enigmatic Supreme Court Decision (1999) 39 IDEA: J.L. & Tech. 225

Gould, J Antitrust and Intellectual property: Landing on Patent Avenue in the Game of Monopoly (1997) 37 IDEA: J.L. & Tech. 449 Handler, C E Antitrust Implications of Settlement and Patent Disputes Practising Law Institute PLI Order No. G000NI June 21-22, 2001 - New York City July 9-10, 2001 San Francisco Intellectual Property Antitrust 2001 Schlam, L Compulsory Royalty-free Licensing as an Antitrust remedy for Fraud: Law, Policy and the Patent Antitrust Interface Revisited (1998) 7 Cornell J.L. & Pub. Policy 467

(b) Optimum Patent Protection Research in this area has attempted to examine the economic consequences and viability of having varying lengths of patent terms. These studies necessary discuss the research and development costs of innovation, something crucial for, e.g., the pharmaceutical industry where costs are high and the patent term of 20 years may, arguably, not always suffice to secure an adequate return on investment. References: Articles: De Brock, L.M. Marker Structure, Innovation and Optimal Patent Life (1985) 28 Journal of Law and Econ. 223 Gilbert, R and Shapiro, C Optimal Patent Length and Breadth (1990) 21 Rand Journal of Economics 113 Merges, RP and Nelson R On the Complex Economies of Patent Scope (1990) 90 Col. LR 839 Nordhaus, WD The Optimum Life of a Patent: A Reply (1972) 62 American Economic Review 428

Osterberg, L Nordaus theory of Optimum patent Life: A Geometric Reinterpretation (1972) 64 American Economic Review 422 Schott, K The Relations Between Industrial Research and Development and Factor Demands (1978) 88 Economic Journal 85 Tandon, P Optimal Patents with Compulsory Licensing (1982) 90 Journal of Political Economy 470 (c) Business Method Patents

Patent protection for business methods and computerimplemented business method is of great concern in Europe, partly because their devisers can now get protection for both computer programs and business methods in the US. A similar issue relates to the patenting of Internet business models. These things are ostensibly excluded from patentability under the European Patent Convention. Whether the law in the UK/EPC will change to follow that of the US is currently uncertain. Studies have examined the economic impact of business method patents on competition. The European Commission has completed a detailed study on the impact of computer program patenting. Meanwhile the European Patent Office may be edging towards patentability by interpreting the EPC exclusions narrowly.

References: Research Centres: Intellectual Property Institute Oxford Intellectual Property Institute Studies:

Hart, Holmes and Reid, The Economic Impact of Patentability of Computer Programs, Report to the European Commission 1999 Spence and Molineaux, The First Mover Monopoly: A study on patenting business methods in Europe, Olswang and Oxford Intellectual Property Research Centre 2000 Articles: Biddinger BP, Limiting the Business Method Patent: A Comparison and Proposed Alignment of European, Japanese and United States Patent Law (2001) 69 Fordham L. Rev. 2523 Chandler J P Patent Protection for Computer Programs (2000) Minn. Intell. Prop. Rev. 33 Dreyfus, R C Are Business Method Patents Bad for Business? (2000) 16 Santa Clara Computer High Tech. L.J. 263 Grusd, J E Internet Business Methods: What Role Does and Should Patent Law Play? (1999) 4 Va. J.L. & Tech. 9 Krause W, Sweeping the E-Commerce Patent Minefield: The Need for a Workable Business Method Exception (2000) 24 Seattle U. L. Rev. 79 Maurer, ES An Economic Justification for a Broad Interpretation of Patentable Subject Matter (2001) 95 Nw. U. L. Rev. 1057 Melarti, C D State Street Bank & Trust Co. v. Signature Financial Group, Inc.: Ought the Mathematical Algorithm and Business Method Exceptions Return to Business as Usual? (1999) 6 J. Intell. Prop. L. 359 Merges R As Many as Six Impossible Patents for Breakfast: Property Right for Business Concepts and Patent System Reform (1999) 14 Berkeley Technology Law Journal 578

Ogden C L Patentability of Algorithms after State Street Bank: The Death of the Physicality Requirement (2001) 83 J. Pat. & Trademark Off. Society 491 Peterson, R M Now You See It, Now You Don't: Was It a Patentable Machine or an Unpatentable "Algorithm"? On Principle and Expediency in Current Patent Law Doctrines Relating to Computer-Implemented Inventions (1995) 64 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 90. Raskind, L J The State Street Bank Decision: The Bad Business of Unlimited Patent Protection for Methods of Doing Business (1999) 10 Fordham Intell. Prop. Media & Ent. L.J. 61 Syrowik D Finding the Right Balance: Business Method Patents Generate Controversy and Legal Attention (2001) 80 Mich. B.J. 48 Szzerbicki S Shakedown on State Street (2000) 79 Or. L. Rev. 253 Wells G M Internet Business Method Patent Policy (2001) 87 Va. L. Rev. 729

(d)

Industrial Property and Antitrust law

Various aspects of patent law have been studied from the perspective of antitrust law. International aspects were emphasised particularly in the initiative to develop a Draft International Antitrust Code. References: Research Centres: Max Planck Institute Articles:

Adelman, MJ Property Rights theory and Patent-antitrust: the role of Compulsory Licensing (1977) 52 New York University Law Review 977 Barton, J H Patents and Antitrust: A Rethinking in Light of Patent Breadth and Sequential Innovation (1997) 65 Antitrust law Journal 449 Cohen, L R and Noll, R G Intellectual Property, Antitrust and the New Economy (2000) 62 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 453 Hurwitz, MA Bundling Patent Drugs and Medical Services- An antitrust Analysis (1984) 91 Columbia Law Review 188 Sullivan, ET The Confluence of Antitrust and Intellectual Property at the New Century Minn. Intell. Prop. Rev. 1 Tandon, P New Trends in United States Antitrust Law The patent-antitrust Interface as an Example (1984) 15 IIC 269 (e) Patent Law and its Impact on World trade One question generating considerable interest is how far the patent system generates positive benefits for world trade as a whole and more specifically developing countries. The use of statistics in measuring economic performance of various countries is important to this area. References: Articles: Amendola, G, Guerrieri, P. and Padoan, P International Patterns of technological Accumulation and trade (1992) 1 Journal of International and Comparative Economics 173 Dosi G, Pavitt, K and Soete, L The Economics of Technological Change and International Trade (Harvester Wheatsleaf 1990)

Greenhalgh, C, Taylor, P and Wilson, R Innovation and Export Volumes and Prices: a Disaggregated Study Oxford Economic Papers 1991 Maskus, K The New Issues: Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights in the European Community 1993 Maskus, K. and D Konan Trade Related Rights and Explanatory Results in A. Deardoff and J. Stern (eds) Analytical negotiating Issues in the Global trading System (Ann Abor: Univ. of Michigan Press 1993)

(f) Biotechnology, Plant and Animal Varieties Whether patent law should embrace biotechnological subject matter has been a much-debated question over the past decades. Major issues revolve around whether life forms can or should be patented. In agriculture, where genetic engineering is playing an increasing role, patentability questions are often linked to ethical and environmental considerations. On another front, a key issue is whether patent protection could and should be extended to protect animal and plant varieties. The EPC excludes plant and animal varieties from patent protection, but such things are being patented in North America. References: Articles/Book: Annas, GJ The Man on the Moon, Immortality and Other Millennal Myths: The Prospects and Perils of Human Genetic Engineering (2000) 49 Emory Law Journal 753 Cook, T, Doyle, C and Jabbari, D Pharmaceuticals, Biotechnology and the Law (Macmillan 1991)

10

Crespi, RS Patents: A Basic Biotechnology (Cambridge 1998)

Guide

to

Patenting

Ducor, P Patenting the Recombinant Products of Biotechnology Kluwer, The Hague, 1997 Erbisch, CH and Maredia KM (Eds) Intellectual Property Rights in Agricultural Biotechnology Carbi Publishing 1998 Gopalakrisgnan, NS An Effective Sui Generis Law to Protect Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights in India Journ. World Int. Property, 2001 Ko, Y An Economic Analyisis of Biotechnology Patent Protection (1992) 102 Yale L. J 777 Ko, Y The economic Analysis of Biotechnology Patent Protection (1992) 102 Yale Law Journal 777 Llewelyn M The Patentability of Biological Material: Continuing Contradiction and Confusion (2000) 22 E.I.P.R 191 Van der Kooil, P Introduction to the EC Regulation on Plant Variety Protection Kluwer, The Hague, 1997

4.

Potential Research Areas in Patent Law

(a) Patent Protection for Sports Moves Some US writers continue to argue for the possibility of patenting sports moves. This is not patentable subject matter in the UK or under the EPC. Whether Article 27 of TRIPs, mandating that all areas of technology should be patentable, makes a difference is unclear. References:

11

Articles/Books: Kukkonen, C A Be a Good Sport and Refrain from using my Patented Putt: Intellectual Property Protection for Sports related Movements (1998) 80 J. Pat. & Trademark Off. Soc'y 808 Smith, J A Its Your Move- No its Not!: The Application of Application of Patent Law to Sports Moves (2000) U. Colo. L. Rev. 1051 Weber, L J Something in the Way She Moves: The Case for Applying Copyright Protection to Sports Moves (2000) 23 Colum. -VLA J.L. & Arts 315

(b)

Exclusion of Methods of Medical Treatment from Patent Protection The question has arisen as to whether the exclusion of methods of medical treatment in the EPC is justified. The Draft Proposal of the European Patent Convention had not changed the law in this regard. The United States had previously granted such patents since 1954. However legislative intervention by Congress in 1996 resulted in the Medical Procedures and Affordability Act, which provided immunity to physicians for infringement of medical procedure patents. The debate as to the ethical and economic influences on this question is to be found in the literature. References: Studies: Smither, R. Patent Protection for Inventions relating to Medical Treatment if Humans and Animals (London: CLIP 1993) Articles/Books:

12

Alten, B G Left to Ones Devices: Congress Limits Patent on Medical Procedures (1998) 8 Fordham Intell. Prop. Media & Ent. L.J. 837 Burns, S J W Unethical or Essential? (1996) 8 No. 10 J. Proprietary Rts. Garris J The Case for Patenting Medical Procedures (1996) 22 Am. J.L. & Med. 85 Katopis C J Patients v Patents: Policy Implication of recent Patent Legislation (1997) 71 St. John's L. Rev. 329 Noonan, W D Patenting Medical and Surgical Procedures (1995) 77 J. Pat. & Trademark Off. Soc'y 651 Todd M New Appellate Decision Clarifies Australian Law Concerning Patentability of Method of Medical Treatment (2000) 82 J. Pat. & Trademark Off. Soc'y 645 Todd M Patentability of Method of Medical Treatment: A Comparative Study (2000) 82 J. Pat. & Trademark Off. Soc'y 381

(c) The patenting of Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs) The human genome project has sparked controversy about the appropriate role for patent law. Although this concern has been around since the project started in 1990 it has assumed a new dimension in light of the mapping of the entire human genome in 2000. Differing views on whether ESTs are or should be patented exist. References: Research Centres: Max Planck Institute Studies:

13

Articles/Books: Benjamin, B D The Human Genome Projects: Patenting Human Genes and Biotechnology: Is the Human Genome Patentable (1995) 35 IDEA: J.L. & Tech. 461 Gitter D M International Conflicts Over Patenting Human DNA Sequences in the United States and the European Union: An Argument for Compulsory Licensing and the Fair Use exemption (2001) 76 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1623 Munzer, S R. and Molly A. Holman, Intellectual Property Rights in Genes and Gene Fragments: A Registration Solution for Expressed Sequence Tags (2000) 85 Iowa L. Rev. 735 Robertson JA Who Should Hold Property Right to the Human Genome (1997) 13 Am. U. Int'l L. Rev. 219 Vacchiano, E Its a Wonderful Genome: the Written Description Requirement Protects the Human genome from Over-Broad Patents (1999) 32 J. Marshall L. Rev. 805 Zuhn D DNA Patentability: Shutting the Door to the Utility Requirement 34 J. Marshall L. Rev. 973

(d)

Grace Periods

The question of whether to allow grace periods for patent filing in the European Union, which duplicates the United States system, is one of the major issues facing the Union. References: Research Centres: Intellectual Property Institute

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Study Straus, J Expert Opinion on the Introduction of a Grace Period in the European Patent Law, submitted for the European Patent Organisation, www.european-patentoffice.org/news/pressrel/pdf/straus.pdf

(e)

Patent Law, Pharmaceutical Developing Countries

products

and

Much debate has centred on the role of patents in the pharmaceutical industries in developing countries, particularly in the light of the recent South African controversy over the possibility of manufacturing or importing generic drugs for AIDs patients despite the patents held by major pharmaceutical companies. The broad issue facing policy makers is whether patent law unfairly restricts access to vital medicines for people in poorer countries. References: Research Centres: Intellectual Property Institute Studies: Articles/Books: Correa, C M Public Health and Patent Legislation in developing Countries (2001) 3 Tul. J. Tech. & Intell. Prop. 1 Gathii, J T Construing Intellectual property Rights and Competition Policy Consistently with Facilitating access to Affordable Aids drugs to Low-end Consumers (2001) 53 Fla. L. Rev. 727 Maskus KE Intellectual property Challenges foe Developing Countries: An Economic Perspective (2001) U. Ill. L. Rev. 457

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Nash, D South Africas Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Act of 1997 (2000) 15 Berkeley Tech. L.J. 485

(f)

Intellectual Property laws of former Soviet Union Countries Since the disappearance of the Soviet Union, there has been an increase in interest in the intellectual property regimes in the new republics. Buryak, E New Soviet Patent Law: A Step Towards World Harmonization, in D.L. GARRISON ed., Intellectual Property: Eastern Europe & Commonwealth of Independent States, Oceana Publications, New York, 2000, SU-2.19 Rasskhin, VP The New Russian Federation Patent System: How We Got into an Era of Legal Uncertainty and How We are Getting Our of It, in the New Republic Called Russia D.L. GARRISON ed., Intellectual Property: Eastern Europe & Commonwealth of Independent States, Oceana Publications, New York, 2000, RU-1.41 (h) Transfer of Technology, TRIPs and Developing Countries With the establishment of the WTO in 1995 it became a critical concern of developing countries to reassert their view that the developed countries should share their technology with the developing world. Transfer has apparently not appreciably increased, raising the issue of whether TRIPs is too heavily biased towards the interests of the developed world.

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Gutowski RJ The Marriage of Intellectual property and International Trade in the TRIPs Agreement: Strange Bedfellows or a Match made in Heaven (1999) 47 Buff. L. Rev. 713 Maskus, KE Intellectual Property Challenges for Developing Countries: An Economic Perspective (2001) U. Ill. L. Rev. 457 Maskus, KE Intellectual Property rights and Economic development (2000) 32 Case W. Res. J. Int'l L. 471 Reichman, JH The TRIPs Agreement Comes of Age: Conflict or Cooperation with the Developing Countries (2000) 32 Case W. Res. J. Int'l L. 441 (i) Intellectual Property Protection of Traditional Knowledge One of the concerns of the developing countries is the increased exploitation, especially by the pharmaceutical industry, of indigenous knowledge by developing countries without adequate compensation. Jain, M Global Trade and the New Millennium: Defining the Scope of Intellectual Property Protection of Plant Genetic Resources and traditional Knowledge (1999) 22 Hastings Int'l & Comp. L. Rev. 777 Kuruk, P Protecting Folklore Under Modern Intellectual Property Regimes: A Reappraisal of the Tensions between Individual and Communal Rights in Africa and the United States (1999) 48 Am. U. L. Rev. 769 Quinn, ML Defending Indigenous Knowledge: An International Law Analysis 14 St. Thomas L. Rev. 287 (j) Patent Scope

17

Cohen, JE and Lemley M Patent Scope and Innovation in the Software Industry (2001) 89 Cal. L. Rev. 1 Domeij, B Patent Claim Scope: Initial and Follow-on Pharmaceutical Inventions [2001] EIPR 326 Merges, RP and Nelson, On the Complex Economies of Patent Scope (1990) 90 Col. LR 839

(k)

Infringement/Remedies

(i) Experimental Use A live issue involves the extent to which a person can be said to be infringing a patent when it is used in experiments, e.g., to improve the invention. Barash, EH Experimental Uses, Patents and Scientific Progress (1997) 91 Nw. U. L. Rev. 667 Karp, JP Experimental Use as Patent Infringement: The Impropriety of a Broad Exception (1991) 100 Yale L. Journal 2169 Mueller, JM No Dilettante Affair: Rethinking the Experimental Use Exception to Patent Infringement for Biomedical research Tools (2001) 76 Wash. L. Rev. 1 Weil, MF add Rooklidge, HRC The Application of Experimental Use to Design Patents: A Square Peg in a Round Hole (1995) 77 J. Pat. & Trademark Off. Soc'y 921 Wong, Z The Experimental Stage Doctrine: The Quiet Death of an Experimental Use Heresy (2000) 82 J. Pat. & Trademark Off. Soc'y 691 (ii) Equivalents

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The construction of claims in the two major patent systems differs considerably. In the UK/Europe the position is governed by Article 69 and the Protocol of the European Patent Convention, which provides for a balance between literalism and fair protection of the patentee; in the United States, the doctrine of equivalents rules, under which a substantially similar activity may infringe the patent. Bender, GA Uncertainty and Unpredictability in Patent Litigation: The time is Ripe for a Consistent Claim Construction Methodology 8 J. Intell. Prop. L. 175 Chandler, WT Prosecution History Estoppel, the Doctrine of Equivalents and the Scope of Patent (2000) 13 Harv. J.L. & Tech. 465 Nard, CA A Theory of Claim Interpretation (2000) 14 Harv. J.L. & Tech. 1

(iii) Parallel Importation The exhaustion of patent rights continues on the EU agenda, repeatedly engaging the attention of the European Court of Justice. When a patentee puts or allows a product to be put on the market in a part of the EU where he has no patent, he may be unable to prevent the free circulation of the product between the EU member states by asserting his patents in those states. This doctrine of EU exhaustion of rights may not apply internationally, e.g., where the produce is marketed outside the EU and imported into the EU. International exhaustion may, however, be applied by other jurisdictions in respect of their national patent rights. Cole P Centralised Litigation for European Patents: New Proposals for Inclusion in the EPC Revision Package (2001) 23 EIPR 2001 219

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Donnelly, DE Parallel Trade and Harmonisation of Exhaustion of Rights Doctrine (1997) 3 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 445 Merges R and Nelson R On the Complex Economics of Patent Scope (1990) 90 Col. L. Rev. 839 Rubin, H Destined to remain Grey: The External Recurrence of Parallel Imports (1992) 26 Int'l Law. 597 Takahiro, K Decision on Parallel Imports on Patented Goods (1996) 36 IDEA: J.L. & Tech. 567

5. Extending Patent Protection through Designs or Trade mark law Cumulative protection of design features for a patented product may serve to extend the term of protection for a patented product. References: Articles/Books Dinwoodie, GB Reconceptualising the Inherent Distinctiveness of Product Design Trade Dress (1997) 75 N.C. L. Rev. 471 Mclean, WF Opening Another Can of Worms: Protecting Product Configuration as Trade Dress (1997) 66 U. Cin. L. Rev. 119 Mohr, KE The Interface of Patent and Trademark Law: Should a Product Configuration Disclosed in a Utility Patent ever qualify for Trade Dress Protection? (1997) 19 Hastings Comm/Ent L.J. 339

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Prowda, JB The Trouble with Trade Dress Protection of Product Design (1998) 61 Alb. L. Rev. 1309 Saidman, PJ Kan Traffix Kops Katch the Karavan Kopy Kats? Or Beyond Functionality: Design Patent are the key to Unlocking the Trade Dress/Patent Conundrum (2000) 82 J. Pat. & Trademark Off. Society 839

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adelman, MJ Property Rights theory and Patent-antitrust: the role of Compulsory Licensing (1977) 52 New York University Law Review 977 Alten, B G Left to Ones Devices: Congress Limits Patent on Medical Procedures (1998) 8 Fordham Intell. Prop. Media & Ent. L.J. 837 Amendola, G, Guerrieri, P. and Padoan, P International Patterns of technological Accumulation and trade (1992) 1 Journal of International and Comparative Economics 173 Annas, GJ The Man on the Moon, Immortality and Other Millennal Myths: The Prospects and Perils of Human Genetic Engineering (2000) 49 Emory Law Journal 753 Barash, EH Experimental Uses, Patents and Scientific Progress (1997) 91 Nw. U. L. Rev. 667 Barton, J H Patents and Antitrust: A Rethinking in Light of Patent Breadth and Sequential Innovation (1997) 65 Antitrust law Journal 449 Bender, GA Uncertainty and Unpredictability in Patent Litigation: The time is Ripe for a Consistent Claim Construction Methodology 8 J. Intell. Prop. L. 175

21

Benjamin, B D The Human Genome Projects: Patenting Human Genes and Biotechnology: Is the Human Genome Patentable (1995) 35 IDEA: J.L. & Tech. 461 Bently, L & Sherman, B, Intellectual Property Law, Oxford University Press, 2001 Biddinger BP, Limiting the Business Method Patent: A Comparison and Proposed Alignment of European, Japanese and United States Patent Law (2001) 69 Fordham L. Rev. 2523 Burns, S J W Unethical or Essential? (1996) 8 No. 10 J. Proprietary Rts. Buryak, E New Soviet Patent Law: A Step Towards World Harmonization, in D.L. GARRISON ed., Intellectual Property: Eastern Europe & Commonwealth of Independent States, Oceana Publications, New York, 2000, SU-2.19 Chandler J P Patent Protection for Computer Programs (2000) Minn. Intell. Prop. Rev. 33 Chandler, WT Prosecution History Estoppel, the Doctrine of Equivalents and the Scope of Patent (2000) 13 Harv. J.L. & Tech. 465 Cohen, JE and Lemley M Patent Scope and Innovation in the Software Industry (2001) 89 Cal. L. Rev. 1 Cohen, L R and Noll, R G Intellectual Property, Antitrust and the New Economy (2000) 62 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 453 Cole P Centralised Litigation for European Patents: New Proposals for Inclusion in the EPC Revision Package (2001) 23 EIPR 2001 219 Cook, T, Doyle, C and Jabbari, D Pharmaceuticals, Biotechnology and the Law (Macmillan 1991)

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Cornish, WRC Intellectual Property. Patents, Copyright, Trademarks and Allied Rights, Sweet & Maxwell, London, 1999 Correa, C M Public Health and Patent Legislation in developing Countries (2001) 3 Tul. J. Tech. & Intell. Prop. 1 Crespi, RS Patents: A Basic Biotechnology (Cambridge 1998) Guide to Patenting

DAmato, A & Long DE (eds.), International Intellectual Property Law, Kluwer Law International, Boston, MA, 1997 De Brock, L.M. Marker Structure, Innovation and Optimal Patent Life (1985) 28 Journal of Law and Econ. 223 Dinwoodie, GB Reconceptualising the Zinherant Distinctiveness of Product Design Trade Dress (1997) 75 N.C. L. Rev. 471 Domeij, B Patent Claim Scope: Initial and Follow-on Pharmaceutical Inventions [2001] EIPR 326 Donahey, TI Antitrust Counterclaims in Patent Infringement Litigation: Clarifying the Supreme Courts Enigmatic Supreme Court Decision (1999) 39 IDEA: J.L. & Tech. 225 Donnelly, DE Parallel Trade and Harmonisation of Exhaustion of Rights Doctrine (1997) 3 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 445 Dosi G, Pavitt, K and Soete, L The Economics of Technological Change and International Trade (Harvester Wheatsleaf 1990)

23

Dreyfuss, R C Are Business Method Patents Bad for Business? (2000) 16 Santa Clara Computer High Tech. L.J. 263 Ducor, P Patenting the Recombinant Biotechnology Kluwer, The Hague, 1997 Products of

Erbisch, CH and Maredia KM (Eds) Intellectual Property Rights in Agricultural Biotechnology Carbi Publishing 1998 Firth, A (ed.), The Prehistory and Development of Intellectual Property Systems, Sweet & Maxwell, London, 1997 Firth, A Introduction to Intellectual Property, Butterworths, London, 1995 Frankel S & Smith (eds.), Essays on Intellectual Property Law and Policy, Victoria University Law Review, Wellington, 2001 Garris J The Case for Patenting Medical Procedures (1996) 22 Am. J.L. & Med. 85 Gathii, J T Construing Intellectual property Rights and Competition Policy Consistently with Facilitating access to Affordable Aids drugs to Low-end Consumers (2001) 53 Fla. L. Rev. 727 Gilbert, R and Shapiro, C Optimal Patent Length and Breadth (1990) 21 Rand Journal of Economics 113 Gitter D M International Conflicts Over Patenting Human DNA Sequences in the United States and the European Union: An Argument for Compulsory Licensing and the Fair Use exemption (2001) 76 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1623

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Gopalakrisgnan, NS An Effective Sui Generis Law to Protect Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights in India (2001) Journ. World Int. Property 157 Gould, J Antitrust and Intellectual property: Landing on Patent Avenue in the Game of Monopoly (1997) 37 IDEA: J.L. & Tech. 449 Greenhalgh, C, Taylor, P and Wilson, R Innovation and Export Volumes and Prices: a Disaggregated Study Oxford Economic Papers 1991 Grusd, J E Internet Business Methods: What Role Does and Should Patent Law Play? (1999) 4 Va. J.L. & Tech. 9 Gutowski RJ The Marriage of Intellectual property and International Trade in the TRIPs Agreement: Strange Bedfellows or a Match made in Heaven (1999) 47 Buff. L. Rev. 713 Halpern, SW, Nad CA, and Port KL, Fundamentals of US Intellectual Property Law, Kluwer Law Int., Cambridge, Mass, 1999 Handler, C E Antitrust Implications of Settlement and Patent Disputes Practising Law Institute PLI Order No. G000NI June 21-22, 2001 - New York City July 9-10, 2001 San Francisco Intellectual Property Antitrust 2001 Hart, Holmes and Reid, The Economic Impact of Patentability of Computer Programs, Report to the European Commission 1999 Holyoak, J & Torremans, P, Intellectual Property Law, 3rd ed. by Torremans, Butterworths, London, 2001 Hurwitz, MA Bundling Patent Drugs and Medical Services- An antitrust Analysis (1984) 91 Columbia Law Review 188 Jain, M Global Trade and the New Millennium: Defining the Scope of Intellectual Property Protection of Plant

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Genetic Resources and traditional Knowledge (1999) 22 Hastings Int'l & Comp. L. Rev. 777 Karp, JP Experimental Use as Patent Infringement: The Impropriety of a Broad Exception (1991) 100 Yale L. Journal 2169 Katopis C J Patients v Patents: Policy Implication of recent Patent Legislation (1997) 71 St. John's L. Rev. 329 Ko, Y An Economic Analyisis of Biotechnology Patent Protection (1992) 102 Yale L. J 777 Ko, Y The economic Analysis of Biotechnology Patent Protection (1992) 102 Yale Law Journal 777 Krause W, Sweeping the E-Commerce Patent Minefield: The Need for a Workable Business Method Exception (2000) 24 Seattle U. L. Rev. 79 Kukkonen, C A Be a Good Sport and Refrain from using my Patented Putt: Intellectual Property Protection for Sports related Movements (1998) 80 J. Pat. & Trademark Off. Soc'y 808 Kuruk, P Protecting Folklore Under Modern Intellectual Property Regimes: A Reappraisal of the Tensions between Individual and Communal Rights in Africa and the United States (1999) 48 Am. U. L. Rev. 769 Llewelyn M The Patentability of Biological Material: Continuing Contradiction and Confusion (2000) 22 E.I.P.R 191 Maskus KE Intellectual property Challenges foe Developing Countries: An Economic Perspective (2001) U. Ill. L. Rev. 457 Maskus, K The New Issues: Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights in the European Community 1993

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