Networking Basics

Description This module explains networking hardware, software, protocols and services at a basic level. It is meant as a knowledge foundation course for salespeople preparing to ask customers qualifying questions about their networks. Objectives At the end of the module, students will be able to: Articulate the basic concepts of network computing Identify networking hardware components Identify common networking protocols Identify common network operating systems and network services Describe types of networks

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DPCNB0710WBTS Networking Basics

What is Networking?

What is Networking?
In this module, you will be introduced to networking and the standards or rules for network communication.

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Networking Defined
A network is a group of two or more machines that have been linked together to provide communication and sharing of information and resources.

Networking Defined
A network is defined as two or more computers that are connected together for the purpose of sharing resources. Those shared resources can be information, hardware, software or any combination of these. Most computers in the world today are connected to a network in one form or another. A network can include a small business network confined to one room or several buildings or a worldwide network connecting millions of user, such as the Internet.

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Network Classifications
WAN

LAN WAN MAN CAN Internet/Intranet/Extranet

LAN

Network Classifications
LAN A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computers that share information and resources and are linked together by a system of cables, network interface cards (NICs), hubs, routers and switches. A LAN limits the size of the network, including the number of computers connected as well as the physical distance that can be covered by the network. An example might be a group of computers spanning several floors within the same office building.

LAN example

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All networks have certain characteristics in common: Servers Clients Media Shared data Shared peripherals Resources Computers that provide shared resources to network user. Computers that access shared network resources provided by a server. These are also known as nodes. The physical cabling connecting computers. Files provided by servers across the network. Printers, scanners and other resources managed by servers. Files, printers, or other items to be used by clients (nodes).

Client-server Centralized Administration

Client-server networks consist of client workstations and dedicated servers. A dedicated server only functions as a server and is not used as a client or workstation. Servers are dedicated because they are optimized to quickly service requests from network clients and to ensure the security of files and directories. This model may require a full-time administrator.

Server-based network

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WAN A Wide Area Network (WAN) is also defined as a group of computers sharing resources and information, but typically these computers are geographically more dispersed than that of the LAN environment. A company that has offices across the nation and overseas can be linked together by cables, high-speed telephone lines and wireless media to form a WAN. MAN A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a data network designed for a town or city. In terms of geographic breadth, MANs are larger than local-area networks (LANs), but smaller than wide-area networks (WANs). MANs are usually characterized by very high-speed connections using fiber optical cable or other digital media. CAN A Campus-Area Network (CAN) is an interconnection of local-area networks within a limited geographical space, such as a school campus or a military base. Internet The internet is a global network connecting millions of computers. Internet Service Providers (ISPs) provide access to the internet at a variety of speeds to homes and businesses. Unlike online services, which are centrally controlled, the Internet is decentralized by design. Each Internet computer, called a host, is independent. Its operators can choose which Internet services to use and which local services to make available to the global Internet community. Intranet A network based on TCP/IP protocols (an internet) belonging to an organization, usually a corporation, accessible only by the organization's members, employees, or others with authorization. An intranet's Web sites look and act just like any other Web sites, but the firewall surrounding an intranet fends off unauthorized access. Like the Internet itself, intranets are used to share information. Secure intranets are now the fastest-growing segment of the Internet because they are much less expensive to build and manage than private networks based on proprietary protocols. Extranet An Extranet is a network that uses Internet technology to facilitate relationships between businesses and their suppliers, customers, and other businesses. An extranet can be part of a companys intranet that external companies can access. The shared information may be available only to authorized parties or, in some cases, might be available to the public.

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Identify Components of a Basic LAN

Nodes Media Networking Protocols Networking Services

Ring

Bus

Star

Identify Components of a Basic Computer Network

Now that we have some rules to follow lets take a brief look at a network, its components and services. Nodes Nodes are the processing locations on the network. A node can be a computer or other devices, such as a printer. Media Media connects the nodes to allow communication. There are several methods of connectivity. The two basic methods are wired or wireless. Wired networks can be connected in either a bus, star or ring topology. Wireless is usually in a cellular topology.

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Bus topology requires that all computers tap into the same cable called a trunk (also backbone or segment). When a computer sends data, that data is broadcast to all nodes on the network. Only the destination computer reads the sent message; the rest ignore it (passive topology). Only one computer at a time can send messages.

Bus topology with terminators

Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, the number of computers attached to the bus affects network performancecomputers will be waiting to put data on the network. Bus networks require terminators at each end to ensure that network traffic does not bounce back and forth through the network. Terminators absorb free signals to clear the cable so that other computers can send data. Every cable end on the network must be plugged into a computer, a connector to extend the cable length, or a terminator. If there is a break in the cable or if an end is not terminated, the network will be down. The computers on the network will still be able to function as standalone computers but they will not be able to communicate with each other as long as the segment is broken. Advantages: Bus networks are relatively simple, inexpensive, easy to operate and reliable. They also use cable efficiently. Disadvantages: Isolating problems is difficultif a cable breaks, the entire network can be affected. The network may slow down during peak traffic periods.

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Star topology connects computers by cable segments to a centralized component, called a hub. Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers on the network.

Star Topology

Advantages: Because each computer terminates in the hub, the risk of an entire network failure is reduced if a cable breaks or a computer failsonly that cable segment or computer will be affected. Network expansion and reconfiguration are simplified. Network management and monitoring can be centralized. Disadvantages: This topology requires a great deal of cable in a large network installation. Also, if the central point (hub) fails, the entire network goes down.

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Ring topology does not have a central connection point. Computers are connected on a single circle of cable forming a ring. When a computer sends a message, the message is processed by each computer in the ring (active topology).

Ring topology

One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. The token is passed from computer to computer until it gets to a computer that has data to send. The sending computer attaches the data to the token and sends it around the ring. Each computer acts like a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer until the message arrives at its destination. The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer indicating that the data has been received. After verification, the sending computer creates a new token and releases it on the network. If the message is not accepted by any computer on the network it will make a loop around the entire ring and return to the sender. Advantages: All computers have equal access to data. During peak usage periods, performance is equal for all users. Disadvantages: Network expansion or reconfiguration will affect the entire network. Isolating problems is difficult. Because the signal passes through each computer, the failure of one computer can cause the entire network to fail.

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Networking Hardware

Networking Hardware
In this unit, we will introduce the networking hardware components used in building networking infrastructures.

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Identify Networking Hardware

Network Interface Card (NIC) Hub Switch Router Firewall

Identify Networking Hardware

Dell Networking hardware is a crucial part of the communication process on a network or between networks. The devices listed in the slide are fundamental components to any networking infrastructure and will be discussed in the following slides.

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Network Interface Card (NIC)

NICs are devices that enable a host to interface with a network

Dell 10/100/1000 Copper Gigabit PCI-X NIC

Dell 10/100 PCI Dual Port Server Adapter

Network Interface Card (NIC)

The Network Interface Card (NIC), also called a network adapter card is a hardware device that allows a node to communicate on the network. Each computer in a network requires a NIC. The NIC contains a transceiver that puts data onto the network cable and detects and receives data from the network cable. The NIC passes the incoming data to the appropriate application on the computer through a device driver. Before installing a network adapter make sure the network adapter is compatible with the computer bus (ISA, PCI, EISA, and PCMCIA), the Data Link protocol (Ethernet, Fast Ethernet (100Mb Ethernet), or Token Ring), the cabling and the network operating system. The NIC may also be integrated into the system board.

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Hub
Hubs are devices that forward data traffic across LANs with no awareness of sender or receiver Nodes on a hub share bandwidth, so congestion is common Hubs are considered legacy

Netgear DS108 8 Port 10/100 Mbps Dual Speed Hub 8 RJ-45 ports

Linksys Etherfast II 10/100 Auto Sensing Hub

Hub
A hub provides a central point of connection for network nodes. Cables from the nodes plug into the ports on the hub. All nodes connected to a hub share the bandwidth of the network. A hub receives the signals from the nodes and transmits them to other nodes on the network.

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Switches
Switches forward AND filter data frames across LANs with awareness of sender and receiver MAC and IP addresses Switches create point-to-point connections for each communication and provide dedicated bandwidth.

PowerConnect 2724 Web-Managed

PowerConnect 3348 Managed Fast Ethernet

Dell 5324 PowerConnectPowerConnect

Managed Gigabit Ethernet

Switch PowerConnect 6224

Managed Layer 3 Gigabit Ethernet

Switches
A switch directs the flow of information from one node to another. Switches operate faster than traditional network devices, such as hubs, bridges and routers. Switches have high-speed backplanes (the connections within the switch itself) that can give each sender/receiver pair the lines entire bandwidth, instead of sharing the bandwidth with all other network nodes. Switches separate LANs into multiple collision domains, to decrease the amount of network collisions and congestion. Switches can operate at several layers of the OSI/RM as follows: Layer 1 switch Switching hub. Replacing the much slower traditional hub. Layer 2 switch LAN switch. Forwards traffic based on MAC addresses. Layer 3 switch Routing switch. Forwards traffic based on network ID information. Layer 4 switch Makes forwarding decisions based on Layer 4 information such as the specific TCP/UDP port that an application uses, as well as Layer 2 and Layer 3 information.

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Router
Routers are devices that forward and filter frames based on IP addresses across LANs AND WANs

ADTRAN NetVanta 3200 Modular Access Router with T1/FT1 NIM

D-LINK SYSTEMS DFL-300 VPN Firewall Router

Dell PowerConnect J-SRX Routers

LINKSYS RV082 10/100 8-Port VPN Router

Router
Routers are similar to bridges, except they operate at the Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI/RM and are slower than bridges because they perform complex functions on data packets. Instead of using MAC addresses, routers use network protocols such as IP and IPX to build internal routing tables in memory from network IDs of other networks. They forward, or route, data from one network to another, instead of only to network segments. Routers direct data packets between networks. They identify the destination computers network address then check the internal routing table to determine the most efficient route for transmitting data to the destination computer. Routers only read addressed network packets and filter broadcast traffic to the local segment only. Corrupted packets are discarded. Routers share status and routing information with other routers to bypass slow or malfunctioning connections. Routers talk to other routers to which they have a configured interface and to local computers that are configured with the routers IP address.

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Switching versus Routing

Switching is the process of setting up point-to-point, dedicated bandwidth connections between hosts within the same physical switch. Switching can be performed using Mac or IP addresses. Switching is a LAN concept. Switching creates collision domains.

Routing is the process of choosing the best path over which to send data between hosts that are on different physical networks. Routing is performed using IP addresses Routing is a LAN or WAN concept. Routing separates broadcast domains

Switching versus Routing

Routing is the process of choosing a path over which to send packets. The device that performs this task is called a router, or default gateway, which forwards packets from one physical network to another. During this process, at least one intermediate node is typically encountered. Routing is often contrasted with bridging, which seems to accomplish precisely the same objective. The primary difference between the two is that bridging occurs at Layer 2 (the link layer) of the OSI reference model, whereas routing occurs at Layer 3 (the network layer). Routers use routing algorithms to find the best route to a destination. Parameters include the number of hops (the trip a packet takes from one router or intermediate point to another in the network), time delay, and communication cost of packet transmission. The Internet layer of the TCP/IP architecture performs the routing function. A packet, or datagram, carries header information for routing from the originating host to the destination host using the IP address. Packets may pass through several networks before reaching the destination host. The complexity of routing is not visible to users because the routing process is largely automated. The transport or application layer is responsible for reliability, which ensures that the data arrives at the other end. If two computers on the same physical network need to communicate, the packets do not require a router. This process is referred to as direct routing. In an Ethernet TCP/IP network, the sending computer encapsulates the packet in an Ethernet frame, resolves the destination IP address to a network card Ethernet address, and transmits the frame to its destination on the same local network.
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If two computers that are not on the same physical network need to communicate, they must send the IP packet to a router for delivery. Whenever a router is involved in communication, the process is considered indirect routing. The host must know which router to use for a given destination. The router is determined by the default gateway address assigned to the host during TCP/IP configuration. The default gateway is the IP address of the router on your local network. The router must know where to send the packet; the destination is determined by the routers routing information table. A routing information table is a database maintained by a router. The table contains the location of all networks in relation to the routers location. When a packet arrives at the router, the router examines the packets destination network, and then checks its own routing information table to determine the next router to forward the packet to. This part of the journey is considered a hop.

What is a Layered Switch?

Network traffic prioritization is a key requirement for deploying applications like voice-over-IP and videoconferencing. Layered switches often provide priority queues per port. Packets can be classified based on the Layer 2 IEEE 802.1p standard, the Layer 3 IP Precedence or IP Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) standard, or Layer 4 utilizing TCP/IP ports. Advanced flow-based policies enable the network administrator to implement rate limiting, metering and bandwidth guarantees to ports, link aggregation groups and VLANs. These capabilities help increase capability of the network to scale with growth while protecting networking infrastructure investments. Layered, or intelligent, switches support a variety of advanced standards-based routing and switching features, allowing administrators to optimize traffic flow in the network. Some of these include: Routing Information Protocol (RIP) Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol (VRRP) IP Multicast (IGMP) Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP) Supports up to 4063 dynamic VLANs Port mirroring Static and dynamic link aggregation

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What is a Firewall?
A firewall is a system implemented in hardware and/or software designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network.
Methods to control traffic flowing in and out of the network: Packet filtering

Packets (small chunks of data) are analyzed against a set of filters/user defined rules
Application gateway

Applies security mechanisms to specific applications

Circuit-level gateway

Applies security mechanisms when a TCP or UDP connection is established

Proxy service

Information from the Internet is retrieved by the firewall and then sent to the requesting system and vice versa
Stateful inspection

Method that does not examine the contents of each packet but instead compares certain key parts of the packet to a database of trusted information

What is a Firewall?
A firewall is a system implemented in hardware and/or software designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network. Firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the Internet, especially intranets. All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria. The firewall can implement security rules such as, restricting selected systems permission to receive public FTP traffic, thus allowing FTP connections only those systems and prevent them on all others. A company can set up rules like this for FTP servers, Web servers, Telnet servers and so on. In addition, the company can control how employees connect to Web sites, whether files are allowed to leave the company over the network and so on. A firewall gives a company tremendous control over how people use the network.

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DPCNB0710WBTS Networking Basics

Firewalls can use various methods or techniques to control traffic flowing in and out of the network: Packet filters: Looks at each packet entering or leaving the network and accepts or rejects it based on user-defined rules. Packet filtering is fairly effective and transparent to users, but it is difficult to configure. In addition, it is susceptible to IP spoofing. Application gateway: Applies security mechanisms to specific applications, such as FTP and Telnet servers. This is very effective, but can impose performance degradation. Circuit-level gateway: Applies security mechanisms when a TCP or UDP connection is established. Once the connection has been made, packets can flow between the hosts without further checking. Proxy server: Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network. The proxy server effectively hides the true network addresses. Information from the Internet is retrieved by the firewall and then sent to the requesting system and vice versa. Stateful inspection - Method that does not examine the contents of each packet but instead compares certain key parts of the packet to a database of trusted information. Information traveling from inside the firewall to the outside is monitored for specific defining characteristics, and then incoming information is compared to these characteristics. If the comparison yields a reasonable match, the information is allowed through. Otherwise it is discarded.

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Networking Standards/Protocols

OSI Model Ethernet TCP/IP

Networking Protocols
In this unit, we will introduce the networking standards and protocols most commonly seen within networking infrastructures. Protocols Network protocols enable network nodes to communicate with each other. Protocols have different capabilities, depending on the purpose for which they are designed. Protocols can be routable or non-routable. Routable protocols enable communication between networks connected to each other through a device called a router. Non-routable protocols are limited to networks composed of a small number of computers. Communications will not pass through a router.

Services Networking services are programs that enable users to share network resources. On a network, nodes use network services to communicate using the network media.

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The OSI Model

Standard for LAN communication Each layer defines different network functions Network Protocols map to certain layers

Layer 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical

Keyword Shared Format Dialog Packet Datagram Frames Bits

TCP Port Number IP Address MAC Address

Describe the OSI Model

In 1977, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) created the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model. The OSI model is the group of standards or rules for LAN communication with the use of common network protocols. It consists of seven layers that have specific functions. Some functions such as error control and flow control are defined in more than one layer. The OSI model is conceptual in nature, meaning it is not followed exactly by every protocol--it all depends on the protocol designers goals.

Network communication starts at the Application Layer of the OSI Model and works its way down through the layers to the Physical Layer. The information then passes along the cable to the receiving computer where it is passed up through the Physical Layer. From there it continues up through the layers to the Application Layer where the receiving computer finalizes the processing and sends back an acknowledgement if needed.

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OSI Layer Application Layer

Keyword
Shared

Description
Data here called a message Initiates a request or accepts a request Interface to the end user Represents services that directly support user applications: File Services-allows user to store, copy, move and retrieve files Print Services-users direct output to local or network printers Application Services-run local or distributed applications Message Services-transfer e-mail and graphics, audio, and video on the network Database Services-access network databases Adds formatting, display, and encryption information to the packet Protocol conversion Manages data compression Translates data format Establishes, manages, and terminates connections (sessions) between sending and receiving applications. Adds traffic flow information to determine when the packet gets sent Data here called a packet Provides reliable, transparent transport between the source and destination computers. Also supports end-to-end error recovery and flow control. Can provide acknowledgements that signal the sending device that the data was or was not received Data here called datagrams Addresses and routes datagrams to their destinations both within and between networks. Manages traffic problems

Presentation Layer Session Layer

Format

Dialog

Transport Layer

Packet

Network Layer

Datagram

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OSI Layer Data Link Layer

Keyword
Frames

Description
Data here called frames Adds trailer error-checking information and prepares data for the physical layer transmission media. Packages raw bits (1s and 0s) coming from the physical layer into data frames There are two sub layers on the Data Link Layer

Logical Link Control (LLC) Flow Control (802.1 and 802.2) Establishes and terminates links Sequencing of frames and acknowledging frames Media Access Control (MAC) Network adapter card drivers work here Access and error control (communicates directly with NIC) Access Methods: (IEEE standards for physical and electrical connections to a network environmentdefines how multiple computers simultaneously use the network) 802.3 (CSMA/CD) Ethernet 802.4 (Token bus) Token Passing 802.5 (Token ring) 802.11b (CSMA/CA) Spread Spectrum Wireless 802.12 (Demand Priority) Data here called bits Contains the specifications as to how electrical signals are placed on the cable (voltages, connection and cable types). Packet sent as a bit stream (raw bits1s and 0s) Defines how cable is attached to network adapter cards Majority of network failures happen at this layer.

Physical Layer

Bits

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Ethernet Networking Standard

-

Wiring and Signaling standard for local host communication Hosts broadcast data using source and destination MAC addresses Operates at Physical and Data Link Layer of OSI model Network Access controlled by CSMA/CD
MAC MAC Broadcast Domain MAC MAC Used as transport by network protocols, like NetBEUI, Appletalk, and TCP/IP RJ45
48 bit address hard-coded onto NIC

00

08

74

4C

7F

1D

Ethernet Networking Standard

Ethernet (802.3) is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local area networks (LAN). It defines a number of wiring and signaling standards at the physical layer for host to host communication, using the Media Access Control (MAC) Layer and Data Link Layer. In Ethernet, hosts use network interface cards (NIC) to communicate onto the network and data is delivered via MAC addresses which are hard coded onto the NIC. Communication is done via broadcast, and access to the network is controlled by CDMA/CD (Collision Detection). This means that nodes will broadcast their data on the network until they detect a collision with another nodes data, and then they will abstain from broadcasting for a random amount of time to avoid more collisions. The process can be likened to what happens at a dinner party, where all the guests talk to each other through a common medium (the air). Before speaking, each guest politely waits for the current speaker to finish. If two guests start speaking at the same time, both stop and wait for short, random periods of time (in Ethernet, this time is generally measured in microseconds). The hope is that by each choosing a random period of time, both guests will not choose the same time to try to speak again, thus avoiding another collision. Since Ethernet operates at layer 2 of the OSI model, it cannot be transferred over Wide Area Networks (WANs) without the assistance of a layer 3 protocol, like IP.

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DPCNB0710WBTS Networking Basics

Physical MAC Address The physical address also referred to as the media access control (MAC) address. This address is hard coded on the NIC. The MAC (Media Access Layer) address is a 12-digit hexadecimal number that forms a 48-bit address (6 bytes) consisting of digits 0-9 and letters A-F. The MAC address consists of two parts: The first 24 bits (3 bytes) identifies which vendor the card comes from, the last 24 bits is the unique interface serial number determined by the vendor.

MAC address components

Networking Protocols that run over Ethernet

Protocols are the common language that all computers on the network must use to communicate with other computers. TCP/IP The most popular protocol is TCP/IP which we will discuss in greater details throughout this module.

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Ethernet Type, Distance and Cabling

Category Cat5 Cat5e Cat6 Cat6a Cat7 $1.25/ft
Type
UTP UTP UTP UTP ScTP

Length
100m 100m 55m 100m 100m

Applications
100Base-T 1000Base-T 10GBase-T 10GBase-T 10GBase-T

Notes
Common Common Becoming common Emerging solutions Expensive, slow adoption

$0.50/ft

$0.15/ft

$0.10/ft

$0.05/ft

CAT7
Longitudinal spacer Wrapped pairs, Shielded SHIELDED

CAT6a
Longitudinal spiral spacer

CAT6
Longitudinal spacer

CAT5e
4 twisted pairs

CAT5
2 twisted pairs

UNSHIELDED

(100m) (100m) (100m) (55m) 10GE

(100m)

1GE

Ethernet Type, Distance and Cabling

As Ethernet speeds get higher, higher quality cabling is better able to carry the data signals. For example: 100Mb Ethernet (a.k.a. Fast Ethernet) can be carried 100 meters on Category 5 cables which cost about of $.05/foot. 10Gb Ethernet can be carried 100 meters on Category 6 cables which costs about $.15/foot.

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10GE Technology
10GBase-T is 10 Gbps Ethernet

There are four different physical layer interfaces

1m: Backplane (802.3ap) 100m - 10km: Optical (SR, LR, LRM, ER) 15m: CX-4 (Infiniband Type Cable-XAUI) 55-100m: 10GBase-T Copper over CAT6 (55m), CAT6a/CAT7 (100m)

Offload MUST be a part of the solution

A dumb-only 10GE NIC is of limited value

10GE readily consumes compute and memory resources (unless offloaded)

Supports low latency and high bandwidth (both are important)
10GE is more than just another, interchangeable physical interface

Offload and system characteristics are key to plumbing 10GE properly

10 Gigabit Ethernet Technology

10 Gigabit Ethernet (10GbE or 10GE or 10 GigE) is a standard (IEEE 802.3-2008) to provide 10 gigabit/second Ethernet connections over conventional unshielded or shielded twisted pair cables, over distances up to 100 m. Connectors 10GbE uses RJ-45 connectors already widely used with Ethernet. Cables 10GbE will work up to 55 meters (180 ft) with existing Category 6 cabling. In order to allow deployment at the usual 100 meters (328 ft), the standard uses a new partitioned augmented Category 6 or "6a" cable specification, designed to reduce crosstalk between UTP cables.

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10GE Unified Data Fabric

Servers

HPCC server-to-server interconnect Virtualization increased bandwidth High-Performance Transactions financial applications IPTV streaming media applications Digital Cinema web farms
Switches

Single Adapter Multiple Offloads Common Management Simplicity

HPC

10GE UNIFIED FABRIC

SAN LAN

Edge Layer server-to-switch uplink iSCSI storage array to switch Aggregation & Core Layer switch-to-switch interconnect
iSCSI Storage Arrays

General Purpose array-to-switch connectivity

10GbE Unified Data Fabrics

The ultimate goal for 10GbE is to have a common interface and protocol for all types of network connectivity within a datacenter, from LAN traffic, to Storage Area Networks, to High Performance Clusters.

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DPCNB0710WBTS Networking Basics

TCP/IP
TCP/IP Protocols IPv4 Addressing IPv4 Address Classes IPv4 Address Rules TCP/IP Utilities IPv6

TCP/IP
TCP/IP, Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol was originally designed in conjunction with the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) based in the original DoD model in the 1960s. Then on January 1, 1983, the major networks that make up the Internet adopted the TCP/IP suite as the Internets official protocol. TCP/IP is not a single protocol, but a suit of protocols all working together to move data throughout a network.

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TCP/IP Protocols

NOTE: This is a comparison of the TCP/IP protocol suite with the OSI Model and the DoD Model.

TCP/IP Protocols
We will compare the TCP/IP protocols with the OSI and DoD models: Internet Protocol (IP): IP is the basic data-transfer method used throughout the Internet. It is responsible for IP addressing and routing packets to the destination IP address. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): ICMP is the troubleshooting protocol of TCP/IP. It allows Internet hosts and gateways to share status and error information through ICMP messages. If a problem occurs on a TCP/IP network, an ICMP message will be generated. Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP): IGMP is used for multicasting, in which one source host sends a message to a group of subscribers (multicast groups). Multicast group members must identify themselves to local multicast-enabled routers. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): ARP uses a local network broadcast to translate IP addresses to network card physical addresses. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP): RARP performs the reverse function of ARP. It uses a hosts network card physical address to request an IP address. RARP is generally used for diskless workstations.

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Transport Control Protocol (TCP): TCP establishes and monitors connections between the source (sending) and destination (receiving) systems--a session must be established between to computers before data can be sent. It ensures that data is reliably delivered between sender and receiver through the use of acknowledgements, that it is in sequence and that no duplicate data is transmitted. Referred to as one-to-one communication. TCP/IP application utilities such as FTP and HTTP use this protocol. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP provides a connectionless-oriented service and has much less overhead than TCP. UDP does not provide congestion control, use acknowledgements, retransmit lost datagrams or guarantee reliable delivery. Referred to as one-tomany communication. DNS queries, DHCP communication and NetBIOS name resolution use this form of transport. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is used to transport HTML documents (web pages) across the Internet. HTTP requires a client program on one end (a browser) and a server on the other, both running TCP/IP. HTTP establishes a Web server connection and transmits HTML pages to a client browser. HTTP 1.1 uses persistent connections, which allow multiple downloads with one connection. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP is both a protocol and a program. It is used for transferring files between computers on a TCP/IP network. FTP offers an efficient and quick way to transfer files because it does not have the overhead of encoding and decoding data, such as sending files as e-mail attachments. Binary files over 2MB are most efficiently transferred using FTP Telnet: Telnet is a terminal emulation protocol. It allows a user at one site to log on and run programs from a remote system. Administrators can use Telnet for remote administration of servers or connect to an applications service port to verify that it is connected and functioning properly. Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP): NNTP allows sites on the Internet to exchange Usenet news articles, which are organized into topic areas such as programming in C++ or Windows 2000 operating system issues. To use newsgroups, you must use a client-side newsgroup reader (such as Outlook Express) and have access to an NNTP server with which you are authorized to read and/or post news articles. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is the Internet standard protocol for transferring e-mail messages from one computer to another running dissimilar operating systems. SMTP is often used with Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3), which is a standard Internet mail service. A POP3 server stores incoming e-mail until users authenticate and download it.

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Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): SNMP is used for managing TCP/IP networks. It is a standardized management scheme that allows SNMP-compliant network devices to be centrally managed by an SNMP manager. Management software applications using the SNMP protocol would gather such information as the internal temperature of a server, the status of a router or the condition of a servers hard disk. Domain Name System (DNS): DNS is used to translate host computer names into Internet (IP) addresses. It is one of the most universal methods of centralized name resolution. For example, when a user requests the Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN) www.dell.com, DNS servers translate the name into the IP address 143.166.82.178. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): DHCP is designed to assign IP addresses to hosts on a TCP/IP network during initialization. It can also assign the address of a default gateway (router) and the address of a DNS or WINS server. It eliminates the need for administrators to manually configure TCP/IP on client computers.

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IP Addressing
Two parts of an IP Address:
Address: Includes both host and network information for a particular node. Subnet Mask: Identifies where the network portion of the address ends, and the host portions begins. You cant have one without the other! Decimal (Address) Decimal (Mask) 192 168 5 10 255 255 255 0

Network Portion

Host Portion

Translated to binary so computers can use it.

Binary (Address) Binary (Mask)

11000000

10101000

00000101

00001010

11111111

11111111

11111111

00000000

Addressing
We cannot discuss TCP/IP without talking about IP addressing. On a node there are three basic addresses. The three addresses are physical, service and logical. IP Address The logical address can be also referred to as an IP address. The most important concept of understanding IP addressing is the IP scheme. Every host on a TCP/IP network must be assigned a unique TCP/IP address. A central authority called the Internet Corporation of Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) issues all Internet addresses to insure this uniqueness. TCP/IP addresses consist of four eight-bit fields (or octets) that together create a unique 32-bit address. Each eight-bit field is separated by a dot. 32-bit IP address is represented in binary and dotted decimal notation format.

Binary
Dotted Decimal

11000000 192

10101000 168

0000010 1 5

00001010 10

Network Portion

Host Portion

Each IP address contains a network portion and a host portion. The network portion always precedes the host portion. The network portion of the IP address tells what physical network the device is located on and the host portion uniquely identifies the
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device itself. In this example, the network portion is 192.168.5, and the host portion is 10. The network portion can be thought of in terms of a street name and the host portion can be analogous to a house number. The network segment is unique and can have many devices (hosts) attached to it, just like a street name is unique and can have many houses each with a unique house number. Rooms in each house are analogous to application port numbers (to cook you must go to the kitchen). Converting IP Addresses from Binary to Decimal In binary format, each bit set to 1 in an octet has an assigned decimal value. A bit that is set to 0 always has a 0 value. When each bit is converted to decimal format, the highest value in any octet is 255 (all bits set to 1). The following table shows the assigned decimal values of the bits in each octet.

TCP Port Number The service address also referred to as the port number indicates separate services on the same node. Some common port numbers are: 80HTTP 21FTP 23Telnet 25SMTP 161/162SNMP 110POP3 443HTTPS 22SSL 1311OMSA 2607/2708ITA

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IP v4 Address Classes

NOTE: This is a comparison of the TCP/IP protocol suite with the OSI Model and the DoD Model.

IP v4 Address Classes
Without a classification system, the 3,720,314,628 possible IP address provided by IP v4 would have no structure. To provide structure, IP addresses are categorized into classes. Classes can be determined by looking at the value of the first octet on an IP address. IP addresses are divided into five classes: A, B, C, D and E. These different classes vary in the number of networks and hosts each can support. The IP address range for each class is shown in the following table: Class A Class A addresses typically use the first octet for the network portion and the last three octets for the host portion. The first octet can range from 1 to 126 (0 is a special-case source address and 127 is reserved loopback address and cannot be used in the first octet). Class B Class B addresses typically use the first two octets for the network portion and the last two octets for the host portion.

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Class C Class C addresses typically use the first three octets for the network portion and the last octet for the host portion. Class D Class D addresses support multicasting. With multicasting, a packet is targeted to a group that is identified by a network address only. No host portion exists in the address. Class E Class E addresses are reserved for future use. Subnet Masks Subnet masks serve two main purposes: Defines which part of the IP address is the network portion and what part of the IP address is the host portion. Specifies whether a destination address is local or remote.

The table below shows the default subnet mask for a Class A, Class B and Class C address. Notice that the network portion is depicted by 255. Class A Address Network 255 Class B Address Network 255 Class C Address Network 255 Host 0 Network 255 Network 255 Host 0 Host 0 Network 255 Host 0 Host 0 Host 0

Class D and E addresses do not have hosts, and therefore do not require subnet masks.

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IP v4 Address Rules
Loopback 127.0.0.1 Broadcast 255.255.255.255 Network and Host ID Class A - 10.0.0.0 Class C - 172.16.0.0 Class B - 192.168.1.0 Automatic Private IP Address 169.254.X Private IP Addresses 10.X.X.X 172.16.X.X 172.31.X.X 192.168.X.X

IP v4 Addressing Rules
IP addresses must follow several guidelines to function properly. Not all addresses within the Class A, B and C ranges can be assigned to a TCP/IP host. This section describes the exceptions. Loopback

The loopback address 127 cannot be used as an IP address assigned to a host. This address allows a client and server on the same host to communicate with each other. The lookback address is mainly used for testing and troubleshooting. For example, if your computer hosts a web server and you enter http://127.0.0.1 in your web browsers address field (as a client) you will access the web site on your local host. The loopback address can also be used to test the local TCP/IP configuration by using the ping utility. 127 cannot be used in the first octet only. It can be used in any other octet of the IP address. For example, 120.127.5.8 would be valid for a TCP/IP host.
Broadcast The network and/or host IP address portions cannot be 255 (all bits set to 1). Broadcast addresses send messages to all network hosts, and are used only as destination addresses. For example, 192.168.5.255 is used to broadcast messages to hosts on the 192.168.5 network segment only. An IP address of 255.255.255.255 is used for configuring hosts when they start up. For example, a computer without an IP address can broadcast this address to obtain an IP address from a DHCP server. These IP addresses cannot be assigned to a TCP/IP host.
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Network Number The network and/or host IP address portions cannot be 0 (all bits set to 0). They can contain zeros but they cannot be entirely zeros. For instance, the class B address 162.168.0.0 is a network address and means this network only. The special-case source IP address of 0.0.0.0 is assigned to a computer when it initializes until it is assigned an IP address from a DHCP server. These examples cannot be assigned permanently to a TCP/IP host. Automatic Private IP addressing Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA) is appropriate for simple networks that have only one subnet. With APIPA, if no DHCP server is available, the computer automatically assigns itself a private IP address from the 169.254.0.0 network range. If a DHCP server later becomes available, the computer changes its IP address to one obtained from the DHCP server. Using APIPA, a Windows based client assigns itself an IP address from a range reserved for authorized private class B network addresses (169.254.0.1 169.254.255.254), with a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0. A computer with an authorized private address cannot directly communicate with hosts outside its subnet, including Internet hosts. APIPA is most suitable for small, single-subnet networks, such as a home or small office. APIPA is enabled by default if no DHCP servers are available on the network. NOTE: APIPA assigns only an IP address and subnet mask; it does not assign a default gateway, nor does it assign the IP addresses of DNS or WINS servers. Use APIPA only on a single-subnet network that contains no routers. If your small office or home office network is connected to the Internet or a private intranet, do not use APIPA. Private IP Address Private IP addresses are reserved for internal networks only that will not access the Internet. If Internet access were required, a router would need to be configured with Internet connection sharing or Network Address Translation to assign a Public IP address to the external network card and a Private IP address to the internal network card of the router. Firewalls are programmed to reject any private IP addresses that externally arrive at the firewall. The Private IP Addresses are: 10.X.X.X 172.16.X.X 172.31.X.X 192.168.X.X

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TCP/IP Utilities
IPCONFIG PING ARP ROUTE HOSTNAME NETSTAT NSLOOKUP TRACERT NBTSTAT

TPC/IP Utilities
Another important aspect of TCP/IP to mention is basic trouble shooting. We need to ensure that the IP address is assigned and the proper IP address for your network and network connectivity. There are a few TCP/IP utilities we must become familiar with first: IPCONFIG Display current TCP/IP network configuration values, and update or release TCP/IP network configuration values on Windows NT, 2000 or 2003. PING Verify whether TCP/IP is configured correctly and that a remote TCP/IP system is available. ARP View the ARP (address resolution protocol) table on the local computer to detect invalid entries. ROUTE Print the IP route table, and add or delete IP routes. HOSTNAME Print the name of the current host. NETSTAT Display protocol statistics and the state of current TCP/IP connections. NSLOOKUP Check records, domain host aliases, domain host services, and operating system information by querying Internet domain name servers. TRACERT Check the route to a remote system. NBTSTAT Check the state of current NetBIOS over TCP/IP connections, update the LMHOSTS cache, and determine the registered name and scope ID.

These commands must be entered at the command prompt. To access help information about these commands enter the command at the command prompt followed by /?.
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IP version 6
128-bit Addressing (Supports 3.41038 addresses) Eliminates the need for Network Address Translation Eliminates complex sub-netting schemes (64-bit host/64-bit network) Hexadecimal Format - 2001:0db8:85a3:08d3:1319:8a2e:0370:7334

Difficult to memorize addresses, so DNS will be vital.

Theoretical 4GB jumbograms (IP v4 max 16,000 KB jumbo frames) May improve performance for IP SANs Extension of IPv4 so applications need little or no adjustments DHCPv6 will provide dynamic addressing IPv6 utilities will use similar syntax

IP version 6
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is a network layer for packet-switched internetworks. It is designated as the successor of IPv4, the current version of the Internet Protocol, for general use on the Internet. The main change brought by IPv6 is a much larger address space that allows greater flexibility in assigning addresses. It was not the intention of IPv6 designers, however, to give permanent unique addresses to every individual and every computer. Rather, the extended address length eliminates the need to use network address translation to avoid address exhaustion, and also simplifies aspects of address assignment and renumbering when changing providers. It is common to see examples that attempt to show that the IPv6 address space is absurdly large. For example, IPv6 supports 2128 (about 3.41038) addresses, or approximately 51028 addresses for each of the roughly 6.5 billion people alive today. In a different perspective, this is 252 addresses for every star in the known universe - a million times as many addresses per star than IPv4 supported for our single planet. These examples, however, have an underlying and incorrect assumption that the goal of IPv6 is the dense assignment of unique addresses to every possible entity. The large number of addresses allows a hierarchical allocation of addresses that may make routing and renumbering simpler. With IPv4, complex CIDR techniques were developed to make the best possible use of a restricted address space. Renumbering, when changing providers, can be a major effort with IPv4, as discussed in RFC 2071
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and RFC 2072. With IPv6, however, renumbering becomes largely automatic, because the host identifiers are decoupled from the network provider identifier. Separate address spaces exist for ISPs and for hosts, which are "inefficient" in address space bits but are extremely efficient for operational issues such as changing service providers.

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Networking Services
File and Print Web Proxy Email DNS DHCP FTP Directory Windows Active Directory Netware NDS/eDirectory Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) Network Information Server (NIS) Application

Networking Services
Network services are network operating system application programs that run on servers in the network environment and provide files and databases to be shared by network users. The distribution and management of network services across the Internet is often called internetworking. The network services that are required are installed by default. Additional network services can be installed as needed. File and Print File and Print servers are the most common types of servers on the network. File servers are network servers that store data files and programs (in contrast, Application servers run programs and process data). A file server is any computer that shares a file, folder or entire disk drive with the network. When a user accesses a file from the file server, the file is stored in the memory of the users computer. Network print servers are servers who have a printer attached to a local port. The printer is shared to allow multiple users to send print jobs to the same physical printers. This eliminates the need for every user to have his/her own printer. Web Services Web Servers is the fundamental server for the World Wide Web. The World Wide Web is a collection of computer systems running the HTTP service. These servers act together as document delivery systems. Documents are delivered to web browser clients in the form of a language called Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). Browsers such as Internet Explorer or Firefox request documents from Web Servers. The
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documents the web server processes may be from a disk archive, or created dynamically when the browser client requests them. A web site is a collection of documents and applications that create documents. The web server sits at port 80 listening for incoming requests from clients. Proxy Service A Proxy Server is an intermediary between a network host and other hosts outside the network. Its main functions are to provide enhanced security, manage TCP/IP addresses and speed access to the Internet by providing caching server functions for frequently used web documents. In a network setting, a proxy server replaces the internal private network IP address with a public IP address that is valid on the Internet. This process hides the internal IP address from the rest of the Internet, protecting the entire network. Email Service A Mail Server stores and forwards e-mail messages using several protocols, including SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), POP (Post Office Protocol) and the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP). SMTP is solely responsible for forwarding e-mail messages between SMTP servers on the Internet until the e-mail message reaches the SMTP server that is responsible for the e-mail domain. The POP3 protocol is used to store and access e-mail messages on a mail server. POP servers store and forward e-mail messages to the host. All messages on the POP server are downloaded to the host when requested. IMAP handles messages in a more sophisticated manner because it allows a user to browse and manage files remotely, whereas a POP3 server forces a user to download files before reading, deleting or otherwise managing them. DNS The Domain Name System (DNS) is used on the Internet to translate host computer names into IP addresses. DNS is a distributed database that exists on name servers across the Internet. The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is responsible for DNS management. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) service is used in a TCP/IP network to lease out IP addresses to configured DHCP clients. FTP File Transfer Protocol (FTP) allows you to transfer files between servers in real time, and to transfer much larger files. In most situations, if you have a file approaching 2 MB, you should transfer it via FTP, because sending such a large file through an e-mail server slows that server and the network. Also, if the e-mail server has difficulty transferring a large file, it will no longer forward the message. Sending files via FTP is faster than with e-mail and HTTP.
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Directory Service A Directory Services server is a dedicated server that identifies all resources on a network. It then makes those resources available to authenticated users. Application Service Application Servers store large applications that need to be shared by many users on the network. An example would be a SQL database server. Client computers query the database on the SQL server. The SQL server uses its resources to process the query against the database and send the results back to the requesting client. Application servers are usually considered the backend. Clients use a frontend interface to interact with the backend servers. Application servers typically use the traditional client/server relationship similar to two-tier computing in that both the client and the server are responsible for part of the processing task. To reduce network congestion, the two-tier model has been expanded to include a third tier. The client is the first tier, a shared server or other network element is the second tier, and the database server is the third tier. In three-tier computing, the client (first tier) is responsible only for formatting the information into a suitable user interface. The second tier acts as an intermediary that processes the information before sending it to the database server in the third tier which queries the database. The three-tier model related to Dells internet infrastructure is shown.

Three-tier model related to Dell's Internet Infrastructure

This Internet site has users connected to their network through the Internet via a browser. It represents a typical three-tier infrastructure in a web-based computing environment: Tier 1: Router, firewall, cache server(s), load balancing server(s), web server(s) Tier 2: Application servers Tier 3: Database servers
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Summary
In this module, you have learned to: Articulate the basic concepts of network computing Identify networking hardware components Identify common networking protocols Identify common network operating systems and network services Describe types of networks

Review
Use these review questions to prepare for the exam. 1. What is a computer network?

2. Identify the seven layers of the OSI model.

3. What is a node?

4. What is the purpose of a network protocol?

5. What is the function of a firewall?

6. What is a switch?

7. What is a router?

8. At what layers of the OSI Model can a switch operate?

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Review, continued
9. Which protocol is non routable?

10. What is the purpose of DNS?

11. Are the following IP addresses valid? If so, what class are they? A. B. C. D. E. 11.58.123.26 127.5.25.3 192.255.255.1 244.56.2.1 128.56.0.0

12. What is the most common network service?

13. What service does a web server run?

14. What service uses the store and forward technology?

15. What directory services are implemented on NetWare? Windows?

16. What are the three types of networks we covered? Give a brief description of each.

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