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1. Introduction
Powering todays portable world poses many challenges for systemdesigners. Batteries are the main power source for portable electronic devices, and selecting a right battery system for an unique application is one of the important factors in the portable electronic design process. It involves selecting a battery chemistry and charge management control circuitry. The battery life indicates the length a product can be used under portable mode. Longer battery life can simply make a portable device standout in the market automatically. This can usually be achieved by reducing system power consumption andimplementing an advanced battery technology. 1.1 Components of battery Electrode: Electrodes are the positive (cathode) and negative (anode) terminals of the cell. These are made of different materials, depending on the cell chemistry. The farther apart these materials are on the Standard Potentials Table, the higher the electronic potential of the oxidation or reduction chemicalreactions and the higher the voltage produced by the cell. Electrolyte: The electrolyte is the chemical that separates the electrodes and provides a medium for conduction of the ions or intermediate compounds between the electrodes. The intermediate compounds or ions, result from chemical reactions at the anode and cathode and carry the currentthrough the battery. The electrolyte is usually some type of liquid or paste.

Fig.1:Components of battery SSGMCE, Shegaon

1.2 Charging and Discharging of Battery A battery is a device that converts the chemical energycontained in its active materials directly into electricenergy by means of an electrochemical oxidationreduction(redox) reaction. This type of reactioninvolves the transfer of electrons from one material toanother through an electric circuit. In a non -electrochemicalredox reaction, such as rusting or burning, thetransfer of electrons occurs directly and only heat isinvolved.The operation of a battery during discharge is depictedschematically in Figure 2. When the electrodes (positiveand negative terminals of the battery) are connectedto an external load, electrons flow from theanode, which is oxidized, through the external load to the cathode. The cathode accepts the electrons andthe cathode material is reduced. The electric circuit iscompleted in the electrolyte by the flow of anions(negative ions) and cations (positi e ions) to the anode and cathode, v respectively. By definition, the cathode(oxidizing electrode) is the electrode that acceptselectrons from the external circuit and is reduced duringthe electrochemical reaction. The anode (reducingelectrode) is the electrode which gives up electrons tothe external circuit and is oxidized during the electrochemicalreaction. The electrolyte (ionic conductor)provides the medium for transfer of charge, as ions,inside the battery between the anode and cathode.

Fig.2:Discharging of batteryFig.3:Charging of battery When recharging a battery, the current flow is reversed,with oxidation occurring at the positive electrode andreduction at the negative electrode. As the anode is, bydefinition, the electrode at which oxidation occurs andthe cathode where reduction occurs, the positive electrodeis now the anode and the negative electrode isthe cathode. Refer to Figure 3.

2. Portable power devices using battery applications

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Three-series and four-series cell Li-Ion battery packs are common used in ly portable applicationswith high energy -storage needs, because it is more efficient to store high energyusing multiple batteries connected in series. Series -connected cells also present efficiencyadvantages over single -cell packs, because they reduce current for equivalent-powerapplications. The series-cell voltage can deliver energy to the system more efficientlythan a single high-current cell with similar resistance, which in tum lowers the cost andbulk of high -current distribution. Typical applications that store energy in series includelaptop computers, portable printing equipment handheld , printers, portable test equipment, portable mobile-phones, portable video-

games,portable DVD players and portable medical instruments.

Fig.4:Portable Power Devices

3.Battery Types
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B tt i

can be di ided int t

main categories: primarycells and secondary cells.

Pri

ry cell
l aline Lit i m

Secondary cell
Sealed lead acid Nickel cadmi m Nickel Metal Hydride Lit i m-Ion Lit i m Polymer Table1:Types of Battery

Zinc Carbon

Table 1 gi esexamples of primary and secondary cells.Primary cells produce an irreversible chemicalreaction. Zinc Carbon batteries were the first introduced. The carbon was later purified to increase theenergy capacity. These cells are more readily known asZinc Chloride. lkaline batteries are commonly found on store shelves and

are widely used in disposableapplications. Silver coin cell or button cell batteries arelithium batteries comprised of lithium metal and, sincetheir chemical reaction is irreversible, are categori edas primary cells. Primary cells generally do not needbuiltin intelligence. Their disposable nature meansthat there is no need for recharge control, protectioncircuitry or fuel gauging.Secondary cells are rechargeable by passing a currentthrough them in the direction opposite to that of itsdischarge and reversing the chemical reaction. Themost common forms of secondary cells include SealedLead cid, Nickel Cadmium, Nickel Metal-Hydride,Lithium-Ion and Lithiumcid batteriesare typically used in automotive applications or

Polymer. Lead

fixedinstallations because of their large si e and weight. Ourfocus will be discussing Lithium-Ion. These batterieshave been emerging as the dominate chemistry in the portable market place. 3.1 Alkaline Alkaline batteries are not rechargeable, but arecommonly seen as a portable power source becauseit s low self-discharge rate and always ready to use off the shelf. Therefore, it is included in the Table 1 andTable 2 as reference against secondary (rechargeable)batteries. Rechargeable Alkaline batteries areavailable, but they are not very practical and reliable touse in a system due to its fast degradation after a few charge cycles. 3.2 SLA (Sealed Lead Acid)

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SLA batteries are mature and inexpensive batterysolutions, and have an advantage in low self dischargerate. However, it is not an ideal candidate for portableapplications due to it s low energy density, low charge/discharge cycles and it is not environmentally friendly. 3.3 Ni- d (Nickel- admi m) NiCd batteries have the best charge/discharge cyclesamong rechargeable batteries (Table 1) and are goodsubstitutes to Alkaline batteries because they employthe same basic voltage profile. NiCd batteries arerequired to be exercised periodically due to thememory effect. It is a very low-cost rechargeablesolution because of the matured battery technologyand simple charge algorithm. 3.4 Ni-MH (Nickel-Metal Hydride) NiMH batteries are considered improved version ofNiCd batteries that provide higher energy density andenvironmentally friendly material. Both NiMH and NiCdbatteries have high self discharge rate (Table 2) andare subject to memory effect. Although NiMH and NiCdbatteries share similar charge algorithm, NiMHbatteries require a more complex design due to theheat that NiMH batteries generate during charging andthe difficult V/ t detection.

3.5 Li- on (Lithi m- on) Li-Ion batteries have advantages in high energy density, low maintenance requirement, relatively low selfdischarge rate, and higher voltage per cell. The major drawbacks of Li-Ion batteriesare higher initial cost and aging effect. Li-Ion batteriesage over time regardless of the usage. Protection circuitry is required for LiIon battery to prevent overvoltage during charge cycle and under voltage duringdischarge cycle. 3.6 Li-Poly(Lithi m Polymer) Li-Polymer batteries should be recogni ed as Li-IonPolymer batteries. It is designed as an improvedversion of Li-Ion with flexible form-factors and very lowprofile. It is perfect for miniature applications, such asBluetooth headsets or MP3 players. It has similarcharacteristics as Li-Ion and can be charged with samealgorithm. It is a different technology compared to Li-Ion, but will be discussed as Li-Ion in this applicationnote.

3.7 Battery Compari on

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Energy in. Charge/Discharge Cycles Self Discharge per month(%) Al aline Discharge Rate (mA hr) Initial Cost

145 30-40 40-80 60-100 110-130

NA 2.8 1.6 1.5 4.2

1 50-500 1500 800 1000

0.3 2-8 15-20 20-25 6-10

0.25C <15C <10C <3C <2C

SLA

Ni

Li Ion

Table 2: Battery Comparison

4. Cell Selection: From Ni Cd to Li Ion and Beyond

When choosing a cell technology appropriate to the target device, first choose a chemistry suitable to the architecture and design goals. Factors such as operating range, cell availability, maximum cells in series, cell capacity range, cycle life and cost play into your choice. Your first consideration should be the operating voltage. It is extremely important to know the range of voltage that your dev can handle and where cutoff ice voltages should be. A small variation in cutoff voltage will affect the batery packs t life cycle. The significance of this is that pulsed current loads lead to variable voltage response and without careful system consideration this voltage drop leads to premature battery shutdown.

Fig.5:Battery Energy Density

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Ni Cd

hr/Kg)

Chemistry

Density(W

Charge Voltage(v)

Very Low

Low Low Medium igh

It is also important to consider both volumetric and gravimetric energy densities. Obviously, you need to know minimum and maximum voltages to choose the right chemistry. Designers must accept that there are specific trade-offs in cell packaging. Cell si e has much to do with a batterys run time. However, in comparing cylindrical versus prismatic form factors, keep in mind that the thinner the cell, the larger the percentage of packaging material required. While the thin profile can be a plus for prismatic form factors, these cells carry several possible downside considerations. These include: swelling issues higher costs because they are more difficult to manufacture less energy density

4.1 Desi n considerations of a smart battery System Power Applications that utili e Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) and Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) battery packs with one or two cells, a few wires and a simple fuse are becoming increasingly rare. Battery technology has kept pace as portable electronic devices have become more sophisticated and demanding. Today, more designers are turning to smart battery pack solutions that offer advanced chemistries, such as Lithium-ion (Li-ion) and Lithium polymer (Li-polymer). These chemistries offer the highest energy densities currently available and, in the case of Li-ion, a very competitive cost-per-watt-hour for their weight. Safety The development of leading-edge battery technologies does present several design challenges. Because Li-ion and Li-polymer technologies can be hazardous when overstressed, extra caution must be taken during the design process to ensure that the cells are being utilized in a manner appropriate to their technology. Voltages must stay within strict operating ranges. Additionally, the use of a safety circuit, separate in function and purpose from any fuel-gauging capability within the battery pack, should be utilized to protect the pack from external stressors, such as overcharging, overdischarging, short-circuiting and excessively high or low operating temperatures. 4.2 Battery System Desi n Challenges

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The need for smaller battery systems is making design -for-manufacturability increasingly important. As form factors shrink, design and manufacturing challenges grow. Due to the diminishing size of portable applications, it has become even more difficult to fit the required components into the available space. As component congestion increases, there is a greater risk of accidental pinching or shorting of wires and contacts. The physical layout of the components also becomes important in battery systems, as it can make the assembly process more difficult or create hot spots inside the pack. Although venting is less crucial with Li-Ion than it is with Ni-MH, ensuring that heating is even throughout the pack enables on -board safety devices to trip when appropriate. Furthermore, the designer must work carefully to ensure that vital contacts are not placed too closely together, since they can potentially short if the battery system is subjected to vibration or dropped. Contacts should also be recessed to prevent external short circuits.

5. Battery Pac ages and Comparison

6. Lithium Ion Batteries

Lithium-Ion batteries are comprised of cells that employ lithium intercalation compounds as the positive and negative materials. The positive electrode material is typically a metal oxide with either a layered structure (such as lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2)) or a tunneled structure (such as lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4)) on a SSGMCE, Shegaon

current-collector of aluminum foil. The negative electrode material is typically a graphite carbon on a copper current-collector. The first Lithium-Ion batteries to be marketed (and themajority of those currently available) utilize lithium cobalt oxide as the positive electrode. This materialoffers good electrical performance, is easily prepared, has good safety properties and is relatively insensitive to process variation and moisture. More recently, lower-cost (lithium manganese oxide) or higher performance materials, such as lithium nickel cobalt oxide (LiNiXCo1-XO2), have been introduced, permitting development of batteries with improved performance. The first Lithium-Ion batteries employed cells with coke negative electrode materials. As better quality graphite became available, the industry shifted to graphite carbons as negative electrode materials because oftheir higher specific capacity, with improved life and rate capability. Until 1990, NiCd batteries dominatedthe portable, rechargeable market. Environmental concerns led to the development of NiMH and Lithium- Ion batteries. Lithium is the lightest metal in the periodic system and features the greatest electrochemical potential.

7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Lithi m- on Battery

7.1 Advantages of Lithi m- on Battery A lithium-ion battery from a laptop computer 1. Wide variety of shapes and sizes efficiently fitting the devices they power. 2. Much lighter than other energy-equivalent secondary batteries. 3. High open circuit voltage in comparison to aqueous batteries (such as lead acid, nickel-metal hydride and nickel-cadmium).This is beneficial because it increases the amount of power that can be transferred at a lower current. 4. No memory effect. 5. Self-discharge rate of approximately 5-10% per month, compared to over 30% per month in common nickel metal hydride batteries, approximately 1.25% per month for Low Self-Discharge NiMH batteries and 10% per month in nickel-cadmium batteries. According to one manufacturer, lithium-ion cells (and, accordingly, "dumb" lithium-ion batteries) do not have any selfdischarge in the usual meaning of this word. What looks like a self-discharge in these batteries is a permanent loss of capacity . On the other hand, "smart" lithium-ion batteries do self-discharge, due to the drain of the built-in voltage monitoring circuit. 6. Components are environmentally safe as there is no free lithium metal. SSGMC



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7.2 Disadvantages of Lithi m- on Battery Charging forms deposits inside the electrolyte that inhibit ion transport. Over time, the cell's capacity diminishes. The increase in internal resistance reduces the cell's ability to deliver current. This problem is more pronounced in highcurrent applications. The decrease means that older batteries do not charge as much as new ones (charging time required decreases proportionally). 2. High charge levels and elevated temperatures (whether from charging or ambient air) hasten capacity loss. Charging heat is caused by the carbon anode (typically replaced with lithium titanate which drastically reduces damage from charging, including expansion and other factors).
1.

8. Safety requirements for Batteries

If overheated or overcharged, Li-ion batteries may suffer thermal runway and cell rupture.In extreme cases this can lead to combustion. Deep discharge may short circuit the cell, in which case recharging would be unsafe. To reduce these risks, Lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range of 34.2 V per cell.When stored for long periods the small current draw of the protection circuitry itself may drain the battery below its shut down voltage; normal chargers are then ineffective. Many types of lithium-ion cell cannot be charged safely below 0C. Other safety features are required in each cell:
1. 2. 3. 4.

shut-down separator (for over temperature) tear-away tab (for internal pressure) vent (pressure relief) thermal interrupt (over current/overcharging)

These devices occupy useful space inside the cells, add additional points of failure and irreversibly disable the cell when activated. They are required because the anode produces heat during use, while the cathode may produce oxygen. These devices and improved electrode designs reduce/eliminate the risk of fire or explosion. These safety features increase costs compared to nickel metal hydride batteries, which require only a hydrogen/oxygen recombination device (preventing damage due to mild overcharging) and a back-up pressure valve.

9. Conclusion

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More than ever, sophisticated portable applications demand equally advanced power solutions. Increasingly, applications are turning to optimum battery systems to meet the needs of their critical equipment for high-performance, maximum durability, greater reliability and safety. Li-Ion batteries are more preferably suitable for todays critical portable electronic devices as well as for cost-sensitive designs. Although, high capacity, compact size, light weight and maximum charge/discharge cycles do not exist in the same package; there is always a trade-off when engineers/ designers select the key factors for the design. Due to the phase out rate of todays portable electric products, charge/discharge cycles is always the first to be eliminated. However, LithiumPolymer batteriescould be used for advanced portable electronic devicesduring

upcoming days.

10.References

1. Handbook of Batteries, Third Edition, DavidLinden, Thomas B. Reddy, (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 2002) 2. Batteries in a Portable World Second Edition, IsidorBuchmann; Cadex Electronics Inc., 2000. 3. Lithium Batteries, Gholam-Abbas Nazri and Gianfranco Pistoia Eds.; Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004.

Websites 1. http://www.eetimes.com 2. http://www.wikipedia/battery power management wiki.htm.com

3. http://www.batterypoweronline.com

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