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12

Nhit ng lc hc
Michael J. Moran
i hc bang Ohio
12.1 C s ................................................................... 1
12.2 Cn bng thuc tnh m rng ............................. 3
12.3 Cc quan h thuc tnh v d liu .................... 10
12.4 Cc chu trnh cng sut ca cht kh v hi ..... 15
Mc d rt nhiu kha cnh v Nhit ng lc hc c ch t lu, hin nay cc nghin cu c c s khoa hc v l
lun n cc vn nng lng vn ng ca nhit: cc vt nng c kh nng to ra cng, mi ch bt u trong na u th
k 19. Ngy nay phm vi nghin cu ln hn, gii quyt vn mt cch tng qut hn theo nng lng v entropy, v cc
mi quan h trong thuc tnh ca vt cht. Hn th na, trong 25 nm qua Nhit ng lc hc k thut vt qua mt cuc
cch mng, cc thnh qu sau cuc cch mng ny c v hai mng: cc c s l thuyt v cc phng php u c ng
dng. c bit, nh lut th hai ca nhit ng lc hc tr thnh mt cng c hiu qu phc v cho cng vic thit k v
phn tch k thut.
12.1 C s
Nhit ng lc hc c in c lin quan mt thit ti cu trc v m ca vt cht. Lnh vc ny tp trung vo cc c tnh
tng qut ca t hp lng ln cc phn t ch khng phi t cc phn t ring r. Cu trc vi m ca vt cht c nghin
cu trong l thuyt ng hc v c hc thng k (bao gm c nhit ng lc hc lng t). Trong chng ny, chng ta s
tip cn ti nhit ng lc hc theo hng c in.
Cc nh ngha v cc khi nim c bn
Nhit ng lc hc va l mt nhnh ca ngnh vt l va l mt ngnh khoa hc k thut. Cc nh khoa hc lun mong
mun c c mt hiu bit c bn v tnh cht ho hc v vt l ca cc i lng vt cht c nh, bt bin v s dng cc
nguyn l ca nhit ng lc hc m t cc thuc tnh ca vt cht. Cc nh k thut ng dng thng quan tm ti vic
nghin cu cc h thng v s tng tc ca chng vi mi trng vt cht tn ti xung quanh chng nh th no. thun
tin cho vic nghin cu, cc nh k thut m rng vn nhit ng lc hc ti vic nghin cu cc h thng m dng
vt cht chy qua n.
H thng
Trong mt phn tch nhit ng lc hc, h thng l mt i tng c xem xt. Thng thng h thng l mt i
lng c th ca vt cht v/hoc mt min ngn cch vi nhng min khc bi mt b mt xc nh. B mt xc nh ny
c gi l b mt iu khin hoc bin ca h thng. B mt iu khin ny c th chuyn ng hoc c nh. Mi thnh
phn khc bn ngoi h thng gi l mi trng xung quanh. Mt h thng khi lng c nh c coi nh l mt khi
lng iu khin hoc h thng ng. Khi c mt dng chy mang khi lng i qua b mt iu khin, h thng c gi l
mt th tch iu khin hoc h thng m. Mt h thng b cch ly l mt h thng ng v khng tng tc vi mi trng
xung quanh n theo bt c hnh thc no.
Trng thi, thuc tnh
Cc c im ca mt h thng ti mt thi im no c gi l trng thi ca n. m t trng thi ca h thng
mt thi im bt k, ta s dng cc thuc tnh ca h thng. Mt thuc tnh l i lng no m gi tr ca n ph thuc
vo trng thi,ch khng ph thuc vo qu trnh bin i ca h thng. Gi tr ca mt thuc tnh c xc nh theo
nguyn tc vn hnh hoc kim tra bng vt l.
Cc thuc tnh m rng ph thuc vo kch c hoc s m rng ca h thng. Th tch, khi lng, nng lng, entropy,
v s thot nhit l cc v d v cc thuc tnh m rng. Mt thuc tnh m rng c tnh cng c theo ngha cc gi tr ca
ton b h thng bng tng cc gi tr thnh phn. Cc thuc tnh c sn ca h thng c tnh cht c lp vi kch c hoc s
m rng ca h thng. p sut v nhit l cc v d v loi thuc tnh m rng.
1
S tay C in t
Qu trnh, Chu trnh
Hai trng thi c gi l ng nht khi v ch khi cc thuc tnh ca hai trng thi ny l ng nht. Khi c bt k mt
thuc tnh no ca mt h thng thay i v gi tr s lm trng thi ny thay i, v h thng lc ny tri qua mt qu trnh.
Khi mt h thng c mt trng thi ban u sau thc hin qua mt chui cc qu trnh v cui cng tr li trng thi ban
u ca n, tc l h thng ny thc hin chn mt chu trnh nhit ng lc hc.
Pha v nguyn cht
Khi nim pha c coi l mt i lng ca vt cht m c thnh phn ho hc v cu trc vt l ca n u ng nht.
S ng nht trong cu trc vt l c ngha l vt cht hon ton th rn, hoc hon ton th lng, hoc hon ton th
hi (cng gi l th kh). Mt h thng c th cha ng mt hoc nhiu pha. V d, mt h thng gm nc lng v hi
nc c hai pha. Mt nguyn cht l mt lng ca vt cht m thnh phn ho hc ca n l ng nht v khng bin i.
Mt nguyn cht c th tn ti nhiu hn mt pha, tuy nhin thnh phn ho hc ca n phi lun khng i mi pha. V
d, khi nc lng v hi nc hp thnh mt h thng hai pha, h thng ny c coi l mt nguyn cht bi v mi pha c
cng mt thnh phn ho hc. nh lut pha (xem Moran v Shapiro, 2000 c thm chi tit) ch ra bn cht ca cc pha l
lun cng tn ti cn bng ti mt v tr gi l v tr cn bng.
Trng thi cn bng
Trng thi cn bng c ngha l mt iu kin cn bng. Trong nhit ng lc hc, khi nim ny khng ch phn nh s
cn bng ca cc lc, m cn th hin s cn bng ca cc tc ng khc. Mi mt loi tc ng lin quan ti mt kha
cnh c bit ca trng thi cn bng nhit ng lc hc. Trng thi cn bng nhit lin qua ti nhit , trng thi cn bng
c hc lin quan ti p sut, v trng thi cn bng pha lin quan ti cc nng lng ho hc ( thm chi tit xem Moran v
Shapiro, 2000). Trng thi cn bng ho hc cng c xy dng theo ho nng. c c trng thi cn bng hon ton,
th mt vi trng thi cn bng cn phi tn ti ring r.
Nhit
Mt thang nhit c lp vi cc cht o nhit c gi l thang nhit nhit ng lc hc. Thang nhit Kelvin,
l mt thang nhit ng lc hc, c th c suy ra t nh lut th hai ca nhit ng lc hc. Cc nh ngha ca nhit
t nh lut hai ny c s dng cho ton b min nhit v a ra mt mi quan h gn kt quan trng gia mt vi n
v o lng nhit bng thc nghim. c bit, cc nhit c o khi s dng mt nhit k kh th tch hng ng
nht vi cc nhit trong thang o nhit Kelvin trong min nhit m nhit biu hc kh c th c s dng.
Trong thang o nhit theo Kelvin n v l kelvin (K).
Thang o nhit theo Celsius (cn gi l thang bch phn) s dng C, c cng ln nh kelvin. Do , s chnh
lch nhit l ng nht c hai thang o. Tuy nhin, im 0 trn thang C lch vi thang K l 273,15, im th ba ca
nc (hnh 12.1b), c th hin bng mi quan h sau theo nhit Celsius v nhit Kelvin:
( ) ( ) 273.15 T C T K
o
(12.1)
C hai thang nhit khc cng thng c s dng trong k thut M. Thang Rankine, n v ca n l rankine (
o
R), t l vi nhit Kelvin theo cng thc sau:
( ) 1.8 ( ) T R T K
o
(12.2)
Thang o theo Rankine cng mt thang o tuyt i trong Nhit ng lc hc vi mt gi tr khng tuyt i trng khp
vi gi tr khng tuyt i ca thang o Kelvin. Trong cc mi quan h Nhit ng lc hc, nhit lun lun c tnh theo
thang o Kelvin hoc Rankine tr trng hp c bit no .
Mt khc c cng kch c nh thang Rankine l thang o nhit Fahrenheit, tuy nhin im 0 ca n c chnh
lch th hin theo quan h sau
( ) ( ) 459.67 T F T R
o o
(12.3)
Thay th phng trnh (12.1) v (12.2) vo phng trnh (12.3) ta thu c
( ) 1.8 ( ) 32 T F T C +
o o
(12.4)
Phng trnh ny th hin rng nhit Fahrenheit ca im ng bng (0
o
C) l 32
0
F v ca im bay hi (100
0
C) l
212
0
F. 100 Celsius hoc Kelvin gia im ng bng v im bay hi tng ng vi 180 Fahrenheit hoc Rankine .
a ra mt tiu chun o c nhit m s a vo xem xt c trong l thuyt v trong thc t, thang o nhit
theo quc t nm 1990 (ITS-90) c nh ngha theo cch m nhit o c trn n ph hp vi nhit nhit ng lc
hc, n v ca n l kelvin, v nm trong cc gii hn ca chnh xc o c c th t c. Preston-Thomas (1990) c
th cung cp thm cc nghin cu v ITS-90 trong cc ti liu chuyn ngnh.
Qu trnh khng thun nghch
2
Nhit ng lc hc
Mt qu trnh c gi l thun nghch khi ta c th loi b c nhng nh hng ca n v sau bng cch no
khi phc li mt cch chnh xc cc trng thi ban u tng ng ca h thng v c mi trng xung quanh n. Mt qu
trnh gi l khng thun nghch khi khng th khi phc c cc trng thi ban u ca h thng v c mi trng xung
quanh n. C nhiu hiu ng trong sut mt qu trnh c tnh cht khng thun nghch. Bao gm: truyn nhit qua qua mt
min c chnh lch nhit hn ch; qu trnh gin n khng hn ch ca mt cht kh hoc lng lm gim p sut; phn ng
ho hc t pht; hn hp vt cht vi cc hp cht khc nhau hoc cc trng thi khc nhau; ma st (ma st trt cng nh
ma st trong dng chy ca cht lng); dng in chy qua mt in tr; s tr t ho v tr phn cc; v bin dng khng
n hi,. Tnh khng thun nghch c s dng vi mc ch xc nh cc hiu ng nh trn.
C th chia qu trnh khng thun nghch thnh 2 lp, bn trong v bn ngoi. Qu trnh thun nghch bn trong xy ra
bn trong h thng, trong khi qu trnh thun nghch bn ngoi xy ra mi trng bn ngoi ca h thng, thng th l
mi trng ngoi k st. Theo cch phn loi ny, ph thuc vo cc loi vng bin, s tn ti mt s tu chn khi phn loi
(nh vic chn cc bin xc nh mi trng k st, tnh khng thun nghch u l bn trong). Tuy nhin, kt qu s l c
th khi bit c s phn bit gia cc qu trnh khng thun nghch. Khi khng tn ti mt qu trnh khng thun nghch
bn trong trong mt qu trnh, qu trnh ny s c gi l c tnh cht thun nghch bn trong. Ti mi trng thi trung gian
ca mt qu trnh c tnh thun nghch bn trong ca mt h thng kn, tt c cc thuc tnh l cng dng mi biu din
pha: nhit , p sut, th tch xc nh, v cc thuc tnh khc s khng thay i theo v tr.
Cc nh lut ca nhit ng lc hc
Cc bc u tin trong vic phn tch nhit ng lc hc l nh ngha cc h thng v nh ngha nhng mi quan h
tng tc ph hp vi mi trng xung quanh. Sau tp trung ti cc nh lut vt l lin quan trc tip ti chng v cc
mi quan h cho php din t s bin i ca h thng bng mt m hnh k thut, m hnh ny biu din bin i ca h
thng theo mt cch n gin phc v cho mc ch phn tch, thm ch, khi b qua cc c im thc ca cc h
thng trong thc t.
Thng s s dng mt trong 3 nh lut c bn hoc nhiu hn phn tch, mt cch trc tip hoc gin tip, nhit
ng lc hc ca cc th tch iu khin v cc h thng kn. Cc nh lut ny s c lp vi cc cht hoc hp cht c th
tu thuc vo vn cn xem xt nh sau
Nguyn l bo ton khi lng,
Nguyn l bo ton nng lng,
nh lut th 2 ca nhit ng lc hc.
C th din t nh lut hai ny theo nng lng hoc entropy.
Cc nh lut nhit ng lc hc cn phi c b sung thm cc d liu thuc tnh nhit ng lc hc thch hp. i vi
mt s ng dng cn s dng thm mt phng trnh ng lng biu din nh lut Newton th hai v chuyn ng. D liu
cho cc thuc tnh truyn dn, cc h s truyn nhit, v cc h s ma st thng rt cn thit cho qu trnh phn tch trong k
thut. Cc nguyn l ca kinh t k thut v d liu kinh t thch hp cng c th ng vai tr thch ng.
12.2 Cn bng thuc tnh m rng
Cc nh lut nhit ng lc hc c th c th hin qua s cn bng cc thuc tnh m rng cho khi lng, nng
lng, entropy, v exergy. Cc ng dng k thut ni chung thng c phn tch trn mt c s th tch iu khin. Chnh
v vy, y s trnh by cc cng thc th tch iu khin ca s cn bng khi nng lng, cn bng entropy v cn bng
exergy. Chng s c th hin dng cn bng tng th vi gi thit dng chy l mt chiu. Cc phng trnh thay i v
khi lng, nng lng, v entropy s dng cc phng trnh vi phn v c th tm thy trong cc bi ging ca Bird v cc
cng s, 1960.
Cn bng khi lng
i vi cc ng dng xut hin cc dng chy bn trong v dng chy bn ngoi i qua mt hoc nhiu cng, cn bng
thuc tnh m rng m t nguyn l bo ton khi lng c dng nh sau
i e
i e
dm
m m
dt


& &
(12.5)
y dm/dt biu din tc thay i khi lng c cha ng trong th tch iu khin theo thi gian,
i
m&
th hin tc
dng chy c khi lng ti mt cng vo, v
e
m&
l tc dng chy c khi lng ti mt cng ra.
Mt dng chy chuyn ng qua mt phn ca b mt iu khin c din tch l dA s c tnh l tch ca thnh phn
vn tc vung gc vi din tch , vn, vi vi phn din tch dA: vndA. Tc dng chy c khi lng i qua dA l
( )
n
v dA
, y

l t trng. T y ta c th tnh c tc ca dng chy c khi lng i qua mt cng c din tch
A bng cch tch phn trn ton b din tch nh sau
n
A
m v dA

&
3
S tay C in t
i vi dng chy mt chiu cc thuc tnh m rng l ng dng theo v tr trn ton b din tch A, v ta s thu c
phng trnh cui cng l
vA
m vA
v
&
(12.6)
vi

l mt th tch ring (nghch o ca t khi) v ch s n t di vn tc lm r rng hn.


Cn bng nng lng
Nng lng l mt khi nim c bn ca nhit ng lc hc v cng l kha cnh quan trng nht khi phn tch k thut.
Nng lng c th c lu tr rt nhiu dng v m khc nhau: ng nng, th nng trng trng, v ni nng. Nng
lng cng c th c chuyn i t dng ny sang dng khc v gia cc h thng. Nng lng c th c truyn bng
cng, bng s truyn nhit, v bng s chy ca vt cht. Tng nng lng trong cc qu trnh chuyn i v truyn s c
bo ton. Cn bng cc thuc tnh m rng biu din s nguyn l bo ton nng lng c dng nh sau
2 2
( )
2 2
i e
i i i e e e
i e
v v d U KE PE
Q W m h gz m h gz
dt
| ` | ` + +
+ + + + +

. , . ,

& &
& &
(12.7a)
vi U, KE, v PE tng ng biu din ni nng, ng nng, v th nng trng trng ca ton b th tch iu khin.
Pha bn phi ca phng trnh (12.7a) a ra lng nng lng truyn qua bin ca th tch iu khin. Nng lng c
th truyn vo hoc thot ra cc th tch iu khin dng cng. Bi v cng c thc hin trn (hoc do) mt th tch iu
khin khi dng vt cht i qua bin, nn phn chia tc sinh cng (cng sut) thnh hai loi thun tin cho cc mc ch
sau ny. Mt phn l tc cng sinh ra bi lc ca p sut dng chy do khi lng c dn n ti ng vo v b loi
b ng ra. Cc thnh phn ny thng c coi l cng dng chy, c nh lng thng qua cc i lng ln lt l
( )
i i i
m p v &
v ( ( )
e e e
m p v ( )
e e e
m p v &
), y p l p sut v v l th tch ring. Mt thnh phn na, c k hiu l W trong
phng trnh (12.7a), bao gm tt c cc hiu sut cng, m cc gi tr ca chng c lin quan ti cc trc quay, dch chuyn
ca bin v cc hiu sut in. W c gi tr dng trong qu trnh truyn nng lng t th tch iu khin.
Nng lng cng c th i vo v thot ra cc th tch iu khin cng vi cc dng chy ca vt cht. V c bn, i vi
dng chy mt chiu, tc m ti nng lng i vo ca vt cht u vo i l ( ( )
2
/ 2
i i i i
m u v gz + +
( )
2
/ 2
i i i i
m u v gz + + &
), y ba s hng trong ngoc n ln lt tng ng tnh ton cho ni nng ring, ng nng ring, v th nng ca lc
trng trng ring ca vt cht chy qua cng i. Trong phng trnh (12.7a), tng ca ni nng ring v cng dng chy
ring ti mi ng vo v ng ra c th hin theo enthalpy ring h(= u + pv). Cui cng, Q l tc truyn nhit nng
v c gi tr dng trong qu trnh truyn nng lng ti th tch iu khin.
Bng cch lm dc cc s hng ca phng trnh (12.7a) lin quan ti dng chy c khi lng, ta c th thu c mt
cn bng tc nng lng cho cc h thng kn. V nguyn tc, c th tch phn cn bng tc nng lng h thng kn
trong mt qu trnh gia hai trng thi thu c cn bng nng lng h thng kn:
2 1 2 1 2 1
( ) ( ) ( ) U U KE KE PE PE Q W + +
(12.7b)
y 1 v 2 th hin cc trng thi kt thc. Q v W ln lt l cc lng nhit nng c truyn v cng thc hin trong
sut qu trnh.
Cn bng Entropy
Cc ng dng hin i ca nhit ng lc hc k thut th hin nh lut th 2 mt cn bng entropy hoc mt cn bng
exergy. y xem xt ti cn bng entropy.
Nh l khi lng v nng lng, entropy c th c lu tr v truyn ti qua bin ca cc h thng. Tuy nhin, s khc
nhau so vi khi lng v nng lng l, entropy khng c bo ton, nhng c th c to ra t cc qu trnh khng
thun nghch trong cc h thng. Mt dng th tch iu khin ca cn bng thuc tnh m rng cho entropy l
j
i i e e gen
j i e
J
Q
dS
m s m s S
dt T
+ +

&
&
& &
(12.8)
y dS/dt biu din tc bin i ca entropy theo thi gian trong th tch iu khin. Cc s hng
i i
m s &
v
e e
m s &
tng
ng s l cc tc ca entropy truyn ti v truyn ra khi th tch iu khin tng ng vi dng chy c khi lng.
j
Q
&

biu din tc truyn nhit theo thi gian ti mt vng trn bin m y nhit tc thi l Tj, v /
j j
Q T
&
th hin tc
tng ng ca s truyn entropy.
gen
S
&
l tc to ra entropy theo thi gian nh cc qu trnh khng thun nghch bn trong
th tch iu khin. Mt cn bng tc entropy cho cc h thng kn c th t c nh vic lm dc cc s hng trong
phng trnh (12.8) lin quan ti cc tc dng chy c khi lng.
Khi p dng cn bng entropy bt k mt dng no ca n, th mc ch s thng l tnh gi tr ca s hng pht sinh
ra entropy. Tuy nhin, gi tr c trng cho vic to ra entropy mt qu trnh cho trc ca mt h thng thng khng
4
Nhit ng lc hc
ngha. ngha ny thng c xc nh thng qua vic so snh: s to ra entropy bn trong mt thnh phn c a ra
trc s c so snh vi cc gi tr ca s to ra entropy ca cc thnh phn khc trong ton b mt h thng c to ra t
cc thnh phn ny. iu ny cho php xy dng cc nguyn l v cc qu trnh khng thun nghch ca ton b h thng
mt cch chnh xc.
Cc th tch iu khin ti trng thi n nh
Cc h thng trong thc t thng c l tng ho ti trng thi n nh, c ngha l tt c cc thuc tnh ca chng
khng thay i theo thi gian. i vi mt th tch iu khin ti trng thi n nh, tnh ng nht ca vt cht bn trong
th tch iu khin thay i mt cch lin tc, nhng tng khi lng khng thay i. Ti trng thi n nh, phng trnh
cn bng bin i khi lng (12.5) tr thnh
i e
i e
m m

& &
(12.9a)
Ti trng thi n nh, phng trnh cn bng bin i nng lng (12.7a) tr thnh
2 2
0
2 2
i e
i i i e e e
i e
v v
Q W m h gz m h gz
| ` | `
+ + + + +

. , . ,

& &
& &
(12.9b)
Ti trng thi n nh, phng trnh cn bng bin i entropy (12.8) s l
0
j
i i e e gen
j i e
j
Q
m s m s S
T
+ +

&
&
& &
(12.9c)
Khi lng v nng lng l nhng i lng bo ton, tuy nhin entropy v tng qut l khng c bo ton. Phng
trnh (12.9a) ch ra rng tc tng ca dng chy c khi lng i ti th tch iu khin bng vi tc tng cng ca
dng chy c khi lng i ra khi th tch iu khin ny. Tng t, phng trnh (12.9b) pht biu rng tng cng tc
ca nng lng truyn ti th tch iu khin bng vi tng cng tc ca nng lng truyn ra khi th tch iu khin
ny. Tuy nhin, phng trnh (12.9c) cho thy rng tc m ti entropy c truyn ra ngoi vt qu tc m ti
entropy i vo, s khc nhau ca tc to ra entropy bn trong th tch iu khin v cc qu trnh khng thun nghch.
Nhiu ng dng c lin quan ti cc th tch iu khin m c mt ng vo n v mt ng ra n. Vi nhng
trng hp ny, cn bng s thay i khi lng, phng trnh (12.9a), tr thnh
i e
m m & &
. Biu din tc dng chy c
khi lng chung bng m&
, phng trnh (12.9b) v (12.9c) tng ng s l:
2 2
0 ( ) (
2
i e
i e i e
v v
Q W m h h g z z
] | `
+ + +
]
] . , ]
& &
&
(12.10a)
0 ( )
i e gen
b
Q
m s s S
T
+ +
&
&
&
(12.11a)
y i vi Tb n gin biu th nhit , hoc mt nhit trung bnh ph hp, trn bin ni m qu trnh truyn nhit xy
ra.
Khi cn bng s thay i nng lng v entropy c ng dng trong cc trng hp c bit cn c quan tm, lun
lun lm n gin thm. Gii hn truyn nhit Q
&
c gim i khi n khng c quan h ng k ti s truyn cc nng lng
khc qua bin. iu ny c th l kt qu ca mt hoc nhiu trng hp sau: (1) b mt bn ngoi ca th tch iu khin
c cch ly; (2) din tch b mt ngoi qu nh c th nh hng ti qu trnh truyn nhit ; (3) s chnh lch nhit
gia th tch iu khin v mi trng xung quanh ca n nh c th b qua s truyn nhit; (4) cht kh hoc cht
lng i qua th tch iu khin qu nhanh dn ti khng thi gian cho qu trnh truyn nhit xy ra mt cch ng k. S
hng cng W
&
s khng cn trong phng trnh cn bng s bin i nng lng khi khng c cc trc quay, cc dch chuyn
ca bin, hiu sut in,hoc cc c ch cng khc lin quan ti th tch iu khin ang cn c xem xt. Cc hiu ng ca
ng nng v th nng thng c b qua so vi cc s hng khc ca cn bng s thay i nng lng.
Cc dng c bit ca phng trnh (12.10a) v (12.11a) c lit k trong bng 12.1 c th t c nh sau: Khi khng
c qu trnh truyn nhit, phng trnh (12.11a) a ra nh sau
0
gen
e i
S
s s
m

&
&
(12.11b)
Do vy, khi c mt qu trnh khng thun nghch bn trong mt th tch iu khin, entropy ring s tng theo cc dng
chy c khi lng t ng vo ti ng ra. Trong trng hp l tng m khng c cc qu trnh khng thun
nghch bn trong, khi lng i qua th tch iu khin s khng thay i trong entropy ca n - tc l ng entropy.
Khi khng c qu trnh truyn nhit, phng trnh (12.10a) s l
5
S tay C in t
2 2
( ) ( )
2
i e
i e i e
v v
W m h h g z z
] | `
+ +
]
] . , ]
&
&
(12.10b)
Mt dng c bit c th p dng c, t nht mt cch gn ng, vi cc my bm, my nn v cc turbine t vic lm
dc cc s hng th nng v ng nng trong phng trnh
( )
i e
W m h h
&
&
(12.10c)
Trong cc thit b van iu chnh, c th gim p sut mt cch ng k bng cch to ra mt cn tr trong mt ng
dn m cht kh hoc cht lng chy qua n. i vi cc thit b ny W
&
= 0 v phng trnh (12.10c) s n gin hn nhiu
i e
h h
(12.10d)
iu ny c ngha l, lung ln v lung xung ca thit b van iu chnh, bng vi enthapy ring.
Bng 12.1 Cc phng trnh cn bng nng lng v Entropy cho cc th tch iu khin mt ng vo, mt ng ra ti
trng thi n nh v khng c s truyn nhit.
Phng trnh cn bng nng lng
2 2
( ) ( )
2
i e
i e i e
v v
W m h h g z z
] | `
+ +
]
] . , ]
&
&
(12.10b)
Cc my nn, my bm, v turbine
a
( )
i e
W m h h
&
&
(12.10c)
Van chnh
i e
h h
(12.10d)
My khuych tnb, vi phun
2
2( )
e i i e
v v h h + (12.10e)
Phng trnh cn bng Entropy
0
gen
e i
S
s s
m

&
&
(12.11b)
a
i vi mt cht kh l tng vi hng s cp, phng trnh (1') ca bng 12.4 cho php phng trnh (12.10c) tr
thnh
( )
p i e
W mc T T
&
&
(12.10c')
Cng sut to ra trong qu trnh ng entropy c th t c t phng trnh (5') ca bng 12.4 nh sau:
( 1) /
1 ( / ) ( )
k k
p i e i
W mc T p p s c

]
]
&
&
(12.10c'')
y cp = kR/(k-1).
b
i vi mt cht kh l tng vi hng s cp, phng trnh (1') ca bng 12.4 cho php phng trnh (12.10e) c
vit li nh sau:
2
1
2 ( )
e p i e
v v c T T + (12.10e')
C th tnh c vn tc u ra trong mt qu trnh ng entropy bng cch s dng phng trnh (5') ca bng 12.4
nh sau:
( )
2 ( 1) /
1
2 1 ( / )
k k
e p i e i
v v c T p p s c

] +
]
(12.10e'')
y
/( 1)
p
c kR k
.
Mt vi phun l mt ng chy c din tch mt ct ngang bin i m vn tc ca cht kh hoc cht lng tng
theo hng dng chy. my khuych tn, cht kh hoc cht lng s gim tc theo hng dng chy. i vi nhng thit b
ny, W 0
&
. Ni chung l c th b qua s thay i th nng v qu trnh truyn nhit. Lc ny phng trnh (12.10b) c
dng n gin hn nh sau
6
Nhit ng lc hc
2 2
0
2
i e
i e
v v
h h

+
Ta c vn tc thot ra
2
2( )
e i i e
v v h h + (12.10e)
Cc dng trng thi n nh ca cc phng trnh cn bng s bin i khi lng, nng lng, v entropy c th c
ng dng cho cc th tch iu khin c nhiu ng vo v/hoc ng ra, v d, cc trng hp lin quan ti cc my pht
hi nng phc hi, thit b cp nc nng, v thit b trao i nhit chy ngc v chy cho. Vic phn tch chuyn tip (cn
gi l khng n nh) c th c dn ti cc phng trnh (12.5), (12.7a), v (12.8). Cc minh ho ca tt c cc ng dng
ny c cung cp bi Moran v Shapiro (2000).
Cn bng exergy
Exergy cung cp mt s la chn s dng entropy cho vic ng dng nh lut th hai. Khi cc khi nim exergy c s
dng cng vi cc nguyn l ca kinh t k thut, cc kt qu thu c s thuc lnh vc kinh t nhit hc. Kinh t nhit hc
cho php xc nh c cc ngun chi ph thc t: cc chi ph u t vn, chi ph bo qun v vn hnh, v cc chi ph lin
quan ti vic ph hu v hao ph exergy. S ti u cc h thng c th t c bng vic nh gi cn thn cc ngun chi
ph ny. Mc ch ca nhit kinh t hc l mong mun gim thiu nht chi ph nh s tr gip ca exergy. Cc nh nghin
cu Moran (1989), Bejan v cc cng s (1996), Moran v Tsatsaronis (2000) v Moran cng Shapiro (2000) l nhng ngi
cung cp cc kin thc trong phn tch exergy v nhit kinh t hc. phn ny s trnh by cc kha cnh ni bt nht v
Exergy.
nh ngha exergy
Mt thun tin cho vic thc hin cng tn ti bt k khi no hai h thng ti cc trng thi khc nhau c mi quan h
vi nhau, bi v, v nguyn tc, cng c th c sinh ra t hai h thng v c th tin ti cn bng. Khi mt trong hai h
thng l mt h thng c l tng ho ph hp l mt mi trng v h thng cn li l mt h thng cn xem xt,
exergy l cng hu ch theo l thuyt ln nht (cng trc quay hoc cng in) c th t c do h thng ang xt v mi
trng tng tc vi nhau tin ti cn bng, qu trnh truyn nhit xy ra ch trong mi trng ny. (nh mt s la chn,
exergy l cng hu dng l thuyt b nht c yu cu nh dng mt i lng ca vt cht t cc cht c mt trong
mi trng v mang vt cht ti mt trng thi ring.). Exergy l mt i lng o s bt u mt trng thi ca h thng
t mi trng, v do vy n l thuc tnh ca s tng tc gia h thng v mi trng vi nhau. Khi xc nh c mi
trng, exergy c th c gn cho mt gi tr theo cc gi tr ca cc thuc tnh ch cho h thng, do vy exergy c th c
coi nh l mt thuc tnh m rng ca h thng. C th ph hu exergy nh l entropy, ni chung l exergy khng c bo
ton.
Cc m hnh c nhiu mc ring thay i c ng dng trong vic din t mi trng c s dng nh gi
exergy. Cc m hnh ca mi trng thng l mt vi thnh phn ca cc mi trng xung quanh h thng, cc thuc tnh
m rng ca mi pha m lun ng dng v khng thay i ng k l mt kt qu ca mt qu trnh no ang c xem
xt. Mi trng c coi l hp bi cc cht thng gp tn ti nhiu trong p sut kh quyn, cc i dng, v v tri t.
Cc cht cc dng n nh ca chng nh l chng tn ti trong t nhin, v khng th sinh cng t cc tng tc - vt l
hoc ho hc - gia cc phn ca mi trng. Mc d cc thuc tnh m rng ca mi trng ny c gi thit l khng
thay i, cc thuc tnh m rng ny vn c th thay i do nguyn nhn ca s tng tc vi cc h thng khc. Th nng
v ng nng c xc nh tng i so vi cc to trong mi trng, tt c cc thnh phn khc c cp s c
xem xt vi chng. D dng thy, nhit T0 v p sut p0 ca mi trng thng l cc gi tr bao quanh, nh l 1 atm v
25
o
C (77
o
F). Tuy nhin, cc thuc tnh ny c th c xc nh khc i ph thuc vo ng dng.
Khi mt h thng l cn bng vi mi trng, trng thi ca h thng lc c gi l trng thi bt ng. Ti trng
thi cht ny, cc iu kin v cn bng c hc, nhit, v ho hc gia h thng vi mi trng c tho mn nh sau: p
sut, nhit , v cc th nng ho hc ca h thng tng ng s ging nh ca mi trng. Thm vo , h thng khng
chuyn ng hoc chnh lch so vi cc to trong mi trng. Theo cc iu kin ny, s khng th c mt s thay i t
pht no bn trong h thng hoc trong mi trng, hoc l khng c mt s tng tc no gia chng. Gi tr ca exergy
bng khng. C th nh ngha mt loi cn bng khc gia h thng v mi trng. y l mt dng cn bng c hn ch
m y ch c cc iu kin cn bng c hc v nhit hc phi c tho mn. Trng thi ny ca h thng c gi l bt
ng hon ton (restricted dead state). trng thi ny, lng vt cht c nh cn xem xt c coi ng kn trong mt bin
khng cho php dng chy c khi lng i qua, ti vn tc bng khng v cao so vi cc to ca mi trng, v ti
nhit T0 v p sut p0.
Truyn Exergy v ph hu exergy
Exergy c th c truyn theo ba cch: exergy truyn cng vi cng, exergy truyn cng vi qu trnh truyn nhit, v
exergy truyn lin quan ti qu trnh i vo v i ra ca vt cht qua mt th tch iu khin.Tt c cc qu trnh truyn
exergy ny c tnh ton so vi mi trng m dng xc nh exergy. Exergy cng b ph hu bi cc qu trnh khng
thun nghch bn trong h thng hoc th tch iu khin. Cc phng trnh cn bng exergy c th c vit rt nhiu
dng, ph thuc vo h thng l kn hay l th tch iu khin cn xem xt v vic quan tm ti trng thi n nh ca n hay
7
S tay C in t
l s hot ng trong giai on chuyn tip. Do vai tr quan trng ca chng trong mt min ln ng dng, cn bng tc
exergy cho cc th tch iu khin ti trng thi n nh c biu din theo mt trong hai phng trnh sau, phng trnh
(12.12a) v (12.12b).
,
0
q j i e D
j i e
E W E E E +

& & & & &
(12.12a)
0
0 1
j i i e e D
j i i
j
T
Q W me m e E
T
| `
+

. ,

& & &
& &
(12.12b)
W
&
c cng tnh cht nh trong phng trnh (12.7a): tc loi tr cng dng chy.
j
Q
&
l tc theo thi gian ca s
truyn nhit trn bin ca th tch iu khin ni m nhit tc thi l Tj. Tc lin quan ti s truyn exergy l
0
,
1
q j j
j
T
E Q
T
| `


. ,
& &
(12.13)
Vi cc phng trnh cn bng tc th tch iu khin khc, ch s di i v e ln lt l cc ng vo v ng ra.
Cc tc truyn exergy ti th tch iu khin ng vo v ng ra ln lt l
i i i
E me
&
&
v
e e e
E m e
&
&
. Cui cng,
D
E
&

tnh ton cho tc theo thi gian ca qu trnh ph hu exergy nguyn nhn do cc qu trnh khng thun nghch bn trong
th tch iu khin. Tc ca qu trnh ph hu exergy c lin quan ti tc pht sinh entropy nh sau
0 D gen
E T S
& &
(12.14)
Cc s hng truyn exergy ring ei, ec c th c th hin theo bn thnh phn: exergy vt l e
PH
, ng nng e
KN
, th
nng e
PT
, v exergy ho hc e
CH
:
PH KN PT CH
e e e e e + + + (12.15a)
Ba thnh phn u tin c tnh ton nh sau:
0 0 0
( ) ( )
PH
e h h T s s (12.15b)
2
1
2
KN
e v (12.15c)
PT
e gz (12.15d)
phng trnh (12.15b), h0 v s0 ln lt l enthalpy ring v entropy ring ti trng thi bt ng hon ton (restricted
dead state). phng trnh (12.15c) v (12.15d), v v z tng ng l vn tc v cao so vi cc to trong mi trng.
nh gi exergy ho hc (cc thnh phn exergy lin quan ti s tham gia cc thnh phn ho hc ca mt h thng
trong mi trng). Mt trong cc m hnh ca mi trng c th c cung cp da vo cc ng dng; xem thm cc ti liu
ca Moran (1989) v Kotas (1995). Phn tch exergy c th thc hin c d dng bng cch ng dng mt mi trng
chun v s dng mt bng cc exergy ho hc chun tng ng. Cc exergy ho hc tiu chun c xy dng da trn
cc gi tr tiu chun, v d ca nhit tiu chun T0 v p sut tiu chun p0 ca mi trng, 298,15 K (25
o
C) v 1 atm.
Cc mi trng tiu chun cng bao gm mt tp hp cc cht tham gia vi cc tiu chun phn nh cng gn cng tt v
cc thuc tnh ho hc ca mi trng t nhin. D liu exergy ho hc tiu chun c cung cp bi Szargut v cc cng s
(1988), Bejan v cc cng s (1996), v Moran cng Shapiro (2000).
Cc nguyn tc nng cao hiu sut nhit ng lc hc
nng cao hiu sut nhit ng lc hc, chng ta cn phi khc phc ngay lp tc s thiu hiu qu lin quan ti s ph
hu exergy v s hao tn exergy. Cc nguyn nhn chnh gy ra s ph hu exergy l phn ng ho hc, s truyn nhit, hp
cht, v ma st, bao gm c s bay hi t do ca cc cht kh v cht lng. gii quyt cc vn ny mt cch hiu qu, ta
khng ch cn hiu r cc nguyn nhn chnh gy ra s khng hiu qu, m cn cn xc nh c gi tr ca chng, t nht
cng phi xc nh c gi tr tng i. Thay i thit k nng cao hiu sut cn phi c thc hin mt cch sng
sut, tuy nhin, vn s c th khc i khi ta tnh ton chi ph c lin quan ti cc ngun khc nhau gy ra s khng hiu
qu. Th d, chi ph trn 1 n v ca cng sut in hoc cng sut c hc c yu cu cung cp cho vic t ph hu
exergy gim p lc ni chung s cao hn chi ph cho 1 n v nhin liu c yu cu cung cp cho ph hu exergy bi v
b tn hao trong qu trnh t chy hoc qu trnh truyn nhit.
Phn ng ho hc l mt nguyn nhn ni bt gy ra s khng hiu qu ca nhit ng lc hc. Do , ni chung trong
thc t thng lm gim vic hiu qu ca qu trnh t chy. Tuy nhin, trong nhiu ng dng thng khng th trnh khi
vic s dng cc thit b t chy nh cc ni un. Lc ny, khng th hy vng lm gim ng k nh hng trong qu trnh
t chy khng thun nghch bng cc phng php truyn thng n gin c, i vi phn chnh ca s ph hu exergy
c to ra bi s t chy l mt chui vn thng thy ca s hot ng khng ng b cc thit b. Mc d vy, c th
8
Nhit ng lc hc
gim s ph hu exergy trong cc h thng t chy thc t bng cch gim thiu vic s dng kh tha v bng vic lm
nng trc cc cht phn ng. Trong hu ht cc trng hp ch mt phn nh ca s ph hu exergy trong mt bung t l
c th c khc phc bng cc phng php ny. iu ny dn ti, sau khi xem xt cc la chn trn lm gim s ph
hu exergy lin quan ti s t chy, nng cao tnh hiu qu ca nhit ng lc hc nn tp trung vo cc thnh phn ca
ton b h thng m d dng hn cho vic tnh ton ti chi ph. Thm vo , c th trnh mt vi hin tng ph hu exergy
v hao tn nng lng, m mt vi trng hp khc khng lm c nh vy. Nn tp trung vo cc hiu qu m ta c
th trnh.
S truyn nhit trong thc t rt kh t tnh hiu qu cao. Do vy, phi trnh s dng qu trnh truyn nhit khi khng
cn thit hoc khi qu tn km. Mt s hng dn nh sau:
Khi nhit cng cao hn nhit T m ti mt qu trnh truyn nhit xy ra, trng hp ny T>To, y To
l nhit ca mi trng, lc ny qu trnh truyn nhit c gi tr hn, ln hn mc yu cu trnh truyn
nhit ra xung quanh, truyn ti nc mt, hoc ti cc lung ng bng. Nn trnh khi qu trnh truyn nhit qua
To.
Nhit thp hn nhit T m ti mt qu trnh truyn nhit xy ra, trng hp ny T<To, lc ny qu trnh
truyn nhit c gi tr hn, khi ln hn mc yu cu trnh truyn nhit trc tip ra xung quanh, hoc ti mt
lung nhit nng.
Khi s ph hu exergy lin quan ti s truyn nhit gia cc lung nhit thay i ngc vi nhit , thp hn
mc nhit cn thit hn lm gim thiu s chnh lch nhit t lung ny n lung kia.
Mc d cc qu trnh khng thun nghch lin quan ti ma st, s gin n t do, v s trn hn hp thng t nh hng
hn s t chy v truyn nhit, chng ta khng nn b qua chng, nn ng dng cc hng dn sau:
Nn tp trung hn vo vic thit k cc trng thi nhit thp hn ca cc turbine v cc my nn (cc trng thi
cui cng ca cc turbine v cc trng thi u tin ca cc thit b nn) hn l cc trng thi c ca cc thit b
ny. i vi cc turbine, cc my nn, v cc ng c, xem xt cc cc la chn hiu qu nht v mt nhit ng
lc hc.
Gim thiu vic s dng cc van iu chnh, kim tra xem cc thit b h tr khi phc cng sut c phi l mt
chn la c hiu qu kinh t cho vic gim p sut hay khng.
Bng 12.2 Cc biu tng v nh ngha cho cc thuc tnh c chn
Thuc tnh K
hiu
nh ngha Thuc tnh K
hiu
nh ngha
p sut
p
Nhit ring, th tch
hng
v
c ( / )
v
u T
Nhit T Nhit ring, p sut
hng
p
c ( / )
p
h T
Th tch ring
v
gin n ca th tch
1
( / )
v v
v T
Ni nng ring
v
nn ng nhit
1
( / )
T v
v p
Entropy ring
s
nn ng entropy
1
( / )
s v
v p
Enthalpy ring h
u pv +
M un bulk ng
nhit
B
( / )
T
v p v
Hm Helmholtz ring

u Ts M un bulk ng
entropy
s
B ( / )
s
v p v
Hm Gibbs ring
g
h Ts H s Joule-Thomson
j
( / )
h
T p
H s nn Z
/ pv RT H s Joule

( / )
u
T v
T s nhit ring k /
p v
c c Vn tc m thanh
c
2
( / )
s
v p v
Trnh cc qu trnh s dng cc lc vn hnh qu trnh nhit ng lc hc qu ln (s khc nhau v nhit , p
sut, v thnh phn ho hc). c bit, gim thiu vic trn hn hp cc lung vi nhau qu khc nhau v nhit ,
p sut, hoc cc thnh phn ho hc.
Tc dng chy c khi lng cng ln, th cn thit phi s dng exergy ca lung cng phi hiu qu.
Cc phng php nng cao hiu sut nhit ng lc hc cng c Bejan v cc cng s (1996) v Moran cng
Tsatsaronis (2000) cung cp.
9
S tay C in t
12.3 Cc quan h thuc tnh v d liu
Nhit ng lc hc k thut phn loi thnh mt lng ln cc thuc tnh nhit ng lc hc v mi quan h trong cc
thuc tnh ny. Bng 12.2 lit k mt vi thuc tnh thng c s dng. Trong thc nghim lun c th thy c cc
thuc tnh: p sut, nhit , v th tch ring. Ni nng ring, entropy ring, v enthalpy ring l cc thuc tnh m khng d
dng c th thy c trong phng th nghim. Cc gi tr ca cc thuc tnh trn c th c tnh ton t cc d liu th
nghim ca cc thuc sau qu trnh o c, t y cng c th suy ra c cc quan h thuc tnh thch hp bng vic s
dng cc nguyn l nhit ng lc hc.
D liu thuc tnh c cng b trong cc ti liu ca Hc vin Quc gia v tiu chun v cng ngh (trc y l cc
tiu chun ca M), hoc ca cc nhm chuyn gia nh l Hi c kh M (ASME), Hi k thut nhit, ng bng v iu ho
khng kh ca M (ASHRAE), v hi ho hc M, v ca cc tp on nh Dupont v Dow ho hc. Cc s tay v cc tuyn
tp tham kho v thuc tnh c lit k trong chng ny c th d dng truy cp vo d liu gc. Cng c th ly
c cc d liu thuc tnh t rt nhiu cc c s d liu trc tuyn thng mi. Phn mm my tnh gip phn nng cao tnh
sn c s dng cho mc ch ny.
B mt P-v-T
Mt lng ln d liu v p sut, th tch ring v nhit c tch lu i vi cc cht kh v cht lng quan trng
trong cng nghip. Cc d liu ny c th c biu din dng p = f(v,T), c gi l mt phng trnh trng thi. C
th biu din cc phng trnh trng thi dng th, bng, v dng gii tch. Hnh 12.1(a) th hin mi quan h b mt p-
v-T ca nc. Hnh 12.1(b) th hin hnh chiu ca b mt p-v-T ln mt phng p sut-nhit , c gi l biu pha.
Hnh chiu ln trn mt phng p-v c th hin hnh 12.1(c).
Hnh 12.1(a) c 3 vng c nh du l c, lng, v kh m y hp cht ch tn ti mt pha. Gia cc vng pha
ring c cc vng hai pha, m y hai pha s cng tn ti trng thi cn bng. ng thng chia cc vng n pha cch
ra khi cc vng hai pha l cc ng bo ho. Mt trng thi bt k c biu din bng mt im trn mt ng bo ho
l mt trng thi bo ho.
Hnh 12.1 B mt th tch-nhit p sut ring v cc hnh chiu ca nc (khng co gin v t l)
ng chia cch pha lng vi vng hai pha lng-kh l ng lng c bo ho. Trng thi ny c biu din l f l
mt trng thi lng c bo ho. ng hi c bo ho chia cch vng hi vi vng hai pha kh-lng. Trng thi ny
c k hiu l g - mt trng thi hi c bo ho. ng lng c bo ho v ng hi c bo ho gp nhau ti mt
im ti hn. Ti im ti hn ny, p sut l p sut ti hn pc, v nhit l nhit ti hn Tc, 3 pha c th cng tn ti
trng thi cn bng trn ng nh du l ng bc 3. ng bc 3 ny chiu xung biu pha thnh mt im: im bi
3.
10
Nhit ng lc hc
Khi mt pha thay i trong khi p sut qu trnh lm nng v lm mt khng thay i th nhit vn khng i trong
c hai pha. Do , trong vng hai pha lng-kh, ng p sut khng i cng l ng nhit khng i. i vi mt p
sut c xc nh trc, nhit tng ng vi n c gi l nhit bo ho. i vi mt nhit xc nh, p sut
tng ng vi n c gi l p sut bo ho. Vng pha bn phi ca ng hi c bo ho c gi l vng hi qu
nhit v hi tn ti ti mt nhit ln hn nhit bo ho cho p sut ca n. Vng bn tri ca ng lng c bo
ho l vng lng b nn v cht lng ti mt p sut cao hn p sut bo ho cho nhit ca n.
Khi pha lng v pha kh cng tn ti trng thi cn bng, th c hai pha (pha lng v pha kh) s c bo ho. Th tch
tng cng ca s trn pha ny l V = Vf + Vg, hoc c th vit khc l mv = mfvf + mgvg, y m v v ln lt l khi lng
v th tch ring. Chia tt c cho khi lng tng cng ca hai pha m ta c thnh phn khi lng ca pha kh trong hai pha,
mg/m, c k hiu l x, gi l quality, th tch ring v xut hin trong lng pha ny l:
(1 )
f g f fg
v x v xv v xv + +
(12.16a)
y vfg = vg - vf. Tng t ta c th biu din cho ni nng, enthalpy v entropy:
(1 )
f g f fg
u x u xu u xu + +
(12.16b)
(1 )
f g f fg
h x h xh h xh + +
(12.16c)
(1 )
f g f fg
s x s xs s xs + +
(12.16d)
Cc d liu nhit ng lc hc (Thermodynamic Data Retrieval)
S biu din dng bng ca p sut, th tch ring, v nhit c sn cho cc cht kh v cht lng quan trng trong
thc t. Cc bng ny thng lit k cc thuc tnh hu dng cho mc ch phn tch nhit ng lc hc, nh l ni nng,
enthalpy v entropy. Hng lot cc bng v hi c a vo trong phn tham kho ca chng ny. Phn mm my tnh
cng l mt cng c c sn phc v vic tra cu cc thuc tnh cho mt di ln cc loi cht ho hc, v d, cc bng kh ca
ASME (1993) v Bornakke cng Sonntag (1996). Ngy cng nhiu cc ti liu cng vi a my tnh cung cp d liu v cc
thuc tnh nhit ng lc hc ca nc, cc cht lm lnh, v mt vi cht kh c m hnh l tng ho - xem thm ti liu
ca Moran v Shapiro (2000).
bng 12.3 trnh by mt v d v d liu dng bng v cht kh thng gp trong thc t. Dng ca cc bng ny v s
dng chng nh th no c th hin rt n gin vi ngi s dng. y, mc nhin coi rng ngi s dng bit cch
ni suy tuyn tnh.
Cc d liu v ni nng ring, enthalpy ring v entropy ring c xc nh theo cc d liu bt k v theo cc cht khc
nhau. Tham kho bng 12.3a, c th tm c cc d liu ni nng ring, enthalpy ring v entropy ring ca nc tng ng
vi nc lng c bo ho ti nhit 0,01
o
C (32,02
o
F), nhit bi 3. Gi tr ca mi thuc tnh ny c t bng khng
ti trng thi ny. Khi ch tnh ton n s khc nhau trong mt thuc tnh ring c bit, d liu s xo b. Khi thay i
thnh phn ho hc trong qu trnh, cn a ra lu c bit. Lc ny s tip cn vn khi thnh phn ho hc thay i do
phn ng ho hc s c xem xt trong cc ti liu ca Moran v Shapiro (2000).
D liu nc lng (xem bng 12.3d) cho thy rng ti mt nhit c nh s thay i th tch ring, ni nng ring, v
entropy ring theo p sut khng ln. S thay i ca enthalpy ring theo p sut ti nhit cho trc ln hn mt cht v
p sut xut hin tng minh trong nh ngha v enthalpy. S bin thin v, u, s v h c th hin mt cch tng qut bng
cc d liu lng v l c s cho vic thit lp cc phng trnh nh gi thuc tnh d liu trng thi lng t d liu lng
c bo ho:
( , ) ( )
f
v T p v T
(12.17a)
( , ) ( )
f
u T p u T
(12.17b)
[ ] ( , ) ( ) ( )
f f sat
h T p h T v p p T +
(12.17c)
( , ) ( )
f
s T p s T
(12.17d)
Ch s di f th hin trng thi lng c bo ho ti nhit T, v psat l p sut bo ho tng ng. S hng c gch
chn trong phng trnh (12.17c) c th b qua, a vo h(T,p)

hf (T).
Cc biu din dng th ca cc d liu thuc tnh cng thng c s dng. Chng bao gm cc biu v p-T v
p-v trn hnh 12.1, biu T-s ca hnh 12.2, biu h-s (Mollier) ca 12.3 v biu p-h ca hnh 12.4. Cc th v
nn c c xem xt tip theo s dng h s nn c l mt to trong mt vect.
th nn c
Hnh 12.5 minh ho th v nn suy rng ca mi quan h p-v-T s dng cho mt lot cc cht kh thng gp.
th ny, h s nn c, Z, c v ngc li vi p sut gim, pR, nhit gim, TR v th tch ring gim,
'
R
v , y
11
S tay C in t
pv
Z
RT
(12.18)
Trong cng thc ny v l th tch ring trong mt phn t gam (v d, m
3
/kmol) v
R
l hng s kh chung (v d 8314
N.m/kmol.K). Cc thuc tnh ny c biu din n gin hn nh sau:
,
, ,
( / )
R R R
c c c c
P T v
P T v
P T RT p

(12.19)
y pc v Tc ln lt l p sut v nhit ti hn. Cc gi tr ca pc v Tc c th t c t l thuyt-xem thm cc ti liu
chuyn ngnh, v d, Moran v Shapiro (2000). th ng nhit c n gin trn hnh 12.5 biu din cc ng cong th
hin gn ng nht v cc d liu ca mt vi cht kh. Vi 30 cht kh trong th ny, s sai lch ca gi tr quan st c
so vi cc gi tr trn th ny nhiu nht l 5% v i vi cc vng rng hn th sai lch ny nh hn.
Cc phng trnh gii tch ca trng thi
Xem xt th ng nhit trn hnh 12.5, thy rng s thay i ca h s nn c c th c th hin dng mt
phng trnh tin cy c, t nht cho cc khong gia s tc thi ca p v T. C th vit hai biu din ny theo mt biu din
l thuyt c bn. H s nn c c th biu din theo mt khai trin dng chui v hn ca p sut,
2 3

1 ( ) ( ) ( ) .... Z B T p C T p D T p + + + + (12.20a)
v dng khc l mt chui theo 1/ v ,
2 3
( ) ( ) ( )
1 ...
B T C T D T
Z
v v v
+ + + + (12.20b)
Cc phng trnh trng thi trn c bit n nh l cc khai trin virial, v cc h s

, , ... B C D v B, C, D, ... c gi
l cc h s virial. Trong thc t, c th tnh ton cc h s virial bng cch s dng cc cng thc ca c hc thng k c
suy ra t vic xem xt cc trng lc xung quanh cc phn t. T y cc h s u tin c tnh ton cho cc cht kh bao
gm cc phn t n gin mt cch tng i. V nguyn tc cng c th tm c cc h s ny bng cch iu chnh d
liu p-v-T khp bn trong mt phm vi c quan tm c bit. Ch c cc h s u tin l c th c tm thy mt cch
chnh xc bng cch ny, tuy nhin kt qu s l mt phng trnh c xp x ch ph hp ti cc trng thi tc thi.
Hn 100 phng trnh trng thi c xy dng v pht trin nhm miu t mt cch chnh xc ng x p-v-T ca cc
cht v trnh tnh phc tp c sn trong n mt dng chui virial y . Ni chung, cc phng trnh ny t th hin cc
tnh cht mang ngha vt l c bn v th hin cc tnh cht thin v tnh thc nghim nhiu hn. Hu ht chng c pht
trin cho cc cht kh, nhng cng c mt s din t v cc ng x p-v-T ca pha lng, t nht l v mt nh nh tnh.
Bng 12.3 D liu bng hi mu
12
Nhit ng lc hc
Hnh 12.2 Biu nhit -entropy ca nc. (Ti liu ngun: Jones, J.B, v Dugan, R.E. 1996. Nhit ng lc hc k thut,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, da vo d liu v cc cng thc cung cp t cc bng hi Haar, L., Gallagher, J.S., v
Kell, G.S. 1984. NBS/NRC. Hemisphere, Washington, D.C)
Hnh 12.3 Biu Enthalpy-entropy (Mollier) ca nc. (Ti liu ngun:Jones, J.B, v Dugan, R.E. 1996. Nhit ng lc
hc k thut, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, da vo d liu v cc cng thc cung cp t cc bng hi Haar, L.,
Gallagher, J.S., v Kell, G.S. 1984. NBS/NRC. Hemisphere, Washington, D.C)
Mi phng trnh trng thi ch c s dng cho mt s trng thi c bit. Phm vi ng dng ca chng thng c
quyt nh bi gia s ca p sut, hoc t trng, m y mong mun cc phng trnh th hin c ng x p-v-T mt cch
chnh xc. c c thm thng tin v phng trnh trng thi, hy xem Reid v Sherwood (1966) v Reid cng cc cng
s (1987).
M hnh cht kh l tng
Xem xt k th nn c suy rng, Hnh 12.5, thy rng khi pR nh, v vi nhiu trng thi m khi TR l ln, h
s nn c Z c gi tr gn ti 1. Ni cch khc, khi cc p sut thp hn so vi pc, v i vi nhiu trng hp c nhit
cao hn Tc, h s nn c c gi tr tin ti 1. Bn trong khong gii hn ch ra trn, c th gi s chnh xc chp
nhn c l Z = 1-i.e.,
pv RT pv RT (12.21a)
Cc dng khc ca phng trnh ny thng c s dng l
, pV nRT pV mRT (12.21b)
13
S tay C in t
cc phng trnh trn, / , n m M v Mv , v hng s kh ring l / R R M , y M l trng lng ca phn t.
Hnh 12.4 Biu p sut-enthalpy ca nc. (Ti liu ngun: Jones, J.B, v Dugan, R.E. 1996. Nhit ng lc hc k thut,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, da vo d liu v cc cng thc cung cp t cc bng hi Haar, L., Gallagher, J.S., v
Kell, G.S. 1984. NBS/NRC. Hemisphere, Washington, D.C)
Hnh 12.5 th nn c suy rng (
'
/ , / , /
R c R c R c c
T T T p p p v vp RT ) i vi
10
R
p
. (Ti liu ngun: Obert, E.F.
1960. Cc khi nim ca Nhit ng lc hc. McGraw Hill, New York)
Bng 12.4 Cc cng thc v kh l tng cho , h u v s
Nhit ring thay i Nhit ring hng
b
2
1
2 1
( ) ( ) ( )
T
p
T
h T h T c T dT

(1)
2 1 2 1
( ) ( ) ( )
p
h T h T c T T (1')
14
Nhit ng lc hc
2
1
2
2 2 1 1
1
( )
( , ) ( , ) ln
T
p
T
c T
p
s T p s T p dT R
T p

(2)
a
2 2
2 2 1 1
1 1
( , ) ( , ) ln ln
p
T p
s T p s T p c R
T p

(2')
2
1
2 1
( ) ( ) ( )
T
v
T
u T u T c T dT

3)
(3)
2 1 2 1
( ) ( ) ( )
v
u T u T c T T (3')
2
1
2
2 2 1 1
1
( )
( , ) ( , ) ln
T
v
T
c T v
s T v s T v dT R
T v
+

2 1
s s
(4)
2 2
2 2 1 1
1 1
( , ) ( , ) ln ln
v
T v
s T v s T v c R
T v
+
2 1
s s
(4')
2 2
1 1
( )
( )
r
r
p T p
p T p

(5)
( 1) /
2 2
1 1
k k
T p
T p

| `


. ,
(5')
2 2
1 1
( )
( )
r
r
v T v
v T v

(6)
( 1)
2 2
1 1
k
T v
T v

| `


. ,
(6')
a
c th s dng,
0 0 2
2 2 1 1 2 1
1
( , ) ( , ) ( ) ( ) ln
p
s T p s T p s T s T R
p

.
b
cp v cv l cc gi tr trung bnh trn khong nhit t T1 n T2.
C th thy rng ( ) /
T
u v
trit tiu vi mt cht kh m phng trnh trng thi ca n c dng chnh xc l phng
trnh (12.21), v do ni nng ring ch ph thuc vo nhit . Kt lun ny c cng c thm bng cc quan st thc
nghim bt u t cng ca Joule, ngi ch ra rng ni nng ca cht kh t trng thp ph thuc chnh vo nhit .
Cc vn xem xt trn cho php m hnh ho mt cht kh thc no vi mt m hnh l tng ca n: (1) Phng
trnh trng thi c th hin bi phng trnh (12.21) v (2) ni nng, enthalpy, v nhit ring (bng 12.2) l cc hm ch
ph thuc vo nhit . Cht kh thc tip cn ti cc m hnh ny vi mt gii hn l p sut gim chm. Ti cc trng thi
khc, s ng x thc ca cht kh c th v cn bn khng ging vi nhng g c d on. Do vy, nn thn trng khi lm
vic vi m hnh cht kh l tng.
D liu nhit ring cho cc cht kh c th t c bng vic o trc tip. Khi ngoi suy ti p sut khng, s tm c
nhit ring ca cht kh l tng. Cng c th tnh ton c nhit ring ca cht kh l tng bng vic s dng cc m hnh
phn t ca vt cht cng vi cc d liu t o c bng knh quang ph. Mi quan h nhit ring ca cht kh l tng
thng hu dng v c dng nh sau:
( ) ( )
p v
c T c T R +
(12.22a)
,
1 1
P v
kR R
c c
k k


(12.22b)
y k = cp/cv.
i vi cc qu trnh ca mt cht kh l tng gia trng thi 1 v 2, Bng 12.4 a ra cc biu thc tnh ton s thay
i v enthalpy ring, h , entropy ring, s v ni nng ring, u . Cng c th cung cp cc mi quan h ny cho cc qu
trnh ca mt cht kh l tng gia cc trng thi m c cng mt entropy ring: s2=s1. Mi quan h ca thuc tnh v d
liu s dng trong cc biu thc ca bng 12.4: h, u, cp, cv, pr, vr, v s
o
tnh c t cc ti liu chuyn ngnh-v d ca Moran
v Shapiro (2000).
12.4 Cc chu trnh cng sut ca cht kh v hi
Cc h thng nng lng kh v hi to ra cc nng lng c hc v nng lng in t cc ngun nng lng gc l: ho
hc, mt tri, hoc ht nhn. cc h thng nng lng hi, cht lng, thng l nc, s tri qua mt giai on thay i pha
t lng sang hi, v ngc li. Trong cc h thng nng lng kh, cht lng lm vic gi li mt cht kh i qua, mc d
thnh phn ho hc thng thay i do vic to ra qu trnh t chy nhin liu.
Cc qu trnh din ra trong cc h thng cng sut thng phc tp, do vy thng pht trin cc m hnh nhit ng lc
hc l tng ho d x l phn tch. Phn tch tiu chun kh ca cc h thng nng lng kh c xem xt trong phn
ny l mt v d ng ch . Ph thuc vo cp ca s l tng ho, cc m hnh l tng ny c th ch cung cp cc
thng tin nh tnh v s hot ng ca cc h thng tht tng ng. Cc thng tin ny thng c ch trong vic o cc thay
i ca cc tham s vn hnh chnh m c th nh hng ti s hot ng thc t. Cc m hnh nhit ng lc hc c s
cng c th cung cp cc phng php t c, t nht l xp x, cc c im thun tin v khng thun tin m chng s
c s dng nng cao hiu qu hot ng ca h thng nhit ng lc hc.
Truyn nhit v cng trong cc qu trnh thun nghch bn trong
15
S tay C in t
Cc biu thc biu din cng v s truyn nhit bn trong cc qu trnh thun nghch rt c ch cho vic din t s hot
ng nhit ng lc hc ca cc chu trnh kh v hi. Cc trng hp ring quan trng s c xem xt nh sau. i vi mt
cht kh l mt h thng, cng gin n sinh ra t cc lc m h thng tc dng di chuyn ti bin ca n s ngc li vi
tnh tr khng ca mi trng xung quanh:
2 2
1 1
W F dx pAdx

y lc bng tch ca din tch di chuyn v p sut tc dng bi h thng y. Ch rng Adx l s thay i ca tng th
tch h thng,
2
1
W pdV

Biu thc ny biu din cng p dng cho c hai qu trnh ni gin n v qu trnh gin n pht ng. Tuy nhin, i vi
mt qu trnh ngc bn trong th p khng ch bao gm p sut ti bin di ng m cn c p sut qua h thng. Hn th na,
i vi mt qu trnh ngc bn trong, th tch bng mv, y th tch ring v c mt gi tr n xuyn sut h thng ti mt
thi im c a ra. Do vy, cng ca qu trnh gin n bn trong (hoc nn) trn mt n v khi lng h thng l
2
1
int
rev
W
p dv
m
| `


. ,
(12.23)
Khi biu din mt qu trnh ca mt h thng kn bng mt ng cong lin tc trn th p sut theo th tch ring,
din tch bn di ng cong chnh l ln ca cng cho mt n v khi lng h thng: din tch a-b-c'-d' ca hnh 12.6.
i vi cc th tch iu khin mt ng vo, mt ng ra khng c mt trong cc qu trnh khng thun nghch ni,
cc biu thc sau s a ra cng c to ra cho mt n v khi lng:
2 2
int
( )
2
e
i e
i e
i
rev
v v W
v dp g z z
m
| `
+ +

. ,

&
&
(12.24a)
y tch phn c tnh t ng vo n ng ra (xem Moran v Shapiro (2000) thm). Nu khng c mt thay i ng
k no ca ng nng v th nng t ng vo ti ng ra, phng trnh (12.24a) s l
1
int
( 0)
e
rev
W
v dp ke pe
m
| `


. ,

&
&
(12.24b)
Hnh 12.6 Cc qu trnh ngc bn trong trn mt phng p-v
Th tch ring gn nh khng i trong nhiu ng dng cho cht lng. Lc ny phng trnh (12.24b) s tr thnh
int
( ) ( )
e i
rev
W
v p p v consta nt
m
| `


. ,
&
&
(12.24c)
Khi xem xt cc trng thi kch thc mt n v khi lng khng c cc qu trnh khng thun nghch t ng vo
ti ng ra, v din t chng bng mt ng cong lin tc biu din qua th p sut vi th tch ring, nh c th hin
trn Hnh 12.6, ln ca tch phn
vdp

trong phng trnh (12.24a) v (12.24b) c biu din bi din tch a-b-c-d sau
ng cong.
i vi mt qu trnh thun nghch bn trong ca mt h thng kn gia trng thi 1 v trng thi 2, s truyn nhit cho
mt n v khi lng h thng l
16
Nhit ng lc hc
2
1
int
rev
Q
T ds
m
| `


. ,
(12.25)
i vi th tch iu khin mt ng vo, mt ng ra khng c mt cc qu trnh khng thun nghch bn trong, biu
thc sau y ch ra truyn nhit cho mi n v khi lng t ng vo i n ng ra e:
1
int
e
rev
Q
T ds
m
| `


. ,

&
&
(12.26)
Khi mt qu trnh no nh vy c biu din bi mt ng cong lin tc qua th ca nhit vi entropy ring, din
tch di ng cong chnh l ln ca nhit truyn cho mt n v khi lng.
Cc qu trnh nhiu hng
Mt qu trnh thun nghch bn trong c din t bi biu thc pv
n
= hng s c gi l mt qu trnh a hng v n l
s m a hng. Trong cc ng dng hin nay n c th tnh c bng cch lm thch hp cc d liu th tch p sut ring.
Mc d c th p dng biu thc ny khi xem xt mt cht kh thc, ni chung trong thc t vn thng s dng m hnh
cht kh l tng v m hnh thc t vi nhau. Bng 12.5 cung cp mt vi biu thc c th p dng cho cc qu trnh nhiu
hng v cc dng ring ca chng khi xy dng m hnh cht kh l tng v chng. Cc biu thc cho
pdv

v
vdp

ln
lt p dng tnh ton cc phng trnh (12.23) v (12.24).
Bng 12.5 Qu trnh a hng: Const
n a
pv
Tng qut Kh l tng
b
2 2
1 1
n
p v
p v
| `


. ,
0 n : p sut hng
n t : th tch ring hng
(1)
/( 1)
2 2 2
1 1 1
n n n
p v T
p v T

| ` | `


. , . ,
0 n : p sut hng
n t : th tch ring hng
1 n : nhit hng
n k : entropy hng khi k bng hng
(1')
1 n
2
2
1 1
1
1
ln
v
pdv p v
v

2
2
1 1
1
1
ln
p
vdp p v
p

(2)
(3)
1 n
2
2
1
1
ln
v
pdv RT
v

2
2
1
1
ln
p
vdp RT
p

(2')
(3')
1 n
2
2 2 1 1
1
( 1) /
1 1 2
1
1
1
1
n n
p v p v
pdv
n
p v p
n p

]
| `
]

]
. ,
]

2
2 2 1 1
1
( 1) /
1 1 2
1
( )
1
1
1
n n
n
vdp p v p v
n
np v p
n p

]
| `
]

]
. ,
]

(4)
(5)
1 n
2
2 1
1
( 1) /
1 2
1
( )
1
1
1
n n
R T T
pdv
n
RT p
n p

]
| `
]

]
. ,
]

2
2 1
1
( 1) /
1 2
1
( )
1
1
1
n n
nR
vdp T T
n
nRT p
n p

]
| `
]

]
. ,
]

(4')
(5')
a
i vi cc qu trnh nhiu hng ca cc h thng kn y th tch thay i ch trong ch cng, phng trnh (2),
(4), v (2'), (4') c th ng dng vi phng trnh (12.23) tnh ton cng. Khi mi n v khi lng i qua mt th tch
iu khin mt ng vo, mt ng ra ti trng thi n nh s thc hin mt qu trnh nhiu hng, phng trnh (3), (5),
v (3'), (5') c th ng dng vi phng trnh (12.24a) v (12.24b) tnh ton cng sut. Cng nn ch rng, ni chung,
2 2
1 1
vdp n pdv

.
17
S tay C in t
Cc chu trnh Rankine v Brayton
Vi cc m hnh n gin nht v cc my cng sut turbine kh v cng sut hi thng c biu din ln lt theo bn
thnh phn dng chui, dng hnh thi, chu trnh Rankine v chu trnh Brayton c th hin di dng biu trong bng
12.6. Cc m hnh l tng nhit ng lc hc ca cc chu trnh ny c to thnh t 4 qu trnh thun nghch bn trong:
hai qu trnh ng entropy c k tip vi hai qu trnh c p sut khng i. Bng 12.6 cung cp cc biu thuc tnh ca
cc chu trnh tht v cc chu trnh l tng tng ng ca chng. Mi mt chu trnh tht c nh du l 1-2-3-4-1; chu
trnh l tng ca n l 1-2s-3-4s-1. n gin, khng th hin p sut thay i trn cc thit b un nhit, cc ni ngng,
v cc thit b trao i nhit. Lin quan ti phng trnh (12.26) i vi cc chu trnh l tng, nhit c thm vo mt n
v khi lng chy c th hin bi din tch di ng ng p t trng thi 2s ti trng thi 3: din tch a-2s-3-b-a. Nhit
i ra l din tch di ng ng p t trng thi 4s n trng thi 1: din tch a-1-4s-b-a.
Bng 12.6 Cc chu trnh Rankine v Brayton
Chu trnh Rankine Chu trnh Brayton
din tch khp kn 1-2s-3-4s-1 biu din nhit li c thm vo mi n v khi lng dng chy. i vi mt chu trnh
cng sut no , nhit li thm vo bng vi cng li thc hin.
Cc biu thc cho cc qu trnh truyn nng lng chnh tc c th hin trn cc biu trong bng 12.6 v c th
hin t cc phng trnh (1) n phng trnh (4) ca bng. C th t c chng bng vic n gin phng trnh (12.10a)
vi cc gi s b qua s hao tn nhit v b qua s thay i v ng nng v th nng t ng vo n ng ra ca tng
thnh phn. Tt c cc i lng u l dng theo cc hng mi tn trn hnh.
Hiu sut nhit ca mt chu trnh cng sut c nh ngha l t s ca cng (net work) c ch vi nng lng tng cng
c thm vo bi qu trnh truyn nhit. S dng cc biu thc (1)-(3) ca bng 12.6, hiu sut nhit s l
3 4 2 1
3 2
4 1
3 2
( ) ( )
1
h h h h
h h
h h
h h

(12.27)
t c hiu sut nhit ca mt chu trnh l tng, h2s, thay th h2 bng h4s, thay th h4 trong phng trnh (12.27).
Thng th cc nh gi v chu trnh theo cc iu kin vn hnh cho thy rng hiu sut nhit c xu th tng khi nhit
trung bnh ca nhit thm vo tng v/ hoc ca nhit i ra gim. Trong chu trnh Rankine, nhit thm vo c th t c
18
Nhit ng lc hc
mt nhit cao bng cch cp qu nhit u tin cho cht kh i vo turbin v/hoc vn hnh ti mt p sut hi pht cao.
Trong chu trnh Brayton vic tng t s p sut nn p2/p1 s lm tng nhit trung bnh ca nhit i vo. Do cc vt liu c
cc gii hn v nhit v p sut, trng thi ca cht lng lm vic ti ng vo ca turbin phi kim tra cc gii hn thc
t. Nhit ng vo ca turbine trong chu trnh, v d, c iu khin bng vic cung cp mt lng kh vt mc yu
cu cho bung t. Trong mt chu trnh Rankine c s dng nc lm cht lng lm vic, thng t c mt nhit thp
ca nhit i ra bng cch vn hnh thit b ngng ti mt p sut thp di 1 atm. gim s xi mn v bo mn do cht
lng ri trn cc cnh ca turbine hi chu trnh Rankine, c th bo qun t nht 90% lng hi ng ra ca turbine: x4 >
0,9.
T s cng tr li, bwr, l t s ca cng c yu cu bi bm hoc my nn vi cng pht sinh bi turbine:
2 1
3 4
h h
bwr
h h

(12.28)
V mt cht kh c th tch ring ln gin n trong mt turbine s dng chu trnh Rankine v mt cht lng c th tch
ring thp hn nhiu c bm, t s cng tr li ni v mt bn cht rt thp trong cc my cng sut hi-trong nhiu
trng hp n c t 1-2%. Tuy nhin, trong chu trnh Brayton, c turbine v my nn cha mt cht kh c th tch ring
cao, v t s cng tr li s ln hn nhiu, thng th 40% hoc hn.
nh hng ca ma st v cc qu trnh khng thun nghch khc i vi cc dng chy i qua turbine, cc my nn, v
bm thng c nh gi qua mt hiu sut ng entropy thch hp. Tham kho thm bng 12.6 v kha cnh ny, hiu sut
turbine ng entropy l
3 4
3 4
t
s
h h
h h

(12.29a)
Hiu sut ca my nn ng entropy l
2 1
2 1
s
c
h h
h h

(12.29b)
Vi hiu sut my bm ng entropy, m c cng mt dng nh phng trnh (12.29b), t s ca n thng c xp x
bng phng trnh (12.24c) l
2 1 1 s
h h v p
, y
p
l p sut truyn qua bm.
Cc my cng sut turbine kh n gin khc vi m hnh chu trnh Brayton nhiu kha cnh quan trng. Khi vn hnh
thc, thng cp vo thit b nn tha kh, y chng s c nn vi mt p sut cao hn, sau nhin liu s c cp
v qu trnh t chy xy ra; cui cng s t chy ca hn hp trn xy ra v cht kh gin n trong turbine, sau chng
c x ra mi trng bn ngoi. Do vy, b trao i nhit nhit thp c th hin bi mt ng thng m nt trn
biu chu trnh Brayton bng 12.6 khng phi l mt thnh phn trong thc t, tuy nhin n c dng ch tnh ton
chnh thc qu trnh lm mt trong mi trng xung quanh ca khi nng c x ra t turbine.
Mt l tng ho khc thng c ng dng ca cc my cng sut turbine kh l phn tch kh tiu chun. Mt phn
tch kh tiu chun lin quan ti hai gi s quan trng: (1) Qu trnh t chy s pht sinh ra nhit gy ra nh hng cho h
thng thay vo vic truyn nhit t mt ngun bn ngoi, nh c th hin bi biu chu trnh Brayton ca bng 12.6. (2)
Cht hot ng trong ton b chu trnh l cht kh, v l mt cht kh l tng. Trong phn tch kh tiu chun lnh, t s
nhit ring k cho kh c coi l hng. Phng trnh (1) n (6) ca bng 12.4 ni chung p dng phn tch kh tiu chun.
Phng trnh (1') ti (6') ca bng 12.4 p dng phn tch kh tiu chun lnh, t y c th c c biu thc sau tnh
ton cng sut ca turbine t bng 12.1 (Phng trnh (10c'')):
( 1) / 3
4 5
1 ( / )
1
k k
t
kRT
W m p p
k

]
]

&
&
(12.30)
C th vit mt biu thc cng sut tng t v dng cho mt my nn.
Cc chu trnh Otto, Diesel v chu trnh kp
Mc d hu ht cc turbine kh l cc ng c t trong, chng cng thng c tn l cc ng c t trong kh hi l
loi c s dng nhiu trong t, xe ti v xe khch. C hai nguyn l c bn ca cc ng c t trong kh hi l ng c
nh la bng tia la in v ng c nh la bng qu trnh nn. ng c nh la bng tia la in, mt hn hp ca
nhin liu v kh s c nh la bng mt cng tc la in. mt ng c nh la bng qu trnh nn, kh s c nn
ti mt p sut cao v nhit m qu trnh nn xy ra mt cch t pht khi nhin liu c dn vo.
mt ng c t trong bn k, piston ca n thc hin 4 k phn bit bn trong mt xi lanh cho hai vng quay ca tay
quay. Hnh 12.7 v mt biu p sut-dch chuyn. Vi van vo m, piston s thc hin mt k np ko kh np sch vo
trong xi lanh. Tip theo, lc ny c hai van u ng, piston s tri qua k nn v s gia tng nhit v p sut ca kh np.
Sau qu trnh chy s bt u, kt qu s to ra mt hn hp kh c p sut cao, nhit cao. Tip theo k nn l k n,
k ny hn hp kh gin n v sinh cng ln piston. Tip theo piston s thc hin mt k x m y s thi sch cc kh b
chy ra ngoi xi lanh qua van x m. Cc ng c nh hn vn hnh trong hai chu trnh. cc ng c hai k, cc qu trnh
vo, nn, gin n v thi c thc hin cho mt vng quay ca tay quay. Mc d cc ng c t trong thc hin cc chu
19
S tay C in t
trnh c hc, chng khng thc hin mt chu trnh nhit ng lc hc no c, v vt cht c to ra thnh mt hp cht v
sau li c chuyn sang thnh mt hp cht khc.
Mt tham s c s dng din t hot ng ca cc ng c t trong kh hi l p sut hiu dng trung bnh, hoc
mep.
Hnh 12.7 Biu p sut-dch chuyn cho mt ng c t trong kh hi
p sut hiu dng trung bnh l mt p sut hng s theo l thuyt m khi n tc dng ln piston trong thi gian k cng
sut, s to ra cng mt cng li ging nh trong mt chu trnh, tc l:
net work for onecycle
mep
displacement volume

(12.31)
y th tch di chuyn l th tch m piston s qut ra ngoi v n s di chuyn t tm im cht trn n tm im cht
di. i vi hai ng c c cng th tch dch chuyn nh nhau, ng c no c p sut hiu dng trung bnh cao hn s to
ra c nhiu cng li hn, v khi chy cng mt tc , n s c cng sut ln hn.
Cc nghin cu chi tit v s hot ng ca cc ng c t trong kh hi c th xem xt v nh gi c nhiu c
im, bao gm qu trnh t chy xy ra trong xi lanh v cc nh hng ca cc qu trnh khng thun nghch lin quan ti
ma st v gradient p sut v nhit . Nhit truyn gia cc cht kh trong xi lanh, thnh xi lanh v cng cn thit np v
x cc sn phm ca qu trnh chy cng c th c xem xt n. Do tn ti nhng vn phc tp ny, vic m hnh chnh
xc cc ng c t trong kh hi thng c m phng trn my tnh.
tin hnh phn tch nhit ng lc hc c s ca cc ng c t trong, cn c qu trnh n gin ho. Mt th tc m
cho php cc ng c c nghin cu mt cch nh tnh p dng cho vic phn tch kh tiu chun c cc thnh phn
sau y: (1) mt lng khng i cc kh c m hnh thnh mt kh l tng ca h thng; (2) qu trnh chy c thay
th bng mt qu trnh truyn nhit t mt ngun bn ngoi v c biu din bng cc qu trnh nhit ng lc hc c bn;
(3) S khng c cc qu trnh x v dn vo nh l trong mt ng c tht: chu trnh ny c hon thnh bng mt qu trnh
truyn nhit vi hng s th tch; (4) Tt c cc qu trnh u c tnh thun nghch bn trong.
Cc qu trnh c ng dng trong cc phn tch kh tiu chun ca cc ng c t trong c chn biu din cc s
kin xy ra bn trong ng c n gin v th hin ging vi cc c trng ca cc biu p sut-dch chuyn quan st
c. Thm vo qu trnh truyn nhit th tch hng c ni trc , k nn v t nht mt phn ca k cng sut
thng c coi l ng entropy. S thm nhit thng c xem xt khi xy ra trong mt th tch hng, ti mt p sut
hng, hoc ti mt th tch hng l kt qu sau ln lt qu trnh p sut hng, qu trnh do, cc chu trnh Otto, Diesel, v
kp c th hin trong bng 12.7.
Gim s cn bng nng lng ca h thng kn, phng trnh 12.7b, a ra cc biu thc tnh cng v kh nng nhit
trong mi trng hp nh trong bng 12.7:
34 12 41
1 2 3 4 1 4
, ,
W W Q
u u u u u u
m m m
(12.32)
Bng 12.7 cung cp thm cc biu thc cho cng, truyn nhit, v hiu sut nhit xc nh cho tng trng hp ring. Tt c
cc biu thc tnh cng v nhit gn vi cc thut ng du ring ca phng trnh (12.7). Phng trnh (1) n (6) ca bng
12.4 thng p dng cho phn tch kh tiu chun. Trong phn tch kh lnh tiu chun, t s nhit ring k cho cht kh
thng c coi l hng s. Phng trnh (1') n (6') ca bng 12.4 p dng cho phn tch kh lnh tiu chun, nh l
phng trnh (4') ca bng 12.5, vi n = k cho cc qu trnh ng entropy ca cc chu trnh ny.
20
Nhit ng lc hc
Tham kho bng 12.7, t s ca cc th tch ring v1/v2 l t s nn, r. i vi chu trnh Diesel, t s v3/v2 l t s gii hn, rc.
Hnh 12.8 th hin s thay i ca hiu sut nhit theo t s nn cho mt chu trnh Otto v cc chu trnh Diesel c t s gii
hn ca 2 v 3. Cc ng cong ny c xc nh trn mt c s v kh tiu chun lnh vi k = 4 c s dng biu thc sau:
1
1 1
1 ( )
( 1)
k
c
k
c
r
consta nt k
k r r

]

]

]
(12.33)
y chu trnh Otto tng ng vi rc = 1.
Bng 12.7 Cc chu trnh Otto, Diesel v Dual
(a) Chu trnh Otto (b) Chu trnh Diesel (c) Chu trnh Dual
Hnh 12.8 Hiu sut nhit ca cc chu trnh Otto v Diesel kh lnh tiu chun, k = 1,4
Vi tt c cc qu trnh thun nghch bn trong, cc din tch trn cc biu p-v v T-s ca bng 12.7 tng ng c th
c gii thch nh l cng v truyn nhit. Lin quan ti phng trnh (12.23) v tham kho cc biu p-v, cc din tch
di qu trnh 3-4 ca chu trnh Otto, qu trnh 2-3-4 ca chu trnh Diesel, v qu trnh x-3-4 ca chu trnh Dual biu din
cng thc hin bi cht kh trong giai on ca k cng sut, cho mt n v khi lng. i vi mi chu trnh, din tch
pha di qu trnh ng entropy 1-2 biu din cng thc hin trn cht kh trong giai on k nn, cho mt n v khi
lng. Din tch ng kn ca mi chu trnh biu din cng li thc hin cho mt n v khi lng. Cng vi phng trnh
(12.25) v tham kho cc biu T-s, cc din tch di qu trnh 2-3 ca cc chu trnh Otto v Diesel v di qu trnh 2-3
ca chu trnh Dual biu din nhit c thm vo mt n v khi lng. Din tch ng kn ca mi chu trnh biu din
nhit li c thm vo, n bng vi cng li thc hin, cho tng n v khi lng.
21
S tay C in t
Tham kho
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22

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