47

iu ha tn hiu
Stephen A. Dyer
Kansas State University

47.1Thao tc tuyn tnh....................................................2 47.2Thao tc phi tuyn.....................................................5

Nguyn tc u tin v thit b o lng ca Kelvin cho rng, v c bn, thit b o khng lm thay i vt c o. Vi nhng chc nng hin nay ca n, chng ta c th coi thit b o bao gm mt b chuyn i u vo, tip theo l phn iu ha tn hiu. Phn iu ha tn hiu ny s ln lt iu khin phn x l d liu v phn hin th (phn cn li ca thit b o). Chng ta ang s dng thut ng instrument (thit b o) theo ngha rng, tc l n c th thc s l mt h thng con o lng trong bt k loi h thng no. C nhng yu cu nht nh c t ra i vi b chuyn i nu n c dng m phng chn thc mt s kin: N phi th hin c tnh tuyn tnh bin , c tnh tuyn tnh pha, p tuyn tn s tng xng. Tuy nhin, nhim v ca b iu ha tn hiu l nhn cc tn hiu u ra t b chuyn i v t sinh ra mt dng tn hiu ph hp vi phn cn li ca thit b o. iu ha tn hiu tng t c th bao gm thao tc hon ton tuyn tnh, thao tc hon ton phi tuyn hoc s kt hp ca c hai. Thm vo , b iu ha tn hiu c th c dng cung cp cc chc nng ph tr nh to ra s cch in, cung cp mt dng tham chiu cho b chuyn i, hoc sinh ra mt tn hiu kch thch cho b chuyn i. Nhng v d quan trng v cc thao tc tuyn tnh bao gm lp thang o bin , bin i tr khng, lc tuyn tnh, v iu ch. Mt vi v d v thao tc phi tuyn bao gm vic t c gi tr bnh phng trung bnh (rms: root-mean-square), cn bc hai, gi tr tuyt i, hoc logarit ca tn hiu u vo. C mt lot cc khi xy dng sn c di dng b iu iu ch hoc mch tch hp (IC) thc hin qu trnh iu ha tn hiu tng t. Cc khi nh vy bao gm b khuch i x l, b khuch i o lng, b khuch i cch in v mt s lng ln cc mch x l phi tuyn nh b so snh, b nhn/b chia tng t, b khuch i loga/i loga, b bin i rms-thnh-DC, v b to hm lng gic. Bn cnh , cn c cc h thng con iu ha tn hiu hon chnh bao gm cc mun u vo v u ra plug-in khc nhau c kh nng lin kt thng qua cc mt thn my ph bin. Nhng mt thn my ny c th l chassis- hoc l rack-mounted.

S tay C in t

47.1 Thao tc tuyn tnh

Ba loi vn hnh thao tc tuyn tnh quan trng i vi iu ha tn hiu l lp thang o bin , bin i tr khng v lc tuyn tnh.

nh c bin
Bin ca u ra tn hiu t b chuyn i thng phi c nh c - khuch i hoc lm gim - trc khi x l tn hiu.

Khuch i
Nhn chung, khuch i c thc hin thng qua b khuch i x l, b khuch i o lng hoc b khuch i cch in.

B khuch i x l
Mt b khuch i x l thng thng (op amp) c mt u vo vi phn v mt u ra gii hn n. Mt op amp l tng thng c dng m hnh ho mt op amp thc t c h s khuch i v hn, di thng v hn, tr khng u vo vi phn v hn, tc xoay v hn v t l thi lc tn hiu cng pha v hn (CMRR - commom-mode rejection ratio). Ngoi ra, n cn c tr khng u ra bng khng, nhiu bng khng, dng in p lch bng khng, v in p dch chuyn u vo bng khng. D nhin, cc op amp thc khng th snh c vi cc op amp l tng. Cc thng s quan trng cn cn nhc khi la chn mt op amp bao gm: 1. H s khuch i in p mt chiu K0 2. Tch s di thng-h s khuch i tn hiu nh fT ( GBWP - Small-signal gainbrandwidth product). i vi hu ht cc cc op amp th fT K0 f1 , trong f1 l tn s ngt thp hn trong hm truyn ca op amp. GBWP c trng cho vng lp kn, p tuyn tn s cao ca mch op-amp. 3. Tc xoay, chi phi hnh vi tn hiu ln ca mt op amp. Tc xoay nm trong khong t t hn 1 V/s n vi nghn volts trn micro-giy. Cc thng s khc nh tr khng u vo v u ra, in p dch chuyn mt chiu, dng in lch, in p v dng in tri, cc c tnh nhiu, v.v, phi c cn nhc khi la chn mt op amp ng dng trong mt trng hp no . C mt vi loi b khuch i x l. Bn cnh op amp garden-variety cn c mt vi op amp c cc tnh nng c ti u ho dng trong mt vi ng dng. Mt s loi op amp bao gm: 1. Op amp c nhiu thp, rt hu ch trong mt s b phn ca b iu ha tn hiu nhm khuch i cc tn hiu rt thp. 2. Op amp ngt n nh, rt hu ch trong cc ng dng yu cu n nh mt chiu cao. 3. Op amp nhanh, rt hu ch khi cn tc xoay v GBWP ln. 4. Op amp cng sut, rt hu ch khi cn cung cp cc dng in ln hn mt vi mA cho ti ca op amp. 5. Op amp tnh in k c s dng khi cn in tr u vo rt ln (>1013 ) v dng in u vo lch rt nh (< 1 pA). Gii thiu v cc op amp v cu hnh mch in c bn thng xut hin trong cc l thuyt mch in hoc in t, v ngi c c th tm thy nhng pht trin mang tnh l thuyt kh chi tit v rt nhiu cu hnh v ng dng hu ch trong Roberge (1975), Graeme et al (1971), Graeme (1973, 1977), Horowitz and Hill (1989) v Stout and Kaufman (1976). 2

iu ho tn hiu B khuch i o lng

B khuch i o lng (IAs - Instrumentation Amplifiers) l cc khi h s khuch i c ti u ho sinh ra tr khng u vo cao, tr khng u ra thp, khuch i n nh, s thi lc tn hiu cng pha (CMR - common-mode rejection) kh cao, dch chuyn v tri kh thp. Chng rt ph hp trong vic khuch i u ra ca cc b chuyn i khc nhau nh bin dng k, trong vic khuych i cc tn hiu thp xut hin vi s c mt ca cc in p cao cng pha, v trong cc trng hp cn s cch in gia b chuyn i v phn cn li ca thit b o. Mc d cc b khuch i o lng c th c xy dng t nhng op amp truyn thng [Thng thng ngi ta hay nhc ti cu hnh 3 op-amp, v d: xem Stout and Kaufman (1976)], nhng chng sn c v gi c kh phi chng di dng IC. Mt s IA c h s khuch i kh trnh s, trong khi nhng IA khc li c lp trnh thng qua vic kt ni cc in tr bn trong vi IA thng qua cc cht bn ngoi. Cc IA c bn hn c cc h s khuch i c thit lp bng vic kt ni cc in tr bn ngoi.

B khuch i cch in
Cc b khuch i rt hu ch trong cc ng dng m mt in p hay dng in xut hin vi s c mt ca mt in p cao cng pha phi c o lng mt cch an ton, chnh xc v vi CMR cao. Chng cng rt hu ch khi an ton t cc dng in mt chiu v r r c tn s dng c m bo, v d nh trong thit b o y sinh hc. B khuch i cch in c th c coi nh s kt hp ca ba phn: tng ra, tng vo v mch cng sut. Tt c nhng b khuch i cch in u c cc tng vo cch in vi cc tng ra. Qu trnh trao i thng tin gia cc tng vo v ra c thc hin thng qua s iu bin/s gii iu bin. Mt b khuch i cch in cho php cch in hai cng nu mt DC c ni gia mch in v tng ra ca n. Nu mch in ca n c cch in vi tng ra cng nh vi tng vo ca n th b khuch i s cho php cch in ba cng. Tr khng cch in bc 1010 khng mang tnh in hnh. Cc b khuch i cch in c th tn ti di dng moun vi s cch in hai cng hoc ba cng. Hin nay c c moun n knh v a knh.

S suy gim
Mc d phn ln cc b chuyn i l nhng thit b cp thp nh cp nhit in, nhit in tr, b pht hin nhit in tr (RTDs resistance temparature detectors), bin dng k, v.v c cc u vo cn khuch i, nhng c rt nhiu tnh hung o lng trong tn hiu u vo phi c lm suy gim trc khi a chng vo phn cn li ca h thng.

nh c in p
V c bn, cc tn hiu c suy gim phi c dng in p. Ni rng ra l vic lm suy gim c thc hin thng qua b chia in p hoc b chuyn i in p.

B chia in p
Trong nhiu trng hp, mt b chia chui n gin c coi l thch hp. Hm truyn ca mt chui hai nhn t cc tr khng Z1 (s) v Z2 (s) l

V0 ( s ) Z1 ( s) = Vin ( s ) Z 1 ( s ) + Z 2 ( s )
Trong in p u ra V0 (s) l in p tng ng vi Z1(s) v in p u vo Vin l in p tng ng vi tng ca hai yu t. 3

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ng nhin, tr khng ca b ngun (b chuyn i) v ti (phn cn li ca h thng) phi c xem xt khi thit k h thng b chia.

B phn chia in tr
Nu cc phn t trong chui l in tr th b chia s hu ch t DC ln qua cc tn s tr khng ca cc in tr khng c cc thnh phn phn ng quan trng no. Nu Z1(s) = R1 v Z2 (s) = R2 th

V0 ( s ) R1 = Vin ( s) R1 + R2
Cc b chia in tr c th c cc cu hnh khc. V d nh b chia Kelvin-Varley, vi mt vi li th gip n tr nn hu ch trong nhng tnh hung yu cu chnh xc cao. Xem m t chi tit trong Gregory (1973).

B chia in dung
Nu cc phn t trong b chia dng chui l t in th b chia c hm truyn l:

V0 ( s ) C2 = Vin ( s ) C1 + C 2
Loi b chia in ny rt hu ch trong khong t tn s thp n mc tn s vi megahertz. Mt ng dng ph bin l trong vic nh c nhng in p ln.

B chia cm ng
Nu cc yu t trong b chia dng chui in p l cc cun cm th mt b t bin th s cho kt qu. Cc b chia cm ng rt hu ch trong khong tn s t mt vi hertz n mt vi trm kilohertz. C th t c nhng sai s trong khong vi phn mt t.

B chuyn i in p
B chuyn i in p to thnh nn mt trong nhng thit b ph bin nht thc hin vic nh c in p cc tn s ng dy. Cc cu hnh dy i tiu chun rt hu ch tr phi cc mc in p trn 200 kV c gim st. Cc loi cu hnh thay th nh bin p in p t in v bin p in p ghp tng s c s dng (Gregory, 1973) trong trng hp mc in p qu cao.

nh c dng in
Vic nh c in thng c thc hin thng qua mt b phn dng in hoc mt b chuyn i dng in. Mt b phn dng in v bn cht l mt in tr c bit n mt cch chnh xc thng qua mt dng in c o i qua. in p tng ln qua b phn dng do kt qu ca dng in l i lng c o. B phn dng rt hu ch dng in mt chiu v cc tn s i qua vng m thanh. Hai nhc im l (1) b phn dng tiu hao nng lng, v (2) mch in o lng phi c vn hnh cng mc in th nh b phn dng. B chuyn i dng in khc phc c nhng nhc im nu ca b phn dng in. Thng thng, b chuyn i dng in bao gm mt li hnh xuyn c xy dng mt cch c bit qua mt cun dy th cp (cm nhn) c qun li v cun dy s cp c i qua. Cun th cp n vng thng thng c s dng mc d c cc cun th cp a vng.

Cc b suy gim khc

Bn cnh cc thit b in p v vic nh c dng in nu l cc b gim chn tt dn. Ngoi vic lm gim in p hoc cng sut, chng cn cho php kh nng ghp tr khng vi cc 4

iu ho tn hiu
mch ngun hoc mch ti. Cc b gim chn thng thng bao gm T, L, v dng , c th cn bng hoc khng cn bng. Cc b gim chn tt dn c in tr c trnh by trong hu ht cc cun sch gio khoa v thit k mch in (v d Cuthbert, 1983). Chng rt hu ch t DC thng qua vi trm megahertz.

S bin i tr khng
Thng thng tr khng ca b chuyn i phi c bin i sang mt gi tr thch ng hn vi phn cn li ca h thng o lng. Trong nhiu trng hp, cng sut ti a phi c chuyn i t tn hiu u ra ca b chuyn i n mch in cn li. Trong cc trng hp khc, ch cn cung cp vng m c tr khng cao i vi b chuyn i v tr khng thp i vi phn cn li ca h thng v mt h s khuch i in p n nht l . Cc my chuyn i ph hp, cc h thng ph hp th ng nh cc b gim chn tt dn v b m h s khuch i duy nht l nhng thit b tiu chun thc hin qu trnh bin i tr khng. Cc b b m h s khuch i duy nht c sn di dng IC.

Lc tuyn tnh
Mc d, nhn chung, qu trnh x l tn hiu s c rt nhiu u im so vi k thut tng t trong vic lc cc tn hiu s, nhng c nhiu ng dng kh n gin rt thch hp vi vic lc tng t tn s chn. Cc b lc c s dng trong nhng b iu ha tn hiu (1) nhm lm gim cc hiu ng nhiu gy nh hng n tn hiu u vo, (2) nh mt b phn ca b gii iu bin, (3) nhm hn ch di thng tn hiu hoc (4) hn ch di thng tn hiu nhm ngn chn aliasing nu tn hiu c ly mu. Nhng b lc ny c th c xy dng hon ton da trn cc b phn th ng hoc cc thit b ch ng nh op amps. C nhiu ti liu tham kho hay trnh by cc phng php m t, nh r v vn hnh cc b lc tng t tn s chn. Xem Van Valkenburg (1960) bit thit k ca cc b lc th ng, xem Sedra v Brackett (1978) v Stephenson (1985) bit thit k ca cc b lc RC ch ng.

47.2 Thao tc phi tuyn

C nhiu cch thao tc phi tuyn rt hu ch i vi cc nhim v iu ha tn hiu. Di y l mt vi khi phi tuyn in hnh cng vi nhng m t tm tt. Hu ht cc khi u sn c nh cc IC. 1. B so snh. B so snh l mt thit b hai u vo c in p u ra, Vo, nhn hai gi tr n nh, Vo 0 v Vo1 , nh sau:

u 2 1 V ,n V < V V = o0 o V 1,ng c li o
Trong V1 v V2 l nhng in p hai u vo. 2. Trig Schmitt. Mt trig Schmitt l mt b so snh c hin tng tr. N c th c xy dng t mt b so snh bng cch p dng s hi tip dng. 3. B nhn. Mt b nhn hai u vo cung cp mt in p u ra t l vi tch ca cc in p u vo ca n. 4. B chia. Mt b chia hai u vo ging nh u ra ca n c mt in p t l vi t s cc in p u vo ca n. Cc chc nng nhn hoc chia thng thng c kt hp trong cng mt thit b. 5

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5. B bnh phng. Mt b bnh phng ging nh u ra ca n c mt in p t l vi bnh phng u vo ca n. Cc b bnh phng c th c xy dng da trn mt lot cc phng tin: cc b nhn, da trn cc mng it - in tr, da trn FETs , v.v 6. B cn bc hai. Mt b cn bc hai ging nh cc u vo ca n c mt in p t l vi cn bc hai u vo ca n. Mt b cn bc hai c th c xy dng kh d dng t mt b chia hoc t mt b khuch i lga/i lga. 7. B khuychkhuch i lga/i lga. Mt b khuch i lga/i lga sinh ra mt in p u ra t l vi lga hoc i lga in p u vo ca n. 8. B bin i RMS-thnh-DC thc s. Mt b bin i RMS-thnh-DC thc s tnh cn bc hai trung bnh ca bnh phng tc th tn hiu u vo trong mt khong thi gian no . Php ton trung bnh thng c thc hin thng qua mt b lc thng thp n gin c t in c la chn to ra nhng khong ngt mong mun. 9. B to hm lng gic. Cc b to hm sn c di dng IC, cng ging nh cc u ra ca chng s sinh ra cc hm lng gic chun hoc nghch o ca chng, c coi nh cc hm ca in p sai lch ti cc u vo ca b pht. 10. Cc b lc ly mu-v-gi v bm-v-gi. Mt b lc ly mu-v-gi (SHA) l mt thit b ly mu tn hiu u ra v lu cc gi tr tc th mi khi tn hiu iu khin logic yu cu. Mt b lc bm-v-gi cng ging nh mt SHA nhng n c dng trong cc ng dng m hu ht thi gian c dnh cho vic theo di cc tn hiu u vo (i.e., trong ch ly mu hoc bm). iu ny hon ton i lp vi SHA, khi hu ht thi gian c s dng ch gi. 11. Mch da trn it chnh xc. Cc mch in nh b chnh lu na sng, mch in gi tr tuyt i, b pht hin nh chnh xc, v b hn ch chnh xc kh d dng trong vic thit k v thc thi da trn cc it v op amps. Xem Horowitz v Hill (1989), Stout v Kaufman (1976) v Graeme (1977). M t chi tit v nhng thit b ny v cc khi mch in phi tuyn khc c th c tm thy trong Sheingold (1976).

V d
Chng ti cung cp mt v d ngn gn v mt thit b c mt vi mch in iu ha tn hiu c gn bn trong. Hnh 47.1 ch ra biu khi c bn v mt thit b siu thanh, c ng dng rng ri trong y hc.

HNH 47.1 S khi c bn v thit siu thanh dng trong y hc c ly lm v d minh ho 6

iu ho tn hiu

HNH 47.2 S khi n gin v mun tn s rai dng trong thit b siu thanh m t hnh 47.1 Thit b c th ang c tho lun bao gm 5 h thng con ch yu: 1. Mt u d ng dng v mt b chuyn i siu thanh truyn nng lng siu m n t bo ang c cha tr. Cn lu rng b chuyn i ny khng phi l mt b chuyn i u vo nh b chuyn i c ni ti lin quan n b iu ha tn hiu. 2. Mt mun tn s rai (Radio-frequency RF) s cung cp s kch thch in n b chuyn i siu thanh. 3. B hin th iu khin mt trc v cc b chuyn mch cho php lin lc gia thit b v ngi iu khin. 4. Mt mun s da trn b vi x l ng vai tr iu khin ton b thit b siu thanh. 5. Ngun cung cp nng lng/b ngun c quy cung cp nng lng hot ng cho thit b. By gi chng ta tp trung vo mun RF vi biu khi c bn c thy trong hnh 47.2. Mun bao gm mt b to sng hnh sin sinh ra mt tn hiu tn s cng hng ca b chuyn i, mt b iu bin cho php tn hiu c iu xung, v mt b khuch i vi phn hi RFin p. Gn bn trong b khuch i l mt thit b khuch i cng sut c kh nng vn hnh b chuyn i v mch in iu khin h s khuch i t ng (AGC Automatic-gain-control) nhm iu chnh cng sut u vo sao cho ph hp vi thit b c ngi vn hnh la chn. AGC s dng mt vng iu khin phn hi chun duy tr mt ng bao in p khng i trn u ra tn hiu RF t b khuch i cng sut. Mt s b iu ha tn hiu c p dng trong mun RF bao gm: 1. B lc in p RF u vo ca b khuch i cng sut. B lc p dng mt b chnh lu na sng, sau l mt b chia in dung dng chui n gin o in p. 2. Mt b pht hin nh chnh xc t c tr s nh ca u vo t b chia in p trong chu trnh iu bin v biu th gi tr ti vng phn hi. 3. Mt b khuch i c h s khuch i chn lc s gip khuch i u vo ca b d sng nh. 4. B khuch i ly mu-v-gi, c dng lu u vo c khuch i t b d sng nh trong thi gian chy khng ca b iu bin. 5. Mt b ly tch phn (mt v d v vic lc tn s chn), lm tng in p iu khin cho vng AGC t u vo ca b vi phn. 7

S tay C in t
6. Mt b phn dng in, khng c biu din trong hnh 47.2, c dng gim st dng in DC cung cp cho b khuch i cng sut. Nh thy trong v d n gin ny, mt s hm iu ha tn hiu c th c p dng trong cng mt h thng n gin, v chnh h thng ny thm ch khng phi l mt thit b!

nh ngha cc thut ng
S thi lc tn hiu cng pha (Common-mode rejection CMR): CMRR c biu th di MR dng xiben. CMR = 20 log C R . CMR l mt hm phi tuyn ca in p cng pha v ph thuc vo cc nhn t khc nh nhit . T l thi lc tn hiu cng pha (Common-mode rejection ratio CMRR): T l gia h s khuch i vi phn vi h s khuch i cng pha ca b khuch i. Tch s di thng-h s khuch i (Gain-bandwith product-GBWP): Tch s gia h s khuch i ln nht ca b khuch i v di thng tng ng ca n. Tc xoay: Tc thay i thi gian ti a c th t c ca in p u ra thuc mt b khuch i tng ng vi mt thay i tc ln trong in p u vo.

Ti liu tham kho

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] Cuthbert, T. R. 1983. Circuit Design Using Personal Computers. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Graeme, J. G. 1973. Applications of Operational Amplifiers. McGraw-Hill, New York. Graeme, J. G. 1977. Designing with Operational Amplifiers. McGraw-Hill, New York. Graeme, J. G., Tobey, G. E., and Huelsman, L. P. (Ed.) 1971. Operational Amplifiers. McGraw-Hill, New York. Gregory, B. A. 1973. An Introduction to Electrical Instrumentation. Macmillan, London. Horowitz, P. and Hill, W. 1989. The Art of Electronics, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, New York. Roberge, J. K. 1975. Operational Amplifiers. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Sedra, A. S. and Brackett, P. O. 1978. Filter Theory and Design: Active and Passive. Matrix, Beaverton, OR. Sheingold, D. H. (Ed.) 1976. Nonlinear Circuits Handbook. Analog Devices, Norwood, MA. Stephenson, F. W. 1985. RC Active Filter Design Handbook. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Stout, D. F. and Kaufman, M. (Ed.) 1976. Handbook of Operational Amplifier Circuit Design. McGrawHill, New York. Van Valkenburg, M. E. 1960. Introduction to Modern Network Synthesis. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Thng tin b sung

IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement. Published bimonthly by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and SystemsII: Analog and Digital Signal Processing. Published monthly by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. 8

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The Best of Analog Dialogue, 19671991. 1991. Analog Devices, Norwood, MA. A collection of practical articles covering circuits, systems, and software for signal processing. Analog Devices Special Linear Reference Manual and Analog Devices Amplifier Reference Manual. Presents an extensive selection of ICs, modules, and subsystems for signal conditioning. Palls-Areny, R. and Webster, J. G. 1991. Sensors and Signal Conditioning. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Provides an excellent introduction to sensors and signal-conditioning circuits required by them. Sheingold, D. H. (Ed.) 1980. Transducer Interfacing Handbook. Analog Devices, Norwood, MA. Covers signalconditioning techniques applicable to temperature, pressure, force, level, and flow transducers.