TRNG AI HOC A LAT

CU TRC MY TNH

GIAO TRNH

NGUYEN HU LC

2000

Can Truc May Tnh

-2-

MUC LUC Chng 1: GII THIEU CHUNG..................................................................................... 5 I. NGON NG VA MAY AO, MAY TNH NHIEU CAP: ......................................... 5 II. PHAN CNG VA PHAN MEM: ............................................................................. 7 III. LCH S PHAT TRIEN MAY TNH: .................................................................... 8 1. The he khong: ........................................................................................................ 8 2. The he th nhat: ..................................................................................................... 9 3. The he th hai: ..................................................................................................... 10 4. The he th ba: ...................................................................................................... 10 5. The he th t: ....................................................................................................... 11 Chng 2: CAU TRUC CHUNG MAY TNH............................................................... 15 I. CAC BO X LY....................................................................................................... 15 1. Thc hien lenh ..................................................................................................... 16 2. To chc CPU ........................................................................................................ 17 3. Thc hien lenh song song: ................................................................................... 18 II- BO NH CHNH: ................................................................................................... 22 1. Bit.......................................................................................................................... 22 2. a ch bo nh: ..................................................................................................... 23 3. Trat t cua byte: ................................................................................................... 24 4. Ma sa loi:............................................................................................................ 25 5. Bo nh chnh trong cac IBM PC ......................................................................... 26 III- CAC THIET B LU TR (BO NH PHU): ...................................................... 28 1. Bang t: ................................................................................................................ 28 2. a t .................................................................................................................... 29 3. a mem ............................................................................................................... 32 4. a quang.............................................................................................................. 33 IV - CAC THIET B VAO / RA .................................................................................. 35 1. Ban phm: ............................................................................................................. 38 2. Man hnh:.............................................................................................................. 38 3. Modem:................................................................................................................. 41 4. Chuot: ................................................................................................................... 45 5. May in :................................................................................................................. 48 6. Ngo ra noi tiep chuan RS232C ....................................................................... 54 Chng 3: LP VAT LY ................................................................................................. 57 I. CAC CHIP VI X LY VA CAC BUS..................................................................... 57 1. Cac chip vi x ly: ................................................................................................. 57 2. Cac bus cua may tnh ........................................................................................... 60 3. Bus ong bo......................................................................................................... 62 4. Bus khong ong bo............................................................................................... 65 5. Phan x bus .......................................................................................................... 67 II. TH DU VE CHIP VI X LY VA BUS ................................................................. 71

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-3-

1. Chip vi x ly 8088 cua ho Intel ........................................................................... 71 2. Th du ve bus ........................................................................................................ 74 III. Bo nh .................................................................................................................... 76 1. Phan loai bo nh ban dan .................................................................................... 77 2. To chc bo nh:.................................................................................................... 77 3. Mot so khai niem ve bo nh khac:...................................................................... 79 IV. Giao tiep ................................................................................................................. 81 1. Cac chip I/O......................................................................................................... 81 2. Giai ma a ch. ................................................................................................... 82 Chng 4 LP VI CHNG TRNH ............................................................................ 85 I. NHAC LAI LP VAT LY: ...................................................................................... 86 1. Cac thanh ghi:....................................................................................................... 86 2. Bus noi:................................................................................................................. 86 II. MOT V DU VE VI CHNG TRNH: ................................................................ 88 Chng 4: LP VI CHNG TRNH ........................................................................... 90 I. NHAC LAI LP VAT LY: ...................................................................................... 91 1. Cac thanh ghi:....................................................................................................... 91 2. Bus noi:................................................................................................................. 91 II. MOT V DU VE VI CHNG TRNH: ................................................................ 93 Chng 5: LP MAY QUY C .................................................................................. 95 I. CAC TH DU VE LP MAY QUI C: ............................................................... 95 II. CAC KHUON DANG LENH ............................................................................... 101 III. KIEU NH V A CH : .................................................................................. 102 1. nh a ch tc thi:.......................................................................................... 103 2. nh a ch trc tiep.......................................................................................... 103 3. nh a ch thanh ghi ........................................................................................ 104 4. nh a ch gian tiep ......................................................................................... 105 5. nh ch so.......................................................................................................... 106 6. nh a ch ngan xep ........................................................................................ 107 III. LUONG IEU KHIEN ........................................................................................ 108 1. Luong ieu khien tuan t va cac lenh nhay. .................................................... 108 2. Thu tuc ................................................................................................................ 109 3. ong thu tuc. ...................................................................................................... 109 4. Bay ...................................................................................................................... 110 5. Ngat .................................................................................................................... 110 Chng 6: LP MAY HE IEU HANH ..................................................................... 112 I. BO NH AO ........................................................................................................... 113 II. CAC LENH VAO/RA AO .................................................................................... 117 1. Cac tap tin tuan t .............................................................................................. 117 2. Cac tap tin truy xuat ngau nhien ....................................................................... 119 3. Hien thc cac lenh vao/ra ao............................................................................. 120

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-4-

4. Cac lenh quan ly th muc .................................................................................. 124 III. CAC LENH AO DUNG TRONG X LY SONG SONG .................................. 125

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-5-

CHNG 1: GII THIEU CHUNG

May tnh so la thiet b co kha nang giai cac bai toan bang cach thc hien mot so lenh hu han. Chng trnh may tnh gom mot day lenh sap xep theo mot trnh t nhat nh e thc hien mot viec cho trc. Nhng linh kien ien t trong moi may tnh ch co the nhan biet va thc hien trc tiep mot so lenh hu han va mot chng trnh may tnh ch co the thc hien tren may tnh o neu s dung chnh so lenh hu han o. Tap lenh ma may tnh thc hien trc tiep tao ra mot ngon ng cho phep ngi s dung trao oi c vi may tnh. o la ngon ng may. Khi che tao ra mot may tnh mi, ngi ta tao ra cac lenh, hnh thanh ngon ng may. Thong thng ngi ta co khuynh hng chon cac lenh nay cang n gian cang tot e han che mc o phc tap (va d nhien la gia thanh ) cua cac linh kien ien t can thiet. Kho khan la cac ngon ng may nay con qua nguyen s nen rat kho s dung.

I. NGON NG VA MAY AO, MAY TNH NHIEU CAP:

Co 2 cach e giai quyet van e nay. Thc te la ca hai cach nay eu nham a vao mot tap lenh mi de s dung hn ngon ng may. Tap lenh mi nay tao thanh mot ngon ng mi (ngon ng L2) la tap cac lenh khac lenh may (ngon ng L1. ) Cach th nhat e thc hien chng trnh viet bang L2 la dch lenh cua chng trnh thanh day cac lenh tng ng L1. May tnh se thc hien chng trnh mi bang L1 thay v L2. Ky thuat nay goi la bien dch (compile). Cach th 2 la tng lenh cua chng trnh viet bang L2 se c thc hien tng ng vi mot day cac lenh L1. Ky thuat nay khong can tao ra toan bo mot chng trnh L1 nen goi la phien dch (interpret). Hai khai niem bien dch va phien dch mi au co ve hi giong nhau. Nhn chung, lenh trong L2 se c chuyen thanh mot day lenh trong L1 e thc hien. Song phai thay rang trong trng hp bien dch tat ca chng trnh L2 se phai dch sang L1 sau o chng trnh L1 thc hien. Con vi phien dch th moi lenh trong chng trnh L2 c phan tch roi thc hien ngay va nh vay dng nh khong ton tai chng trnh dch. Ca hai cach eu c s dung rong rai. Vi ngon ng L2 co the hnh dung en mot may tnh goi la may ao. e bien dch va phien dch c n gian, cac ngon ng L1 va L2 khong nen qua khac nhau. Ngha la L2, thng hay hn L1, van khong phai la mot ngon ng lap trnh

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-6-

ly tng. ieu nay co ve nh trai ngc vi y tng ban au khi tao ra ngon ng L2: tao mot ngon ng n gian va de s dung cho con ngi hn L1 la ngon ng cua may. Nh vay ngi ta lai nh ngha mot tap lenh mi gan gu vi ngi s dung hn va t phu thuoc hn vao may tnh nh L2. Nhng lenh mi nay tao ra mot ngon ng L3 nh vay co the viet cac chng trnh cho may tnh ao dung ngon ng L3. Nhng chng trnh nay chac chan se c dch ra L2. Ngi ta co the tao ra mot chuoi cac ngon ng, loai sau de s dung hn so vi loai trc. Moi ngon ng mi da vao ngon ng a co trc o, do vay ngi ta xem may tnh nh mot chong cac lp (cap) nh trnh bay trong hnh 1.1. Ngon ng lp di n gian, cang len lp tren ngon ng cang phc tap. a so cac may tnh hien nay co t nhat 2 cap. Thng chung ta thay cac may tnh co 6 cap. Cap 0: Lp vat ly. o la phan cng gom cac ca logic, cac cong (cang) v.v Chung ta se i sau vao cap 0 trong giao trnh nay.

Cap n

May ao Mn, Ngon ng Ln

Cap 3

May ao M3, Ngon ng L3

Cap 2

May ao M2, Ngon ng L2

Cap 1

May thc M1, Ngon ng may L1

Hnh 1.1: Kien truc may tnh nhieu cap Cap 1: Lp vi chng trnh. Khac vi cap 0, trong cap nay ta thay co chng trnh goi la vi chng trnh dung e phien dch nhng lenh cap 2.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-7-

Cap 2: Lp may qui c. Thng lp nay tat ca cac may tnh eu co nhng iem giong nhau du chung c tao bi nhng nha san xuat khac nhau. Cac nha san xuat eu cung cap kem theo may "So tay ngon ng may" trong o co tap lenh rieng cua tng may. Cap 3: Lp he ieu hanh. Co the xem ay la mot lp lai (hybrid). Ngoai mot so cac lenh a biet (co trong cap 2 ) trong lp nay con xuat hien nhieu lenh ac biet nh to chc quan ly bo nh, kha nang thc hien nhieu lenh song song v.v Cap 4: Lp hp ng. Dung nhng t gi nh e lap trnh do vay thuan tien hn. Cap 5: Lp ng dung: Dung ngon ng cap cao e lap trnh. Ngi ta co the co cap 6 hoac cap cao hn cho nhng ng dung cu the c xem la cong cu cho cac lnh vc chuyen nganh. Co the thay ton tai mot khoang cach rat ln gia cap 3 va cap 4. Nhng nha lap trnh he thong thng chu y en cac cap thap (t cap 3 tr xuong), trong khi ay vi nhng nha lap trnh ng dung lai quan tam en nhng cap cao hn (t cap 4 len). Ngon ng s dung cap 1,2,3 la ngon ng so trong khi ay t cap 4 ngi ta s dung nhng t, nhng ch viet tat de hieu hn vi con ngi. Hn the phng phap e ho tr cac cap tren la khac nhau: Cap 2 va 3 thng c phien dch, con cap 4 va 5 thng la bien dch (ieu nay khong phai luon ung).

II. PHAN CNG VA PHAN MEM:

Nhng chng trnh viet bang ngon ng may eu co the thc hien trc tiep bang cac mach ien t ma khong can phai bien dch hay phien dch. Cac mach ien t nay ket hp vi cac phan t c kh, cac day noi goi chung la phan cng. Nh vay phan cng la nhng g co the s thay c nh cac mach tch hp, cac bang mach, day noi, nguon nuoi, bo nh, may in, thiet b au cuoi v.v khac vi nhng g khong s thay c nh cac y tng tru tng, cac thuat toan hoac cac lenh. Nh vay phan mem gom cac thuat toan va cach the hien chung bang lenh: cac chng trnh. Nhng chng trnh nay c cat gi tren nhng thiet b lu tr nh a t, a quang. Co lap luan cho rang phan cng va phan mem tng ng vi nhau ve mat logic (hardware and software are logically equivalent). Bat ky mot phep toan nao o giai c bang phan mem eu co the thc hien trc tiep bang phan cng va bat ky mot lenh nao o thi hanh bang phan cng eu co the mo phong bang phan mem. Ranh gii gi phan cng va phan mem thng xuyen thay oi. Co nhng cai hom nay thc hien bang phan mem, ngay mai lai thc hien bang phan cng va ngc lai. Hn the na ngay cang thay rang ranh gii gi cac lp may tnh ngay cang khong ro rang. Song

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-8-

viec phan nh cac lp giup cho ngi lam viec vi may tnh tai 1 lp n nao o se khong can biet nhieu en chi tiet cac lp di. Nh vay viec ng dung may tnh ngay cang de dang mac dau chung ngay cang phc tap.

III. LCH S PHAT TRIEN MAY TNH:

1. The he khong:
Nhng may tnh c va ien t (1642-1945) Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) la ngi co cong chnh trong viec tao ra may lam toan au tien, chnh v ly do nay ma ve sau Niklaus Wirth a lay ten Pascal at cho ngon ng lap trnh ma ong a sang tao nen. Nam 1642 luc ay Pascal mi 19 tuoi a tao ra mot may hoan toan bang c kh ieu khien bang tay va thc hien c phep cong va phep tr . 30 nam sau, Baron Gottfried von Leibniz (1646-1716) them vao phep nhan va phep chia va o chnh la tien than cua may tnh bo tui (calculator) ngay nay cua chung ta. Mai en 150 nam sau o Charles Babbage (1792-1871), giao s toan tai ai hoc Cambridge, a thiet ke va xay dng c may sai phan (difference engine). May ch tnh toan vi mot thuat toan n, phng phap sai phan hu han s dung cac a thc . May nay hoat ong tot tuy vay Babagge mong thc hien c vi nhieu thuat toan khac hn va ong a e nhieu thi gian nghien cu tao ra 1 may tnh mi, may phan tch (analytical engine). May nay gom bon bo phan: Quay ban hang (Bo nh); coi xay (Bo tnh toan), ngo vao (Bo oc ba uc lo) va ngo ra (bo xuyen ba hay may in). Coi xay nhan cac toan hang t quay ban hang sau o thc hien cong, tr, nhan, chia va chuyen ket qua ve quay ban hang. Tat ca eu thc hien bang c kh. Cai mi trong may nay la no oc cac lenh t ba uc lo va x ly chung. May nay c lap trnh nh 1 ngon ng n gian goi la hp ng. Ada Augusta Lovelace, con gai cua mot nha th Anh ten Lord Byron va cung la ngi tr ly cua Babagge la ngi au tien viet chng trnh cho may tnh. V vay sau nay Bo quoc phong Hoa ky a lay ten Ada e at cho mot ngon ng lap trnh do nhom Bull tao ra. Tuy nhien Babbage khong the tao ra cai may hoan toan nh y v cong nghe the ky th XIX a khong ap ng c. Tuy vay nhng y tng cua Babagge a at nen mong cho may tnh ien t ngay nay, cung chnh v vay nen co the xem Babbage la Ong to cua nganh may tnh hien nay. Trong nhng nam 1930 mot ky s c ten Konrad Zuse a tao ra mot so may tnh lam bang r le ien t du cha biet en cong trnh cua Babagge. Rat tiec la tat ca cac may nay eu a b pha huy trong nhng t nem bom xuong Berlin nam 1944. Song van co the xem ong la mot trong nhng ngi tien phong che tao ra may tnh. Tai Hoa ky, John Atanassoff thuoc Iowa State College va George Stibbitz thuoc Bell Labs a che tao ra cac may tnh. Neu nh may cua Atanassoff khong chay c nh mong muon th may cua Stibbitz vi yeu cau thap hn a hoat ong tot va c gii thieu nam 1940 tai Dartmouth College. Mot trong nhng phu ta cua Stibbitz, John Mauchley la giao s vat ly tai ai hoc Pennsylvania ma chung ta se e cap sau. Cung

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-9-

luc ay Howard Aiken e thc hien luan an tai Havard a phai lam mot khoi lng ln cac bai toan bang tay. Chnh v vay ong mong muon thc hien cac bai toan mot cach t ong, sau o nh cac cong trnh cua Babagge ma ong tm thay trong th vien, ong quyet nh tao mot may bang r le ma trc o Babagge a khong the thc hien c bang cac banh xe rang ca. May tnh au tien cua Aiken la may Mark I, c hoan tat nam 1944 Harvard gom 72 t, moi t 23 so thap phan va co chu ky lenh la 6 sec. Viec xuat nhap dung cac bang giay uc lo. Sau o Aiken hoan tat may Mark 2 va cac may tnh r le tr nen loi thi. Ky nguyen ien t a bat au.

2. The he th nhat:
Nhng may tnh en ien t (1945-1955) Cac may tnh ien t c phat trien nhanh trong the chien th 2 phuc vu cac muc ch quan s. Tuy vay cac cong trnh nay eu nam trong cac d an b mat quan s. Ch biet rang tai c co nhnng may tnh cua Zuse, tai Anh co COLOSSUS ma mot trong nhng ngi tham gia thiet ke la nha toan hoc noi tieng ngi Anh ten Alan Turing. Tai Hoa ky, John Mauchley e ngh quan oi tai tr cho viec xay dng may tnh ien t. e ngh c chap thuan vao nam 1943, Mauchley va sinh vien J. Presper Eckert, tien hanh xay dng mot may tnh ien t goi la ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer). May nay gom 18.000 en ien t va 1500 r le, nang 30 tan va tieu thu 140KW. Sau nay ngi ta thng xem ENIAC la may tnh ien t au tien cua nhan loai. Sau chien tranh, Mauchley va Eiker to chc mot khoa hoc he e mo ta cac cong viec cua ho cho nhng ban ong nghiep. Khoa hoc la s khi au cho s phat trien o at trong viec thiet ke cac may tnh so ln. Maurice Wilkes thiet ke EDSAC tai ai hoc Cambridge. Cac may khac nh JOHNIAC Rand Corporation, ILLIAC ai hoc Illinois, MANIAC Los Alamos Laboratory, WEIZAC Vien Weizmann nc Israel v.v Eckert va Mauchley lam ra may ke tiep EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) , d an nay b ton hai sau khi ho ri khoi Penn e thanh lap cong ty may tnh Philadelphia sau nay la cong ty Unisys. Trong luc ay, mot trong nhng ngi tham gia trong d an ENIAC trc ay la nha toan hoc noi tieng John von Neumann en Princeton va thiet ke ra may IAS. Ong a a ra thiet ke c ban goi la may von Neumann. May tnh co kha nang lu tr chng trnh au tien , va en nay van la c s cho hau het cac may tnh so. Vao cung thi gian von Neumann xay dng may IAS, cac nha nghien cu M.I.T. cung xay dng mot may tnh, Whirlwind 1. D an nay dan en pha minh ra bo nh loi cua Jay Forrester va dan en tao ra cac may tnh mini thng mai au tien. Vi cong viec ban au la san xuat ra cac may uc lo cho cac ba va cac may xep ba bang c kh, nam 1953 IBM san xuat ra may tnh 701, sau o may 704 ra i va

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-10-

nam 1958 IBM san xuat ra may 709 va tr thanh mot trong nhng cong ty may tnh hang au the gii.

3. The he th hai:
Nhng may tnh transistor (1955-1965) Transistor c phat minh Bell Labs nam 1948 bi John Bardeen, Walter Brattain va William Shockley (Giai thng Nobel Vat ly 1956). Trong 10 nam, transistor a cach mang hoa may tnh va vao cuoi thap nien 50 cac may tnh en ien t b loai bo. May tnh transistor au tien c xay dng Lincoln Laboratory cua M.I.T. goi la TX-0 (Transistorized eXperimental computer 0). Mot trong cac ky s lam tai ay, Kenneth Olsen, thanh lap cong ty DEC nam 1957 e san xuat may tnh thng mai. Nam 1961 may PDP-1 xuat hien vi gia thanh nhieu so vi cac may tnh trc o. Mot trong nhng oi mi cua PDP-1 la bo hien th va kha nang ve nhieu iem tren man hnh 512x512. Cong nghiep may tnh mini c khai sinh . Vai nam sau o DEC gii thieu PDP-8, may 12 bit nhng gia thanh re hn PDP-1 gan 10 lan. PDP-8 co mot oi mi chnh, o la bus n goi la omnibus. Mot bus la mot tap cac day noi song song dung e lien ket cac thanh phan khac nhau trong 1 may tnh. Cau truc nay c chap nhan va thc hien hau het cac may tnh nho. Vi cong ty IBM, ho xay dng mot phien ban cua 709 bang transistor, may 7090 va sau o 7094. Vao thi iem nay IBM a tr thanh mot cong ty thiet ke may tnh chnh nh ban cac may hng kinh doanh nho vi may 1401. May nay co the oc va ghi bang t, oc va uc lo cac ba, in ket qua nhanh hn 7094. Nam 1964, mot cong ty khi au mi, CDC gii thieu may 6600, mot may co toc o nhanh hn may 7094 v ben trong CPU co mot c che song song that s. Co nhieu nay tnh khac xuat hien trong thi ky nay tuy vay ch co mot may noi bat vi mot ly do kha khac biea ang e cap, may Bourroughts B5000. Cac nha thiet ke co chien thuat khac so vi cac oi thu canh tranh la ho at biet xay dng mot may vi y nh lap trnh bang ngon ng Algol 60, mot ngon ng co trc PASCAL, va bao gom nhieu ac trng trong phan cng tao de dang cho cong viec cua trnh bien dch.

4. The he th ba:
Nhng may tnh IC (1965-1980) Mach tch hp IC (integrated circuit) hay con goi vi mach tch hp c phat minh cho phep vai chuc transistor c at trong mot chip n. Vao nam 1964, IBM , mot cong ty may tnh hang au gii thieu mot san pham, System 360 dung vi mach. May c thiet ke cho ca tnh toan trong thng mai va tnh toan trong khoa hoc. System 360 co nhieu oi mi, quan trong la he nay vai kieu (model) chay cung mot loai hp ng, co cong suat va kch thc tang.Phan mem viet viet tren c s dung c tren cac may kieu khac. Y tng ve cac ho may c a chuong ngay lap tc, va trong mot vai nam hau het cac nha san xuat may tnh co mot ho cac may chung.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-11-

oi mi quan trong khac trong 360 la a lap trnh (multi-programming), co vai chng trnh trong bo nh ong thi e khi mot chng trnh ang ch viec xuat/nhap hoan tat, chng trnh khac co the tnh toan 360 cung la may tnh au tien co the mo phong cac may tnh khac. Mot ac trng khac la khong gian a ch ln (luc bay gi) cho 224 byte nh (16 megabyte). The gii may tnh mini cung a co mot bc tien ln trong the he may tnh vi mach khi DEC gii thieu may PDP-11, mot ke tha 16-bit cua PDP-8. Tren nhieu kha canh th co the xem PDP-11 nh ngi em cua ho 360. Chung eu co cac thanh ghi hng t va mot bo nh hng byte. PDP-11 rat c cac trng ai hoc a chuong va DEc dan au trong viec san xuat cac may tnh mini so vi cac nha san xuat khac.

5. The he th t:
Nhng may tnh VLSI va PC (1980-?) Vao thap nien 80, vi mach c cc ln (Very Large Scale Integration) co kha nang cha vai chuc ngan cho en hang chuc trieu transistor tren mot chip n. S phat trien nay dan en co the san xuat cac may tnh nho hn va nhanh hn. Ngay cang xuat hien cac may tnh dung cho ca nhan vi gia ca rat thap goi la may vi tnh. Cac may vi tnh c s dung theo cach khac vi may tnh ln. Chung c s dung cho viec x ly van ban (word processing), thc hien bang tnh (spreadsheet) va mot so cac ng dung ma cac may tnh ln hn khong thc hien tot c.

Hien nay cac may tnh co the chia lam 5 loai: Loai May vi M 1 2 1 3 Meg abyte 1 4 32 128 May IBM PC PDP11/84 SUN-4 IBM 300 Cray 2 Thong dung X ly van

IPS

(*)

tnh mini mini me

ban thc

May tnh Sieu Mainfra

K thi gian

0 0

May chu mang Ngan hang

Sieu 1 1024 D bao thi may tnh 25 tiet MIPS: (Million of Instructions Per Second) Trieu lenh trong 1 giay.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-12-

Ho Intel: Nam 1968 cong ty Intel c thanh lap e che tao cac chip nh. Sau o chuyen sang san xuat cac CPU n chip theo yeu cau va Intel a thc hien chip 4004 loai 4 bit va 8008 loai 8 bit. T s thanh cong bat ng t 2 loai chip tren, Intel au t chip a nang (general purpose) 8080 va san pham nay a gay song gio trong cong nghiep va tr thanh mat hang co th trng ln. Intel a ban c vai trieu san pham nay. Nam 1976 Intel cho ra i 8085 la 8080 ong vo chung vi vai thanh phan vao/ra bo sung. Roi ke tiep Intel cho ra i 8086, mot CPU n chip 16-bit that s. Sau o la s xuat hien 8088 co cau truc giong 8086 nhng bus d lieu ch co 8 bit nen gia thanh re hn va cham hn. Khi IBM chon 8088 lam CPU cho cac may vi tnh IBM PC au tien, chip nay tr thanh chuan cong nghiep cua may tnh ca nhan. Vai nam ke tiep, Intel cho ra i 80186 va 80188 la cac phien ban mi cua 8086 va 8088, chung cha mot lng ln cac mach xuat nhap nhng thc te khong c s dung rong rai. 8088 va 8086 e khong the a ch hoa c bo nh ln hn 1 megabyte. e khac phuc van e nay Intel a thiet ke 80286, mot phien ban tng thch va vt troi 8086. Tap lenh c ban giong 8086 va 8088 nhng to chc bo nh khac va rac roi hn. 80286 c dung trong IBM PC AT va PS/2. Giong nh 8088, ay la mot thanh cong ln cua Intel. Ke tiep la mot CPU 32-bit that s tren 1 chip, 80386. Giong nh 80286, chip nay t nhieu tng thch vi cac chip dung chung vi 8088. Sau o la 80486 tng thch vi 80386 va vt troi hn. S khac nhau c ban cua 80386 va 80486 la s hien dien cua bo ong x ly toan hoc (coprocessor), bo ieu khien bo nh va 8K bo nh em truy cap nhanh (cache) tren 1 chip n. Chip 80486 DX c gii thieu au tien vao thang 4 nam 1989. Thang 10 nam 1992, Intel cong bo chip Pentium, chip nay bat au s dung vao thang 03 nam 1993. Pentium a c s dung cong nghe sieu vo hng (superscalar technology), cong nghe nay co kha nang ket hp vi cac may co tap lenh thu nho RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer). Pentium co 32 bit a ch va 64 bit d lieu tuy van ch co cac thanh ghi 32 bit ben trong. Pentium co 2 loai bo cache. Pentium the he 1 co toc o 60 /66 MHz, tch hp khoang 3,1 trieu transistor. Pentium the he 2 co toc o t 75 en 200MHz, tch hp tren 3,3 trieu transistor. Cac chip Pentium MMX (the he 3) cong bo vao thang 1 nam 1997 co toc o len en 233MHz vi tren 4,5 trieu transistor tren 1 chip. Cong nghe MMX c Intel phat trien e ap ng nhu cau ve truyen thong a phng tien (multimedia)

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-13-

Thang 5 nam 1997 Intel cong bo chip Pentium II vi cac toc o len en 300MHz tch hp tren 7,5 trieu transistor tren 1 chip. en nam 1999 vi s xuat hien cua Pentium III may vi tnh co kha nang bieu dien khong gian ba chieu va nhan biet cung nh tong hp tieng noi. Tan so lam viec toi a la 950MHz. Nam 2001 Intel cho ra i Pentium IV toc o len en 1,7GHz dung cong nghe sieu ong dan (hyper pipelined technology) cai thien ang ke chat lng hnh anh so, am thanh so va cac tro chi trong khong gian ba chieu. S phat trien cac CPU cua Intel phan anh toan bo s phat trien trong cong nghiep may tnh. Ho Motorola: Mot thi gian ngan sau khi Intel gii thieu 8080, Motorola, nha cung cap linh kien ban dan canh tranh vi Intel a ra 6800. Chip 6800 la chip 8 bit so sanh c vi 8080, c th trng chap nhan va c s dung rong rai lam bo ieu khien cho cac thiet b cong nghiep trong nhng nam au cua thap nien 70. Tiep theo la chip 6809, chip nay tng thch vi 6800 ong thi c them vao cac ac trng phu tao de dang cho cac phep tnh so 16-bit. Nam 1979, Motorola gii thieu 1 chip hoan toan mi khong tng thch vi 6800 hoac 6809. ay la ieu t co cong ty nao dam lam trc o. Chip mi nay, 68000 a ra mot s thiet ke hoan toan mi thay v tng thch vi cac chip a loi thi. Chip 68000 la mot cau truc lai gia 16 bit va 32 bit. Cac nha san xuat may vi tnh Macintosh, Atari , Amiga chon 68000 lam CPU v chip nay hoan toan cat t vi qua kh va co chieu dai t 32 bit. Nhn chung chip nay co s khi au kha thanh cong va tao ra mot gia nh 680x0 rat giong nhau theo quan iem ngi lap trnh, cac phien ban mi ch co vai lenh c them vao cac phien ban cu. Chip th 2 trong ho Motorola, 68008, giong het 68000 ch khac cho s dung bus d lieu 8 bit nham tao ra cac san pham gia thanh thap. Khong giong 8088 cua Intel, 68008 khong c s dung rong rai. Khong bao lau sau ngi ta muon thc hien cac he ieu hanh tinh vi nh UNIX dung 68000. Van e ay la bo nh ao (virtual memory) , 68000 co kha nang ho tr nhng cha ay u. Motorola giai quyet bang cach a ra 68010 co cac ac trng can thiet. Sau o la s xuat hien cua 68012, chip nay ve c ban giong 68010 nhng them cac chan ai ch e co the a ch hoa bo nh 2 gigabyte thay v 16 megabyte t oi.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-14-

Mot nam sau Motorola lai cho ra i 68020 la mot chip 32 bit that s. 68020 la mot thanh cong ln va la nhan cua hau het cac tram lam viec (workstation) che tao bi Sun Microsystems, Apollo va Hewlett-Packard. Chip tiep theo la 68030 ma s cai tien nam quan ly bo nh. 68040 giong nh 80486 cha CPU, mot ong x ly toan hoc, n v quan ly bo nh va cache tren chip. Sau nay lai xuat hien chip Power PC. Ro rang ta co the so sanh 68030 vi 80386, 68040 vi 80486, Pentium vi Power PC cua 2 cong ty Intel va Motorola. S canh tranh gia cac chip cua Intel va cac chip cua Motorola se tiep tuc trong nhieu nam na. Hien nay nhieu cong ty trong o chu yeu la AMD (Advanced Micro Designs) va Cyrix san xuat cac bo vi x ly hoan toan tng thch vi cac bo vi x ly cua Intel. Chung mo phong toan bo cac lenh va tham ch phan ln cac chip nay tng thch ca cac chan cua cac chip Intel. Bat c phan cng hay phan mem nao hoat ong tren cac may vi tnh dung cac chip cua Intel cung se hoat ong tren cac may vi tnh dung cac chip tng thch cua AMD va Cyrix.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-15-

CHNG 2: CAU TRUC CHUNG MAY TNH

Mot may tnh bao gom cac bo x ly, bo nh va cac thiet b vao/ra. Trong chng nay se gii thieu 3 thanh phan nay va s phoi ghep chung. Chung ta can phai biet s lc cau truc chung cua may tnh trc khi nghien cu ky cac cap lp khac nhau trong cac chng sau. Cau truc cua mot may tnh n gian co the c hnh dung nh sau:

n v ieu khien (CU) n v So hoc va Logic (ALU) Cac thanh ghi

Bo Nh Chnh

May in

Thiet b Vao / Ra Hnh 2.1

Bus

I. CAC BO X LY
Bo x ly trung tam (CPU) la au nao cua may tnh. Chc nang cua no la thc hien cac chng trnh nam trong bo nh chnh bang cach nap lenh sau o giai ma roi thc hien tuan t het lenh nay en lenh khac.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-16-

Bo x ly trung tam gom n v ieu khien (gi nhiem vu lay lenh, giai ma lenh) va n v so hoc va logic (thc hien cac phep toan nh cong, tr, nhan, chia, VA, HOAC v.v CPU gom co cac thanh ghi cho phep lu gi ket qua tam thi hoac thong tin ieu khien. Moi thanh ghi co mot chc nang rieng. Thanh ghi quan trong nhat la thanh em chng trnh (Program Counter) ch en v tr cua lenh tiep theo se thc hien. Ngoai ra co thanh ghi lenh (Instruction register). Hau het cac may tnh eu co cac thanh ghi nh thanh ghi cha (accumulator), thanh ghi ch so (index register), thanh ghi trang thai (status register), con tro ngan xep (stack pointer) v.v

1. Thc hien lenh

CPU thc hien lenh tuan t nh sau: a. b. lenh ke c. d. e. f. g. h. Tm nap lenh ke tiep t bo nh vao thanh ghi lenh Thay oi noi dung thanh em chng trnh e xac nh a ch

Giai ma lenh va nap Xac nh ni cha d lieu trong bo nh Tm nap d lieu vao cac thanh ghi trong CPU neu can thiet Thc hien lenh Lu ket qua vao ni thch hp Tr ve bc 1 e thc hien lenh ke tiep

Cac bc tuan t tren goi la chu ky tm nap-giai ma- thc hien lenh Tap hp tat ca lenh ngi lap trnh co the s dung mot cap c goi la tap cac lenh hay goi ngan ngon la tap lenh (instruction set) cua cap o. oi vi cap may qui c, so lenh cua mot tap lenh thng trong khoang t 20 en 300. Mot tap lenh co so lenh ln khong nhat thiet tot hn mot tap lenh nho. Xu hng trong thc te se ngc lai, mot tap lenh nho se tot hn. Mot tap ln thng ton tai nhieu lenh khong c s dung rong rai.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-17-

Cac trnh bien dch (compiler) cua cac ngon ng cap cao nh Ada, Modula 2, Pascal, C thng hoat ong tot tren cac may co tap lenh nho va c chon loc hn la tren cac may co tap lenh ln, cong kenh va kho s dung. May tnh co mot tap lenh rat nho goi la may co tap lenh c rut gon RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer). May tnh nay thao tac rat nhanh.

2. To chc CPU
ng d lieu (data path) cua mot may von Neumann kinh ien A+B

A B

ALU

A+B Hnh 2.2 ng d lieu bao gom cac thanh ghi va n v so hoc va logic, cac thanh ghi nay co the a gia tr vao 2 thanh ghi nhap vao ten A, B. Hai thanh ghi nay chot cac ngo nhap vao cua n v so hoc va logic trong luc ALU tnh toan. ALU thc hien phep toan cong, tr va cac thao tac (operation) n gian khac tren cac toan hang (operand) cha trong A va B, a ra ket qua tren thanh ghi xuat ra. D lieu trong thanh ghi xuat co the c cat gi tr lai mot thanh ghi cua CPU hoac a tr lai bo nh neu muon. Trong hnh tren phep cong c s dung e minh hoa.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

3. Thc hien lenh song song:

-18-

T nhng ngay au khai sinh ra may tnh, nhng nha thiet ke a co gang tao ra nhng may tnh x ly nhanh. e lam c ieu ay, ngi ta a tm nhieu bien phap e hoan thien phan cng. Tuy nhien, nhieu gii han vat ly khac nhau bat au xuat hien khi tang toc o phan cng. V du: Khong co mot tn hieu nao co the di chuyen vt c van toc cua anh sang trong chan khong, khoang 30cm/ngiay va trong cap ong la 20cm/ngiay. ieu nay co ngha la e xay dng mot may tnh co thi gian lenh la 1 ngiay, toan bo khoang cach ma tn hieu co the di chuyen t CPU en bo nh va ngc lai se khong the ln hn 20 cm. V the cac may tnh co toc o cang nhanh phai co kch thc cang nho. Vi cac may tnh co toc o cao, kha nang sinh nhiet ln va neu lap may tnh vao 1 the tch nho th se kho tieu tan nhiet. oi khi cac sieu may tnh c at chm trong chat long freon, mot chat dung lam nguoi nhanh. e giai quyet van e nay, thay v tao ra mot CPU toc o cao, ngi ta thiet ke may tnh gom nhieu CPU toc o cham hn nhng hoat ong song song. Nhieu cong trnh nghien cu a c tien hanh e xay dng nhng may tnh song song nh vay. May tnh song song c chia thanh 3 loai (theo Flynn, 1971) da vao so luong lenh (instruction stream) va so luong d lieu (data stream) cua may tnh o: SISD: may loai n lenh, n d lieu (Single Instruction stream, Single Data stream) - SIMD: may loai n lenh, a d lieu (Single Instruction stream, Multiple Data stream) MIMD: may loai a lenh, a d lieu (Multiple Instruction stream, Multiple Data stream) May von Neumann truyen thong thuoc loai SISD, co mot luong lenh (ngha la mot chng trnh) c thc hien bi 1 CPU va co mot bo nh cha d lieu. Lenh au tien c tm-nap t bo nh va thc hien. Lenh th hai c tm-nap va thc hien v.v Ngay ca trong mo hnh tuan t nay, co the ngh en 1 qua trnh song song nh tm-nap lenh ke tiep trc khi lenh ang thc hien hoan tat. Vi may tnh CDC6600 co nhieu n v chc nang (cac ALU)

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-19-

Hnh 2.3: Mot CPU vi 5 n v chc nang hoat ong song song Y tng cua phng phap thiet ke nay la n v ieu khien tm-nap mot lenh va sau o a en mot n v chc nang thch hp e thc hien. Trong luc o, n v ieu khien tm-nap ch th ke tiep va a en mot n v chc nang khac. Qua trnh nay tiep tuc cho en khi khong the tiep tuc c na, hoac v tat ca cac n v chc nang cung loai ang ban hoac mot toan hang van con ang c tnh toan. Mot bien thai cua y tng nay la tach viec thc hien mot lenh ra thanh nhieu phan. Trong hnh sau ta thay mot CPU co 5 n v x ly

Hnh 2.4: Mot may ng ong co 5 n v x ly Cach to chc nh trong hnh c goi la may ng ong (Pipeline machine). Neu thi gian danh cho moi n v x ly la m ngiay th phai mat 5m ngiay e thc hien mot lenh. Tuy nhien vi cac to chc tren co the xem moi lenh thc hien ch trong m ngiay do vay tang toc o x ly lenh cua may len gap 5 lan.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-20-

Chu y rang mac du may s dung c che song song ben trong, mot may ng ong dan van la may SISD do ch co mot chng trnh va mot tap d lieu. Ngc lai, cac may SIMD thao tac tren nhieu tap d lieu song song. ng dung ien hnh cua loai may SIMD la d bao thi tiet. Th du nh tnh nhiet o trung bnh hang ngay cho nhieu vung, phng phap tnh eu giong nhau nhng vi cac d lieu khac. Mot cau truc kha thch hp cho cong viec nay la may vector (vector machine) dc trnh bay trong hnh 2.5 ng d lieu ay tng t nh trong hnh 2.2 , ch khac cho thay v co mot bien n cho tng ngo nhap cua ALU, ta co mot vector vi n ngo nhap. Tng t ALU thc s la mot ALU vector, co kha nang thc hien mot thao tac nh phep cong vector (hnh 2.5 b) tren 2 vector nhap va ket qua c lay ra vector xuat. Mot so sieu may tnh co cau truc tng t vi cau truc nay.

Hnh 2.5 Mot may khac gan giong vi SIMD la bo x ly day (array processor, mot thiet ke khi au t ai hoc Illinois. o la may tnh ILLIAC IV nh minh hoa trong hnh 2.6 sau:

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-21-

Hnh 2.6: Bo x ly day cua may ILLIAC IV Cau truc nay bao gom mot mang vuong cac phan t bo x ly / bo nh. Mot n v ieu khien truyen cac lenh va chung c thc hien bi tat ca cac bo x ly theo kieu sat got (lockstep), moi bo x ly s dung d lieu rieng lay t mot bo nh rieng. Bo x ly day ac biet thch hp cho viec tnh toan ma tran. Loai may th ba la MIMD, trong o cac CPU khac nhau lam viec vi nhng chng trnh khac nhau, thnh thoang chung s dung chung mot bo nh. He thong at cho trc trong may bay la mot th du, nhieu ngi cung at cho ong thi nhng khong tien hanh song song, ma tng lenh mot v chung ta co nhieu luong lenh va nhieu luong d lieu. Hnh 2.7 a trnh bay mot bo a x ly (multiprocessor), mot may MIMD s dung bo nh chia se (shared memory). Cac bo x ly truy xuat ti bo nh chia se (dung chung) thong qua bus.

Hnh 2.6

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-22-

Khi nhieu bo x ly toc o nhanh truy xuat ong thi ti bo nh chia se (dung chung) tren cung mot bus th se xay ra xung ot (conflict). Nhng nha thiet ke bo a x ly a tm nhieu phng an khac nhau e giam thieu s tranh chap va cai thien hieu xuat. Mot thiet ke o c trnh bay trong hnh 2.6b cho thay moi bo x ly co mot bo nh cuc bo (rieng), cac bo x ly khac khong the tham nhap en. Bo nh nay s dung cho cac ma chng trnh va d lieu khong can chia se. Viec truy xuat bo nh rieng khong dung en bus chnh se lam giam mot lng ln lu lng tren bus chnh. Cac bo a x ly khac khong s dung mot bus ma dung nhieu bus e lam giam tai. Mot so khac s dung caching, mot ky thuat s dung cac t nh c thng xuyen s dung trong tng bo x ly.

II- BO NH CHNH:
Bo nh la mot phan cua may tnh dung e cha chng trnh va d lieu ang thc hien. Khong co may tnh so nao lu tr chng trnh ma khong co bo nh, e t o bo x ly co the ghi va oc thong tin

1. Bit
n v c ban cua bo nh la mot ch so nh phan goi la bit (binary digit). Mot bit co the la 0 hoac 1. Ngi ta thng cho rang cac may tnh s dung so nh phan la v tnh hieu qua cua loai so nay. Ngi ta thay rang thong tin so co the c cat gi bang cach phan biet cac gia tr khac nhau cua mot ai lng vat ly lien tuc nh ien ap hoac dong ien. Cang nhieu gia tr can c phan biet, cang t co s khac biet gia 2 gia tr ke can nhau va cang kho tin cay vao bo nh. He thong so nh phan ch yeu cau 2 gia tr e phan biet, do vay ay la phng phap ang tin cay nhat e ma hoa thong tin so. Mot so may tnh nh cac mainframe cua IBM, c quang cao co the s dung ca so thap phan lan so nh phan. Mu meo nay at c bang cach dung 4 bit e cha mot so thap phan. 4 bit cho ta 16 to hp, dung cho 10 so t 0 en 9 con 6 to hp khong s dung. Th du: 16 bit dang thap phan co the cha cac so t 0 ti 9999, ch cho 10000 to hp trong khi 16 bit nh phan co the cha 65536 to hp khac nhau. V ly do nay ngi ta noi so nh phan hieu qua hn so thap phan. Tuy nhien ieu g se xay ra, neu mot ngi nao o thong minh co the tao ra mot linh kien ien t o tin cay cao co the cha trc tiep cac so t 0 en 9 bang cach chia ien ap t 0 ti 10 volt thanh 10 khoang. 4 linh kien nay co the cha bat ky so thap phan nao t 0 ti 9999. 4 linh kien nh vay se cung cap 10000 to hp. Cung co the

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-23-

dung chung e bieu dien cac so nh phan, ch dung 0 va 1. Trong trng hp nay ta ch co 16 to hp. Vi nhng linh kien nh vay, ro rang so thap phan co hieu qua hn.

2. a ch bo nh:
Bo nh gom cac o nh hay con goi la v tr nh (location). Moi o nh cha mot mau thong tin (piece of information). Moi o nh co mot so goi la a ch hoac v ch (address) cua o nh. Cac chng trnh co the tham chieu en cac a ch nay. Neu bo nh co n o nh, chung se anh a ch t 0 ti n-1. Cac o nh cha cung mot so bit. Mot o nh co k bit se co the cha 1 trong 2k to hp bit khac nhau. Hnh 2.7 trnh bay 3 cach to chc khac nhau cho mot bo nh 96 bit. Neu 1 a ch co m bit, so o nh toi a co the a ch hoa (anh a ch) trc tiep m la 2 .

Hnh 2.7 Th du: Trong hnh 2.7 a can t nhat 4 bit e dien ta cac so t 0 en 11. Tuy nhien ch can 3 bit e dien ta a ch trong cac hnh 2.7b va 2.7c So bit trong a ch lien quan en so o nh toi a co the a ch hoa trc tiep trong bo nh va khong tuy thuoc vao so bit cua moi o nh. Mot bo nh co 212 o nh, moi o nh co 8 bit va mot bo nh co 212 o nh, moi o nh co 60 bit th ca hai eu can 12 bit cho a ch, tuy nhien dung lng bo nh trc nho hn bo nh sau. So bit cua moi o nh oi vi mot so may tnh a c ban tren th trng nh sau: Bourroughs B 1700 1 bit /o nh IBM-PC 8 bit /o nh DEC PDP-8 12 bit /o nh IBM 1130 16 bit /o nh Electrologica X8 27 bit /o nh

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-24-

Honeywell 6180 36 bits /o nh CDC Cyber 60 bits / o nh Trong nhng nam gan ay, hau het cac nha che taomay tnh eu chuan hoa 1 o nh co 8 bit va goi la mot byte. Nhieu byte gop lai thanh t (word). Mot may tnh s dung 1 t 16 bit ngha la may co 2 byte/t, trong khi o mot may dung 1 t 32 bit se co 4 byte/t. Hau het cac lenh cua may tnh eu thao tac tren t, th du cong 2 t vi nhau. Do vay, mot may 16 bit se co cac thanh ghi 16 bit va cac lenh e thao tac cac t 16 bit, may co 32 bit se co cac thanh ghi 32 bit va cac lenh e thc hien phep dch chuyen, cong, tr va cac thao tac khac tren cac t 32 bit.

3. Trat t cua byte:

Byte trong 1 t c anh so t trai sang phai hoac t phai sang trai. S la chon nay thoat nhn khong quan trong nhng bao ham mot y ngha rat ln. Hnh 2.8a mieu ta mot phan bo nh cua mot may tnh 32 bit, trong o cac byte c anh so t trai sang phai oi vi ho Motorola chang han. Hnh 2.8b ai dien cho ho may tnh 32 bit dung phng phap anh so th phai sang trai chang han nh ho Intel. He thong anh so bat au t so ln goi la may tnh Big-endian (bac cao) ngc lai Little-endian (bac thap) a ch Big Endian Little Endian a ch 0 4 8 1

0 4 8 12

0 2 3 4

1 5 Byte

1 5

0 4 3 2 Byte T 32 bit (a) 2

T 32 bits

Hnh 2.8 ieu quan trong can hieu trong ca 2 he thong Big-endian va Little-endian la khi may tnh muon gi ho s t may tnh nay sang may tnh khac tren mang. Cac so se b ao ngc va phai can co mot giai phap phan mem e oi cac byte trong 1 t sau khi sao chep. Co mot phng phap khac nhng cung khong hieu qua lam la them 1 header trc moi ho s cho biet loai d lieu theo sau (chuoi, so nguyen hoac d lieu khac) va

(b)

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-25-

chieu dai la bao nhieu. ieu nay cho phep may tnh nhan ch phai thc hien nhng chuyen oi can thiet. Trong bat ky trng hp nao ta cung thay rang viec thieu mot tieu chuan ve trat t byte la noi phien toai chnh khi trao oi d lieu gia cac may tnh khac nhau.

4. Ma sa loi:
Thnh thoang bo nh may tnh cung tao ra loi do cac xung ien ap tren ng cap ien hoac do nhng nguyen nhan khac. e tranh nhng loi nh vay, cac bo nh eu dung cac ma phat hien loi hoac cac ma sa loi. Khi s dung cac ma nay, cac bit phu c them vao moi t nh theo mot phng phap ac biet. Khi oc mot t ra khoi bo nh, cac bit phu c kiem tra e xem co loi hay khong. e hieu cac loi c x ly nh the nao ta can phai biet thc s loi la g? Gia s mot t nh co m bit d lieu va ta se them vao r bit d tha (redundant) hoac r bit kiem tra. at toan bo chieu dai bit la n (n=m+r). Mot n v co m bit d lieu va r bit kiem tra c xem nh mot t ma (code word) n bit. Cho 2 t ma 10001001 va 10110001, ta co the xac nh chung co bao nhieu bit tng ng khac nhau, th du nay 2 t ma co 3 bit khac nhau. e xac nh so bit khac nhau, ta ch can thc hien phep toan XOR theo bit hai t ma a cho va em so bit 1 trong ket qua. So cac bit tren 2 t ma khac nhau goi la khoang cach Hamming. Y ngha cua viec xac nh khoang cach la neu 2 t ma co khoang cach Hamming la d, can co d loi n bit (single bit error) se oi ma nay thanh ma kia. Th du cac t ma 11110001 va 00110000 co khoang cach Hamming la 3 v can co 3 loi n bit e oi ma nay thanh ma kia. Vi mot t nh m bit, tat ca 2m to hp cac bit eu hp le nhng do co tnh cac bit kiem tra, ch co 2m trong 2n t ma co gia tr hp le. Khi oc bo nh thay xuat hien mot t ma khong hp le, may tnh hieu rang a xay ra mot loi bo nh. Cho mot giai thuat e tnh cac bit kiem tra, ta co the xay dng mot danh sach cac t ma hoan toan hp le, t dfanh sach nay tm ra 2 t ma co khoang cach Hamming nho nhat. Khoang cach nay la khoang cach Hamming ay u. Th du: Hay xem mot bieu dien o hoa n gian minh hoa ro y tng ve ma sa loi cho cac t nh 4 bit S o Venn hnh 2.9 co 3 vong tron A, B va C tao thanh 7 vung khac nhau. Th du ta ma hoa t nh 4 bit 1100 trong cac vung AB,ABC, AC va BC. C 1 bit cho 1 vung. Ke tiep ta them 1 bit kiem tra chan le vao tng vung trong con lai e tao ra kiem tra chan.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-26-

Hnh 2.9 Kch thc t So bit kiem tra Kch thc chung Phan tram 8 4 12 50 16 5 21 31 32 6 38 19 64 7 71 11 128 8 136 6 256 9 265 4 512 10 522 2 Hnh 2.10: So bit kiem tra can thiet cho ma sa loi n

5. Bo nh chnh trong cac IBM PC

Cac may tnh ca nhan PC (Personal computer) ban au s dung cac chip vi x ly 20 bit a ch co kha nang a ch hoa mot khong gian bo nh toi a 1 MB trong o 640KB di c goi la vung nh qui c (conventionnal memory), 384 KB tren la vung nh d tr cho he thong hay con goi vung nh cao UNA (Upper Memory Area). S sap xep nay ton tai en bay gi. Bo nh 1MB c chia lam 16 vung nh, moi vung 64 KB goi la phan oan (segment) c anh so t 0 en F (con goi la cac phan oan t 0000 en F000) 640 KB vung nh qui c bao gom cac phan oan t 0000 en 9000 va 384 KB vung nh d tr cho he thong bao gom cac phan oan t A000 en F000. Cac chip vi x ly co nhieu bit a ch hn lan lt ra i lam cho khong gian bo nh toi a tang dan (16M oi vi 80286; 4G oi vi 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium MMX, Pentium Pro; 64G oi vi Pentium II) Vung nh ln hn 1MB goi la vung nh m rong (extended memory). Neu bo vi x ly chay che o thc (real mode), ch co 1 MB au tien c truy xuat. Ngc lai, neu bo vi x ly trong che o bao ve (protected mode), toan bo khong gian nh co the truy xuat c.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-27-

Mot van e quan trong a xay ra trong cac PC la s xung ot gia cac chip bo nh RAM (Random Access Memory) c cai at cung vi bo nh danh cho he thong, do vay 384 KB RAM trung a ch vi vung nh danh cho he thong se b bo qua (ngha la tong dung lng bo nh RAM s dung c se bang tong dung lng bo nh RAM cai at tr i 384 K). Th du cac PC co 4 MB RAM c cai at cho thay ch co 3712 KB c s dung bao gom 640KB cho vung nh qui c va 3072 KB cho vung nh m rong. Tuy vay van co cac PC ch thieu 128KB thay v 384KB nh vao cac bien phap sap xep lai bo nh. S xung ot xay ra do cac phan oan A000 va B000 c danh cho RAM video, cac phan oan C000 va D000 c danh cho bo nh ch oc ROM va RAM cua cac board cam tren cac khe cam m rong (expansion slot) cua board chnh (mainboard), cac phan oan E000 va F000 c danh cho bo nh ch oc cha he xuat nhap c ban ROM BIOS (Basic Input Output System) tren board chnh. ieu nay co ngha la tat ca RAM chiem nhng a ch nay phai b tat hoac cac thanh phan neu tren khong thc hien c chc nang cua mnh e tranh xung ot trong vung UMA. Cac nha thiet ke board chnh thng thc hien cac kha nang sau e tranh xung

ot:

S dung RAM nhanh hn e lu tr ban sao cua cac ROM cham, goi la tao ca so, vo hieu hoa cac ROM nay trong x ly. Tat cac RAM khong s dung tao ca so nham tranh xung ot trong vung UMA. Sap xep lai RAM khong c s dung tao ca so. Phan ln cac PC tao ca so cho ROM BIOS (thng la 64K), ROM video (32K)RAM dung trong bo nh chnh la RAM ong (Dynamic RAM) va cac RAM ong cai tien nh EDO-RAM (Extended Data Out RAM) va SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) co thi gian truy xuat trong khoang t 10 nsec en 200 nsec. Cac chip nh RAM hien nay c ghep thanh cac moun nh mot hang chan goi la SIMM hoac cac moun nh hai hang chan goi la DIMM. Cac SIMM 30 chan co dung lng 256K, 1M, 4M, 16 MB nh (8 bit hoac 9 bit neu co bit chan le) Cac SIMM 72 chan co dung lng 1 M, 2M, 4M, 8 M, 16 M, 32M va 64 MB nh hay 256K, 512K, 1M, 2M, 4M, 8 M, 16 M t nh 32 bit (hoac 36 bit neu ke them cac bit kiem tra chan le)

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-28-

Cac DIMM 168 chan co dung lng 1M, 2M, 4M, 8 M, 16 M t nh 64 bit (hoac 72 bit neu ke them cac bit kiem tra chan le). Ngoai bo nh RAM ong, trong cac PC con ton tai cac bo nh ch oc ROM lu cac chng trnh co nh nh ROM BIOS va ROM ban phm hay bo ieu khien ban phm. ROM BIOS cha cac chng trnh thc hien cac chc nang c ban sau: Kiem tra nhng thanh phan cua may tnh khi khi ong nh: bo nh, board chnh, board video, bo ieu khien a, ban phm va nhng thanh phan quan trong khac cua may tnh. Tm va nap he ieu hanh. Cung cap cac chng trnh cho bo vi x ly e thc hien cac thao tac lien quan en cac thiet b xuat/nhap.

III- CAC THIET B LU TR (BO NH PHU):

V moi t nh trong bo nh chnh c truy xuat trc tiep vi thi gian rat ngan, gia thanh cua bo nh chnh tng oi cao. Do o hau het cac may tnh eu co them cac thiet b lu tr (bo nh phu) toc o thap, re hn va thng co dung lng ln hn nhieu.

1. Bang t:
Ve mat lch s, bang t (magnetic tape) la thiet b lu tr au tien. O bang t cua may tnh tng t nh may ghi bang trong gia nh. Bang t co chieu dai 2400 ft c quan tren mot ong cho (feed reel) qua 1 au ghi en ong nhan (take-up reel). Bang cach thay oi dong ien trong au ghi, may tnh co the ghi thong tin len bang t dang cac vet t hoa nho (magnetized spot)

Hnh 2.11

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-29-

Hnh 2.11 trnh bay cach to chc thong tin tren bang t. mot may tnh vi cac byte 8 bit, moi khung (frame) cha 1 byte cong them 1 bit phu (d), goi la bit kiem tra chan le e cai thien o tin cay. Mat o ghi tieu bieu cua bang t la 1600bpi (byte per inch). Mat o thng dung khac la 800bpi va 6250 bpi. Sau khi o bang t thc hien xong viec ghi 1 ban ghi vat ly (physical record), 1 khe (gap) c e lai tren bang t trong luc o bang t giam (tang) toc o xuong (len) khi dng (khi ong) bang trc au oc . Neu chng trnh ghi cac ban ghi ngan tren bang t, nhieu khoang trong se b bo ph cac khe. Bang cach ghi cac ban ghi dai hn cac khe nhieu, viec s dung bang t se co hieu qua cao. Bang t la loai thiet b truy xuat tuan t noi tiep. Neu bang t c nh v v tr khi au (au t ang au bang), muon oc ban ghi n, ta phai oc qua het cac ban ghi t 1 ti n-1. Neu thong tin muon oc nam cuoi bang, chng trnh phai oc hau nh toan bo bang va mat khoang vai phut. CPU co the thc hien hang trieu lenh moi giay, trong luc bang t lai lam gia tang s lang ph ve thi gian. Hau nh bang t ch thch hp khi d lieu c truy xuat tuan t noi tiep.

2. a t
a t (disk) la mot a kim loai hnh tron co ng knh t 5 ti 10 inch c phu t tren 2 mat bi nha san xuat (hnh 2.12). Thong tin c ghi tren mot so vong tron ong tam goi la ranh hoac con goi t ao (track). a co t vai chuc en vai tram ranh tren moi mat. Cac au t c at tren 1 gia (canh tay - arm ) dch chuyen vao ra theo ng ban knh. au t co be rong u e oc hoac ghi thong tin len ranh mot cach chnh xac. O a thng gom nhieu a xep theo chieu ng cach xa nhau khoang 1 inch. V tr xuyen tam cua cac au t (khoang cach t truc) goi la t tru (cylinder). O a co n a se co 2n au t va co 2n ranh tren 1 t tru.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-30-

(a) O a co 1 a

(b) O a co 4 a Hnh 2.12

Cac ranh c chia thanh nhieu cung (sector), thng co khoang t 10 en 100 cung tren 1 ranh. Mot cung cha mot so byte nao o, thng la 512 bytes. e ch ro mot thao tac truy xuat a, chng trnh phai cung cap nhng thong tin sau: t tru (cylinder), au t (head) (ca 2 thong tin tren nh ro 1 ranh nao o), cung (sector) nao o thong tin bat au, so lng t c truyen i, a ch bo nh chnh ni thong tin en hoac i va thong tin c oc t a vao bo nh hay c ghi t bo nh len a. Cac thao tac truy xuat a luon bat au au cua mot cung, khong bao gi gia cung. Neu phai truy xuat nhieu cung vt qua ranh khac trong cung mot t tru (ngha la t mat 0 sang mat 1 cung v tr cua gia noi au t), ta se khong mat thi gian bi v viec chuyen t au t nay sang au t khac c thc hien bang mach ien t ma khong lien quan en phan c kh. Tuy nhien, neu truy xuat qua ranh gii cua t tru, phai mat thi gian quay trong khi nh v lai cac au t cho t tru ke tiep va i cho cung 0 quay tr lai.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-31-

Hnh 2.13 : Khoang cach au t vi mat a Neu au t c nh v tren mot t tru sai, trc tien au t phai di chuyen. S di chuyen nay goi la tm kiem (seek). Moi lan tm kiem se mat 3 msec gia cac ranh ke can nhau, va mat t 20 en 100msec e i t t tru trong cung ra en t tru ngoai cung. Khi au t a ung v tr, bo ieu khien phai i cho ti khi cung au tien quay ti ung tai au t oc viet th mi bat au truy xuat. Thi gian i (b bo ph) e quay ti cung ung thay oi t 0 (neu chng trnh gap may) en het toan bo thi gian quay. Thi gian i nay goi la thi gian tre luan phien (rotational latency). a so cac a thi ky au eu quay vi van toc 3600 vong /phu nen thi gian tre cc ai la 16,67 msec. (Hien nay van toc quay a len en 5400-7200 rpm). Thi gian truy xuat tong cong chnh la thi gian tm kiem cong vi thi gian tre luan phien va thi gian truy xuat thc. Gan nh tat ca cac may tnh eu s dung o a co nhieu a nh mo ta tren e lu tr cac d lieu quan trong. Nhng a nay thng goi la a cng (hard disk). Loai thng dung nhat la a winchester (thap nien 60). O a c bt kn (tranh o nhiem do bui). Cac au t tren a winchester c nh dang theo phng phap kh ong lc hoc va l lng tren mot em kh tao ra do s quay tron cua a. Dung lng cua a ban au thng khoang hang chuc MB, con hien nay la hang chuc, hang tram GB (ten cac mainframe) D lieu nh phan di dang cac chuoi bit 0, 1 (dang tho) khong c ghi trc tiep len a. Thay vao o ngi ta ma hoa chung, ngha la chuyen oi d lieu nh phan tho thanh chuoi xung va ghi len a. Viec chuyen oi nay nham phu hp vi viec ao chieu cc tnh cac vung t tnh tren a khi co s thay oi chieu dong ien tren au ghi. Khi oc d lieu tren a, qua trnh giai ma chuoi xung se dien ra e ta co lai d lieu nh phan tho ban au. Thiet b lam cong viec ma hoa va giai ma c goi la bo ma hoa/giai ma ENDEC (Encoder - Decoder). Co nhieu phng phap ma hoa khac nhau nh ieu che tan so FM (Frequency Modulation), ieu che tan so thay oi MFM (Modified Frequency Modulation) v.v

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

3. a mem

-32-

Vi s xuat hien cua may vi tnh, ngi ta co mot phng phap e cai at phan mem. o la s dung a mem (diskette hay Floppy disk), la phng tien nho gon co the em i xa c.

Hnh 2.14: Hoat ong a mem Khong nh cac a Winchester, cac au t cua a cng l lng tren be mat a khoang cach vai micron, au t cua cac a mem thc s tiep xuc vi be mat a. Do vay, moi trng tiep xuc cua be mat a va au t se b hao mon tng oi nhanh. e lam giam s hao mon nay, trong cac may vi tnh, ngi ta rut au t len tren va ngng quay a khi o a khong oc hoac khong ghi thong tin. Do o, khi co lenh oc hoac ghi thong tin ke tiep, se co thi gian tre khoang na giay e mot tang toc o. Ngay nay kch thc a thng la 3.5 inch, con loai 5.25 inch gan nh khong con s dung na do a 3.5 inch cha nhieu d lieu hn va nh cha trong vo cng do vay c bao ve tot hn. Vi loai kch thc 3.5 inch, dung lng thng la 1.44MB, co 80 ranh, 15 cung tren 1 ranh, 2 mat s dung c, so vong quay/ phut la 300 va toc o d lieu la 500 kbps. Hang Toshiba cung a san xuat cac a mem dung lng 2.88 MB, kch thc 3.5 inch nam 1987 va s dung trong cac he thong PS/2. Cac phien ban DOS 5.0 tr len a ho tr cho loai a mem nay. Cac o a mem eu s dung phng phap ma hoa MFM khi oc va ghi d lieu tren a mem.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

4. a quang

-33-

Trong nhng nam gan ay, cac a quang (optical disk) (khac vi a t) a c a vao s dung. Cac a quang co mat o ghi thong tin cao hn nhieu so vi cac a t thong thng. Ban au a quang c trien khai e ghi cac chng trnh truyen hnh nhng roi chung cung c dung lam cac thiet b lu tr cua may tnh. Cac a quang au tien c sang che bi 1 tap oan ien t cua Ha Lan la Philips va c phat trien them vi s hp tac cua Sony cua Nhat. Cac a quang nay da vao cong nghe a dung trong may quay a am tan Compact Disc va c goi la CD ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory) a CD ROM c che tao bang cach dung mot tia laser co cong suat cao e ot chay cac lo co kch thc 1 micron (10-6 m) tren mot a chu (master disk). T a chu nay, ngi ta tao c mot khuong dung lam mau e tao nhng ban sao tren cac a plastic. Ke en phu len be mat mot lp nhom mong va tiep theo la mot lp plastic bao ve trong suot. Thiet b dung e oc a CD ROM co mot bo phan tch o nang lng phan xa t be mat khi co mot tia laser cong suat thap phat ti be mat. Cac lo c goi la pit va nhng vung khong b ot chay gia cac pit goi la land se co s phan xa khac nhau giup ta phan biet c gia pit va land. Ky thuat nay co nhieu he qua quan trong. Th nhat, do cac a CD ROM c dap khuong, khong ghi thong tin nh cac a mem thong thng va c che tao hang loat bang may t ong theo mot khuon mau san nen gia thanh rat thap. Th hai, do a plastic co bao phu mot lp nhom c dap theo khuon nen se khong that chnh xac, thong tin so tren a thng cha nhieu loi. Van e loi c x ly bang 2 cach. Trc tien, au oc trong o a co mot gng chnh xac c ieu khien bi mot c cau tr ong (mot may e ieu khien mot co may to hn) dung e theo doi be mat a nham bu lai s khong hoan hao khi che tao. Th hai, d lieu c ghi len a dung mot phng phap ma hoa phc tap goi la ma sa loi xen ke (cross interleave) Reed-Solomon. Phng phap ma hoa nay dung nhieu bit hn ma Hamming e co the sa nhieu loi. Hn na thay v bieu th pit la 0 va land la 1 (hoac ngc lai), ngi ta bieu th cho moi lan chuyen tiep pit-land hoac land-pit la 1. Khoang cach gia 2 lan chuyen tiep cho biet co bao nhieu bit zero gia cac bit. D lieu c ghi thanh cac nhom 24 byte, moi nhom c m rong them t 8 en 14 bit bang cach dung ma Reed-Solomon. Them 3 bit ac biet vao gia moi nhom va them mot byte ong bo e tao thanh mot khung (frame). Mot nhom 98 khung tao thanh mot khoi (block) cha 2 KByte d lieu. Khoi la n v c ban c a ch hoa. Mac du phng phap nay phc tap va ton mot

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-34-

vung ia ang ke nhng lai cho ta o tin cay rat cao vi vat lieu s dung co gia thanh thap. Thong tin tren CD ROM c ghi theo dang xoan oc lien tuc, khong giong nh ia t theo cac t tru va ranh rieng biet. Khuong dang nay c minh hoa trong hnh 2.15 Toc o oc c ban cua mot ia quang la 150 KByte/sec. Cac o ia oc nhanh co toc o la boi so cua toc o c s nay (Th du 24X, 32X, 36X, 48X, 52X,) D lieu c lu tr tren CD ROM theo phng phap ma hoa EFM (Eight to Fourteen Modulation). Tng t nh tren ia t, gia tr 0 va 1 khong phai la gia tr lo va vung trong ma la gia tr chuyen oi.

Hnh 2.15 CD ghi lai c CD-R (CD-Recordable) la loai ia quang tng c goi la WORM (Write Once, Read Multiple). ia nay co cau truc tng t nh CD thng. Lp cha d lieu la lp polymer hu c (cyanine va phthalocyanine). Khi tia laser ot chay, lp may nay chuyen sang mau en va ong vai tro cac lo d lieu (pit). Co 2 phng phap ghi CD-R: Ghi toan ia mot lan DAO (Disc At Once): d lieu toan ia ch c ghi len ia mot lan, khong ghi them len c nhng lan sau. Ghi tng ranh TAO (Track At Once): cho phep ghi len ia nhieu lan. Chieu dai toi thieu moi lan ghi la 300 khoi. CD ghi lai c CD-RW (CD-ReWriteable) trong o lp d lieu lp kim loai . Nguyen tac ghi d lieu da theo s thay oi trang thai cua lp kim loai: trang thai tinh the (phan xa anh sang - vung trong) va trang thai vo nh hnh (khong phan xa anh sang - vung lo) ia quang mat o cao DVD (Digital Video Disk hay Digital Versatile Disk) la the he ia quang mi se thay the ia CD trong tng lai gan. ay la mot loai ia quang co dung lng d lieu ln hn va kha nang truy nhap nhanh hn cac ia quang

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-35-

trc no. Dung lng d lieu tnh hang GByte (~4,7GB) . Toc o truy nhap c ban 1x cua 1 o DVD la 1,321 MByte/sec (nhanh gap 9 lan toc o cua mot o ia CD thng. Cac o DVD 4X eu co kha nang oc CD-ROM vi van toc 32X. S phat trien ia quang giai oan 3 la cac phng tien quang co the xoa c bang cach dung ky thuat quang-t (MO->magneto-optical). ia plastic c bao phu mot hon hp kim loai co nhieu chat la nh terbium va gadolinium. Cac kim loai nay co tnh chat rat ang quan tam la nhiet o thap chung khong nhay cam vi t trng, nhng nhiet o cao, cau truc phan t cua chung t sap thang hang theo bat c hng nao hien co. Ngi ta s dung tnh chat nay e ghi thong tin, cac au oc cua o ia bao gom mot bo phat tia laser va mot nam cham. Bo phat tia laser ban ra mot xung anh sang cc ngan vao kim loai, tc thi lam gia tang nhiet o nhng khong tao thanh mot pit tren be mat. ong thi nam cham cung phat ra mot t trng theo 1 trong 2 hng. Khi xung laser het, kim loai a c t hoaco the 1 trong 2 hng, bieu th la 0 hoac 1. Thong tin nay co the oc theo cung cach nh vi CD ROM bang cach dung mot tia laser co bc xa yeu hn nhieu. ia nay co the xoa va ghi e len giong nh cach a ghi lan au.

IV - CAC THIET B VAO / RA

Trc khi mot may tnh thc hien mot viec nao o, ta phai cung cap cho no mot chng trnh va cac d lieu kem theo. Sau khi thc hien xong, may tnh phai thong bao ket qua cho ngi s dung. Viec a thong tin vao may tnh va lay thong tin ra khoi may tnh c goi la vao/ra . Khong phai tat ca thong tin vao ra eu c d nh danh cho con ngi. Mot knh thien van mat tri hoat ong nh may tnh co the thc hien nhap d lieu t cac thiet b quan sat mat tri. Mot may tnh ieu khien 1 thiet b hoa hoc t ong co the trc tiep xuat d lieu ti cac may thong qua thiet b e ieu hoa cac chat hoa hoc c sinh ra. Co 2 cach to chc vao/ra thng s dung trong may tnh ngay nay. Cac mainframe ln s dung thiet ke c trnh bay trong hnh 2.16 . Trong thiet ke nay, mot he thong may tnh bao gom 1 CPU (Hoac co the nhieu CPU), 1 bo nh va mot hoac nhieu bo x ly vao/ra (I/O processor) goi la cac kenh d lieu (data channel). Tat ca cac thiet b vao/ra eu c noi vi cac kenh. Khi muon thc hien vao/ra , CPU nap 1 chng trnh ac biet vao mot trong cac kenh va yeu cau kenh o thc hien. Kenh se t ieu khien tat ca cac viec vao/ra ti

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-36-

va t bo nh e CPU t do lam nhng viec khac. Khi thc hien xong, kenh gi ti CPU mot tn hieu ac biet goi la ngat (interrupt) e buoc CPU ngng bat ky ieu g ang lam va chu y en kenh o. Thuan li cua cach to chc nay la cho phep CPU hoan toan khong quan tam en cong viec gia thiet b vao/ra vi kenh. Bang cach nay ta co the thc hien viec tnh toan va vao / ra cung mot luc

Hnh 2.16 V cac mainframe tao ra mot tai vao/ra ln, nen chung thng c trang b t nhat 3 bus. Bus bo nh (memory bus) cho phep kenh oc va ghi cac t d lieu (data word) t bo nh. Bus vao/ra cho phep bo x ly trung tam phat cac lenh ti cac kenh va cho phep cac kenh ngat bo x ly trung tam. Cuoi cung, bus th 3 cho phep bo x ly trung tam truy xuat bo nh ma khong phai dung ti nhng bus khac. Cac may vi tnh dung mot cau truc he thong n gian hn nh trong hnh 2.17 . Hau het cac may vi tnh nay co mot khung cha cac card vi 1 board mach in ln c goi la board chnh (mainboard). Board chnh cha mot chip vi x ly, bo nh va cac chip ho tr khac.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-37-

Hnh 2.17 Cau truc logic cua may vi tnh c trnh bay trong hnh 2.18. Hau het cac may vi tnh co 1 bus goi la bus he thong (system bus) dung e ket noi CPU, bo nh va cac thiet b vao/ra. Moi thiet b vao ra co hai phan, phan cha cac mach ien t goi la bo ieu khien (controller), phan kia cha chnh cac thiet b vao/ra nh o a, man hnh.. Bo ieu khien thng c at tren 1 card va cam vao khe m rong tren board chnh tr cac bo ieu khien khong tuy chon (nh ban phm), thng c at tren board chnh.

Hnh 2.18 Nhiem vu cua bo ieu khien la ieu khien thiet b vao/ra va ieu khien truy cap

bus.

Viec ieu khien oc hoac ghi mot khoi d lieu trc tiep vi bo nh ma khong qua bo x ly goi la truy xuat bo nh trc tiep (DMA: Direct Memory Access) Bus khong ch c dung bi cac bo ieu khien vao/ra ma con bi CPU e tm nap cac lenh va d lieu. Khi CPU va bo ieu khien vao/ra ong thi muon s dung bus th ngi ta dung mot chip goi la bo phan x bus (bus arbiter) e quyet nh thanh phan c s dung bus. Nhn chung, cac thiet b vao/ra c cho quyen u tien cao hn CPU do cac thiet b nh o a khong the dng hoat ong hoac i lam mat d lieu. Khi khong co thiet b vao/ra nao lam viec, CPU co the lay tat ca cac chu ky bus e truy cap bo nh. Tuy nhien khi co mot thiet b vao/ra ang chay ong thi, thiet b o se se yeu cau va c cap bus khi can en. Qua trnh nay goi la anh cap chu ky (cycle

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-38-

stealing) va lam toc o may tnh cham lai. So sanh vi mainframe co nhieu bus th hien tng nay khong the xay ra. Ngay nay ngi ta dung nhieu loai thiet b vao/ra. Mot vai thiet b vao/ra pho bien se c e cap en sau ay:

1. Ban phm:
Ban phm co nhieu loai khac nhau. n gian nhat la mot chuyen mach (switch) e tao ra mot tiep xuc ve ien khi an phm. Vi loai phc tap hn, di moi phm co mot nam cham i qua 1 cuon day khi go phm, v vay mot dong ien cam ng c nhan biet. Ngoai loai chuyen mach bang c kh, cac ban phm hien nay con s dung loai chuyen mach bang tu ien co u iem chong mon va bui bam. Chuyen mach co 2 ban bang nha noi thanh ma tran chuyen mach c thiet ke e phat hien nhng thay oi ve ien dung cua mach. Khi an phm, ban tren di chuyen so vi ban di co nh lam ien dung thay oi. Loai chuyen mach nay khong da vao tiep xuc bang kim loai nen tranh c mon va bui, cung nh khong b ket phm. Ngoai ra con co loai phm cam bien ien t (thay oi dong ien theo hieu ng Hall) Ban phm trong he thong IBM PC va tng thch ban au thc chat la mot bo x ly ban phm truyen thong vi may tnh bang mot lien ket d lieu rieng biet nham truyen noi tiep nhng khung 11 bit (8 bit d lieu va cac bit ieu khien) nhng khong theo chuan RS-232C. Bo x ly ban phm la chip vi ieu khien 8048 hoac 8049 hoac cac chip tng thch nh 6805 cua Motorola. Bo x ly oc ma tran phm, giai ma cac tn hieu an phm, chuyen oi ma vi tr cua phm thanh ma quet (scan code) roi truyen en board chnh cua may tnh.

2. Man hnh:
Man hnh chu yeu gom mot en tia am cc CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) va cac nguon cung cap ien. CRT cha mot sung ban mot chum tia ien t ap vao man huynh quang at pha trc en, nh trong hnh 2.20 (cac man hnh mau co 3 sung ien t tng ng vi 3 mau o, xanh la cay va xanh dng). Trong thi gian quet ngang, chum tia ien t quet qua

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-39-

Hnh 2. 20 man hnh trong mot thi gian khoang 50 microsec va vach ra mot ng gan nh nam ngang tren man hnh. Ke en chum tia ien t thc hien mot ng hoi ngang tr ve canh ben trai e bat au lan quet ke tiep. Tia quet ngang c ieu khien bi mot ien ap tang tuyen tnh a en cac phien lam lech ngang at ben trai va ben phai sung ien t. Viec quet doc c ieu khien bi mot ien ap tuyen tnh tang cham hn nhieu a en cac phien lam lech doc at pha tren va di sung ien t. Sau 400 en 1000 lan quet, ien ap tren cac phien lam lech doc va ngang c nghch ao cung luc e at chum tia ien t tr ve goc pha tren ben trai cua man hnh huynh quang. Toan bo anh thng c quet lap lai t 30 ti 60 lan trong 1 giay. en CRT hien nay co 2 kieu: cong va phang. Kieu man hnh cong co mat ngoai chnh gia man hnh phnh ra. Kieu phang la loai en Trinitron ch cong theo chieu ngang va co chieu doc phang. Cac may tnh xach tay s dung bo phan hien th la man hnh tinh the long (Liquid Crystal Display). o la chat long hu c ma phan t cua no co kha nang phan cc anh sang dan en thay oi cng o sang. Trng tnh ien c dung e ieu khien hng phan t tinh the long. Man hnh tinh the long da tren hieu ng trng xoan (twisted nematic field effect). Phan t trong lp tinh the long chuyen hng 90 o gia hai mat knh. Anh sang ben ngoai b phan cc va xoan theo hng phan t tinh the long khien tia sang i qua c lp tinh the long, lp tinh the long co trang thai sang Dung ien cc trong suot (th du indium oxyt)nam pha di lp knh keo phan t tinh the longnh hng theo trng tnh ien. Tia sang b gi lai trong tinh the long ma khong i qua hay phan xa lai c na, lp tinh the long co trang thai toi. e nh hng anh sang ung theo hng phan t tinh the long, ta can bo phan cc anh sang. Khi tia sang thoat ra pha ben kia tinh the long ta can bo phan cc anh sang khac. Nguon sang co the la LED hay cac loai en khac. Neu bo tr pha sau lp tinh the long mot lp gng phan xa, ta co the dung anh sang thng ben ngoai e quan sat man hnh. Trng tnh ien mot chieu co the pha hong cau truc tinh the, v vay ngi ta hay dung hieu ien the xoay chieu. Hieu ien the dung cho tinh the long tng oi thap, t 5 en 15V. Man hnh tinh the long theo nguyen tac ke tren co o tng phan rat thap (goc nhn 15o) Goc quan sat cung rat han che (20o t ngang, 60o t tren)

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-40-

Co 3 loai thiet b au cuoi thng dung: cac thiet b au cuoi anh xa ky t (character-map terminal), cac thiet b au cuoi anh xa bit (bit-map terminal) hay man hnh o hoa va cac thiet b au cuoi chuan RS-232C (reference standard 232-C terminal). Cac thiet b au cuoi anh xa ky t Hau het cac may vi tnh eu s dung s o trnh bay trong hnh 2.21 e hien th d lieu xuat len man hnh. Tren card truyen noi tiep (serial communication board) la mot oan bo nh goi la RAM video (video RAM), cung nh mot so mach ien t dung e truy xuat bus va tao tn hieu video (video signal).

Hnh 2.21 e hien th cac ky t, CPU sao chep chung vao bo nh RAM video di dang cac byte xen ke. Moi ky t c ket hp vi 1 byte thuoc tnh e mo ta cach the hien ky t. Thuoc tnh co the bao gom: mau sac, cng o, co nhap nhay hay khong? v.v . Do vay, mot man hnh co 25x80 ky t oi hoi 4000 byte trong RAM video trong o 2000 byte cho cac ky t va 2000 byte cho thuoc tnh cua chung. Mot so card co dung lng bo nh ln hn e lu gi nhieu anh man hnh. Cong viec cua card video (video card) la lap lai viec tm nap cac ky t t RAM video va tao ra cac tn hieu can thiet ieu khien man hnh. Toan bo mot dong cac ky t c tm-nap mot lan e co the tnh c cac dong quet rieng le. Tn hieu nay la tn hieu tng t tan so cao, ieu khien viec quet chum tia ien t e ve cac ky t len man hnh. V card video xuat tn hieu video nen man hnh phai at gan may tnh (khoang vai met). Cac thiet b au cuoi anh xa bit Thay oi ay la man hnh khong c xem nh day 25x80 ky t ma la mot day cac phan t hnh anh, goi la pixel. Moi pixel co the hoac sang hoac toi e bieu th mot bit thong tin. Tren cac may vi tnh, man hnh co the cha thng 480x640 pixel. Tren cac tram lam viec (workstation), man hnh tieu bieu co 1024x1024 pixel. Cac thiet b au cuoi thng dung anh xa bit hn anh xa ky t c goi la man hnh o hoa. Nhieu card video co the hoat ong ca 2 che o anh xa bit va anh xa ky t di s ieu khien cua phan mem va ta goi la card video o hoa.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-41-

Y tng nh vay cung dung s o nh hnh 2.21, ngoai tr RAM video co dung lng tng oi ln. Phan mem co the thiet lap mot mau bat ky va mau o se c cho hien len man hnh ngay. e ve cac ky t, phan mem phai quyet nh cap phat, th du: mot ma tran co kch thc 9x14 bit va lam ay nhng bit can thiet e lam cho ky t xuat hien. Phng phap nay cho phep chng trnh tao ra nhieu kieu ch (font) va tron lan chung neu muon. Toan bo phan cng chu trach nhiem hien th day bit. Mac dau cac thiet b au cuoi anh xa bit co tnh mem deo cao, nhng chung co 2 bat li la oi hoi dung lng video RAM ln va hieu suat thap. Do do can co cac CPU toc o cao e thao tac tren cac bit hoac phai c trang b cac phan cng ac biet quan ly cac pixel nhanh chong, t ay cho phep che tao cac bit o hoa (Graphics chipset) Hau het cac man hnh hien nay la man hnh a tan so (multi frequency) nham thch hp vi nhieu tieu chuan khac nhau cua tn hieu video, chung co cac o phan giai (so pixel theo chieu ngang va chieu doc) khac nhau tuy theo loai man hnh: Loai man hnh kieu mang o hoa video VGA (Video Graphic Array) co o phan giai 640x480. Loai man hnh sieu VGA (SVGA= Super VGA) co o phan giai 800x600 Loai man hnh kieu mang o hoa m rong XGA (Extended Graphics Array) co o phan giai 1024x768 Loai man hnh kieu UVGA (Ultra VGA) co o phan giai 1280x1024. oi vi cac man hnh mau, ngi ta con nh ngha kch thc cua mot iem anh (ung ra la khoang cach gia bo ba iem mau cua mot iem anh tnh bang mm). Kch thc nay cang nho anh hien th cang net, hien nay khoang 0,25mm hay t hn. Mot van e lien quan en RAM video cua cac card video o hoa la o rong cua bus d lieu gia chip o hoa va RAM video. Chip o hoa thng la chip n noi trc tiep vi RAM video qua mot bus cuc bo (local bus). So bit cho bus d lieu cuc bo co the la 64 bit hoac tham ch 128 bit (khong phai la bus d lieu 32 bit cua khe bus m rong tren board chnh ma card video cam tren o. e cai tien toc o cua mot card video, ta can xem xet 3 kha canh: Bo x ly o hoa (chip o hoa) RAM video Bus cuc bo

3. Modem:
Vi lng may tnh s dung ngay cang tang, nhu cau truyen thong tin gia may tnh nay. Tat ca nhng ng dung eu dung he thong ien thoai e cung cap ng thong tin. Tuy nhien, ng day ien thoai t nhien , khong thch hp e truyen tn hieu may tnh, trong o tn hieu c bieu th 1 vi ien ap khoang 5 volt va 0 vi ien ap 0 volt, nh trong hnh 2.20a. Tn hieu hai mc ien ap se b sai dang khi truyen qua day ien thoai dan en cac loi truyen. Mot tn hieu song sin tan so khoang t 1000

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-42-

en 2000 Hz goi la song mang (carrier), khi truyen i se t b sai dang hn. ieu nay c khai thac lam c s cho hau het cac he thong thong tin. Do s thay oi cua song sin hoan toan co the oan trc, nen mot song sin thuan tuy khi truyen i se khong mang theo mot thong tin nao ca. Bang cach thay oi bien o, tan so hoac pha, chuoi cac bit 0 va 1 c truyen i nh trong hnh 2.22. Qua trnh nay goi la s ieu che (modulation).

Hnh 2.22 Trong ieu che bien o (amplitude modulation) [xem hnh 2.22(b)], 2 mc ien ap khac nhau tng ng vi 0 va 1 c s dung. D lieu so phat toc o rat thap se nghe mot tieng on ln oi vi bit 1 va khong co on oi vi bit 0. Trong ieu che tan so [xem hnh 2.22 (c)], mc ien ap la hang so nhng tan so song mang se khac nhau oi vi 1 va 0, d lieu so c ieu che tan so se nghe 2 am (tone) tng ng vi 0 va 1. Cach ieu che tan so nh vay con c goi la lap khoa dch tan so FSK ( Frequency Shift Keying ). Trong ieu che pha (phase modulation) n gian [xem hnh 2.22(d)], bien o va tan so khong thay oi, nhng pha cua song mang thay oi 180 khi d lieu chuyen t 0 sang 1 hoac t 1 sang 0. Trong cac he thong ieu pha phc tap hn, luc bat au cua moi khoang thi gian (time interval), pha song mang b dch i 45, 135, 225, hoac 315 o cho phep vi moi khoang thi gian tng ng ta se co 2 bit, goi la ma hoa pha 2 bit (dibit). Vi nhng s o khac ngi ta cung co the truyen 3 hoac nhieu bit moi khoang thi gian. Toc o bien ieu c tnh theo baud tng ng vi so bien ieu trong mot giay (con goi la so khoang thi gian c ban cua bien ieu). Khi chuyen 2 hoac nhieu bit trong mot khoang thi gian , toc o bit se ln hn toc o baud. Rat nhieu ngi nham lan 2 thuat ng nay. Ngoai cac ky thuat ieu che song mang neu tren, ngi ta con ket hp cac thay oi pha vi cac thay oi bien o trong song mang b ieu che va goi la ieu che QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) nham chuyen tai nhieu thong tin hn. Neu d lieu phat la mot chuoi cac ky t 8 bit, ngi ta muon ng truyen co kha nang ket noi 8 bit ong thi, ngha la 8 oi day. V ng day ien thoai ch cung cap 1 kenh (channel), nen cac bit phai c phat noi tiep, bit nay sau bit kia (hoac

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-43-

nhom thanh 2 neu dung phng phap ma hoa dibit). Loai thiet b nhan cac ky t t mot may tnh di dang cac tn hieu 2 mc, 1 bit mot thi iem va phat cac bit dang cac nhom 1 hoac 2 bit c ieu bien, ieu tan hoac ieu pha goi la modem. Modem phat cac bit rieng le trong mot ky t nhng khoang thi gian cach eu nhau. Th du: vi toc o d lieu 1200 baud, tn hieu co s thay oi c sau moi 833 microgiay. Dung mot modem th hai au thu e oi song mang a ieu che thanh so nh phan. Bi v cac bit en au thu nhng khoang thi gian cach eu nhau, nen ngay khi modem thu xac nh iem bat au cua mot ky t, ong ho (clock) cua modem cho biet khi nao phai lay mau tn hieu ng truyen e oc ga tr cua cac bit rieng le. Bell Lab va Uy Ban T Van quoc te ve ien thoai va ien tn CCITT (Consultative Committee on International Telephone and Telegraph) a at ra nhng tieu chuan cho cac nghi thc (Protocol) truyen qua modem. To chc nay c at ten la Hiep hoi vien thong quoc te ITU (International Telecommunication Union ) va cac nghi thc c phat trien goi la cac tieu chuan ITU T. Cac modem thng tuan theo cac tieu chuan khac nhau tuy vao nhng ac trng va kha nang cua chung. Phat hien loi va kha nang cua mot so modem nhan biet co loi phat sinh va yeu cau truyen lai d lieu a b sai . Hai modem 2 thiet b truyen va nhan phai co cung tieu chuan phat hien loi va sa loi. Cac nghi thc sa loi a c dung la nghi thc mang cua Microcom cho cac tieu chuan MNP1 en MNP4 (Microcom Networking Protocol), thu tuc truy xuat lien ket cho cac modem LAPM (Link Access Procedure for Modems) cho tieu chuan V.42 v. v . Nen d lieu va kha nang cai at san trong mot so modem nham tiet kiem thi gian truyen va chi ph truyen. Hieu suat nen cang cao toc o truyen d lieu cua modem cang ln. Th du nh hieu xuat nen la 4 : 1 se tang toc o cua modem len 4 lan, modem 14400 bps co d lieu c nen se co toc o truyen 57600 bps va modem 28.8 Kbps co the at en 115200 bps. Tieu chuan MLP5, V.42 bis la cac tieu chuan co nghi thc nen d lieu. Cac modem mi nhat hieu ang c s dung rong rai co toc o truyen d lieu la 56 Kbps. Truyen ong bo va khong ong bo . Co 2 phng phap khac nhau c dung e truyen cac ky t. Trong phng phap truyen khong ong bo (asynchronous), khoang thi gian gia 2 ky t khong co nh, mac du khoang thi gian gia 2 bit lien tiep trong mot ky t co nh. Th du: mot ngi anh may tren mot thiet b au cuoi chia se thi gian (time-sharing terminal) se khong anh cung mot toc o, nh vay khoang thi gian gia hai ky t lien tiep khong phai la hang so . S bien thien toc o nay lam nay sinh van e lam the nao e may thu co the nhan ra bit au tien cua mot ky t . Neu s dung cac phng phap ieu che trong hnh

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-44-

2.20, ta khong co cach nao phan biet gia bit 0 va khong co d lieu. Mot ky t gom toan cac bit 0 se khong the nao nhn thay c. Hn na, mot ky t gom toan bit 1 theo sau la 7 bit 0 se khong phan biet c vi mot ky t gom 7 bit 0 va theo sau la bit 1, bi v may thu khong co cach nao biet c co bit 1 hay 0 au, gia hoac cuoi ky t . e giup may thu nhan ra ni bat au mot ky t , ngi ta phat trc tiep mot bit Start ngay trc moi ky t. e cai tien o tin cay, ngi ta phat them 1 hoac 2 bit stop ngay sau moi ky t. Thong thng, ng truyen c gi trang thai 1 khi khong co d lieu c phat e cho phep phat hien mach h, v vay bit Start la 0. Cac bit Stop la 1 e phan biet vi cac bit Start. Gia bit Start va cac bit Stop la cac bit d lieu c phat nhng khoang thi gian bang nhau. Bo nh th trong modem thu c khi ong khi bit Start en, cho phep modem nhan biet bit bat au cua ky t. Phng phap truyen khong ong bo c minh hoa trong hnh 2.23(a). Trong phng phap truyen khong ong bo, toc o bit ( bit rate ) trong khoang t 110 bps ti 19200 bps. toc o 110 bps, ngi ta dung hai bit stop, v the mot ky t 7 bit, cong vi mot bit kiem tra chan le,1 bit Start, 2 bit Stop se cho mot khung 11 bit. Do vay, 110 bps tng ng vi toc o 10 ky t moi giay. nhng toc o cao hn, ngi ta ch dung mot bit Stop. Phng phap truyen ong bo (synchronous) khong s dung bit Start va cac bit Stop. Ket qua la toc o truyen d lieu c tang len. Truyen ong bo thng tien hanh toc o 4800 bps, 9600 bps, hoac tham tr con cao hn. Trong phng phap nay, mot khi a ong bo, cac modem van tiep tuc gi cac ky t e duy tr ong bo, ngay ca luc khong phat d lieu. Mot ky t ac biet idle c gi i khi khong co d lieu phat. Trong phng phap truyen ong bo, khong giong nh truyen khong ong bo, khoang thi gian gia 2 ky t luon bang nhau.

Hnh 2.23 :Cac phng thc truyen ( a) Truyen bat ong bo ( b) Truyen ong bo . Truyen ong bo oi hoi cac xung ong ho (clock) trong may thu va phat phai duy tr ong bo trong nhng khoang thi gian dai, trai lai ieu nay khong can en trong truyen bat ong bo do cac s bat au cua moi ky t a c ch ro bang 1 bit Start. Thi gian truyen co the tiep tuc lau ma khong co s tai ong bo cua may thu vi pha

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-45-

cua may phat tuy thuoc vao s on nh cua cac xung ong ho. ien hnh cac xung ong ho, on nh u e cho phep cac khoi hang ngan ky t phat i ma khong can s tai ong bo. oi khi nhng khoi ky t nay dung ma Hamming hoac nhng ky thuat khac e phat hien e sa loi ng truyen. Truyen n cong, ban song cong va song cong Co 3 phng phap truyen c dung trong muc ch truyen thong tin : n cong, ban song cong, va song cong. ng truyen n cong (simplex) co kha nang truyen d lieu ch theo hng. Nguyen nhan khong phai do tnh chat cua ng day, n gian ch v mot au cuoi ch co 1 may phat va au cuoi kia ch co mot may thu. Cau hnh nay t c dung trong cac may tnh v khong co cach nao e may thu phat tn hieu nhan biet (acknowledgement signal) ti may phat, cho biet thong iep (message) a c nhan ung. Phat thanh va truyen hnh la nhng th du ve truyen n cong . ng truyen ban song cong (halfduplex) co the phat va nhan d lieu tren ca 2 hng nhng khong ong thi. Trong suot mot cuoc truyen, mot modem se la may phat va modem con lai la may thu. Tnh huong thong thng la thiet b A , hoat ong nh mot may phat , gi mot chuoi cac ky t ti thiet b B, hoat ong nh mot may thu. Sau o A va B oi vai tro cho nhau, B gi thong bao tr lai A cho biet ky t nhan c co loi khong? Neu khong co loi ng truyen, A va B oi vai tro lan na, va A se gi thong iep ke tiep ti B. Neu co loi, A phat lai thong iep a gi lan na. S oi thoai (conversation) gia may phat va may thu ve ieu g phai lam ke tiep goi la nghi thc truyen (protocol). Thi gian can e chuyen ng truyen ban song cong t hng nay thanh hng kia co the dai gap nhieu lan thi gian truyen ky t. ng xe la la mot v du cua phng thc truyen ban song cong, bi v no co the ieu hanh giao thong tren ca 2 hng nhng khong ong thi. Ngc lai, ng truyen song cong (fullduplex) co the phat va nhan d lieu ong thi ca hai hng. Mot cach khai quat, ng truyen song cong tng ng vi 2 ng truyen n cong, mot con ng cho moi hng. V 2 ng truyen co the tien hanh song song, mot ng cho moi hng nen truyen song cong co the phat nhieu thong tin hn truyen ban song cong vi cung toc o d lieu, truyen song cong khong mat thi gian e thay oi hng truyen.

4. Chuot:
Cang ngay ngi s dung may tnh cang khong can co nhieu kien thc ve cach lam viec cua may tnh. Cac may tnh the he ENIAC ch c ngi che tao ra no s dung. Vao nhng nam 1950, cac may tnh ch c s dung bi nhng chuyen gia lap trnh lanh nghe. Ngay nay, con ngi co the s dung may tnh mot cach rong rai vao mot so cong viec ma ho muon thc hien, va ho khong can biet nhieu, (hoac tham ch khong muon biet) ve cach lam viec cua may tnh hoac cach lap trnh tren may tnh.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-46-

Nhieu ngi nhan thay viec go cac lenh (thng kho hieu) tren ban phm la khong quen thuoc vi ngi s dung. Ngi ta rat thch nhng he thong trong o may tnh the hien cac trnh n (menu) tren man hnh, va ho tro mi ti muc ma ho muon. Dung mo hnh nay oi hoi phai co mot cach e tro tren man hnh. Chuot (mouse) la thiet b thong dung nhat cho phep ngi s dung tro tren man hnh. Chuot c Douglas Englebart phat minh vao nam 1964 tai trng ai hoc Stanford. Chuot chnh thc c goi la bo nh v XY tren man hnh. Nam 1973, Xerox ap dung chuot cho he thong may tnh Alto cai tien, vao luc nay ang c th nghiem va ch s dung cho nghien cu. Chuot la mot hop plastic nho at tren ban canh thiet b au cuoi. Khi di chuyen chuot tren ban, mot con tro nho (cursor) tren man hnh cung di chuyen theo, cho phep ngi s dung tro ti cac muc tren man hnh. Chuot thng co 2 hoac 3 nut nhan (button), cho phep chon cac muc t trnh n (menu) tren man hnh. a co nhieu tranh luan ve chuot can phai co bao nhieu nut nhan. Ngi bnh thng thch co mot nut nhan hn (v kho co s nham lan), nhng ngi thanh thao thch co nhieu nut e thc hien nhng ieu khac thng. Co 3 loai chuot ang c s dung: Chuot c kh (mechanical mouse), chuot quang (optical mouse), va chuot c khquang (optomechanical mouse). Mot loai chuot c kh co hai banh xe cao su nho ra pha di, co cac truc vuong goc nhau c minh hoa trong hnh 2.24. Khi chuot di chuyen song song vi truc chnh, mot banh xe se quay. Khi di chuyen thang goc vi chuc chnh, banh xe kia se quay. Moi banh xe se ieu khien mot bien tr. Bang cach o s thay oi ien tr co the biet moi banh xe quay bao nhieu, va nh vay tnh c chuot a di chuyen bao xa theo moi hng .

Hnh 2.24: Chuot co banh xe dung e tro en cac muc trong menu. Mot loai chuot c kh khac cung at c hieu qua nh vay bang cach dung mot qua cau nho hi nho ra pha di.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-47-

Loai th hai la chuot quang. Loai nay khong co banh xe hoac qua cau, thay vao o mot diod phat sang LED (Light Emitting Diode) va mot bo tach quang pha di. Chuot quang c dung tren mot mieng em plastic ac biet co mot mang li cac dong ke ch nhat cach khoang gan nhau. Khi chuot di chuyen tren li, bo tach quang do dong ke i ngang qua bang cach xem s thay oi lng anh sang phan hoi t LED. Mach ien t ben trong chuot se em so dong cua mang li i qua theo moi hng. Loai th ba la chuot c kh-quang. Giong nh chuot c kh co hai banh xe, chuot c kh-quang cung co hai banh xe quay c gan vuong goc nhau. Tuy nhien, moi banh co mot LED gia va mot loat khe h khac eu nhau xung quanh chu vi banh xe cung vi mot bo tach quang at ngay ben ngoai banh xe. Khi chuot di chuyen cac banh xe quay va cac xung anh sang ap vao bo tach quang moi khi co mot khe h xuat hien gia LED va bo tach quang. So xung phat hien c se t le vi khoang cach di chuyen tren man hnh cua con tro.

Hnh 2.25: Cau tao cua chuot c kh-quang Mac du chuot c thiet ke theo nhieu cach khac nhau, nhng thong thng khi s dung, chuot eu gi mot chuoi 3 byte ti may tnh sau moi 100 mgiay. Cac ky t ti may tnh thng i tren ng cap RS-232C, nh the chung c anh tren man phm. Byte au tien cha mot so nguyen co dau cho biet chuot a di chuyen theo chuc X bao nhieu n v trong 100 mgiay cuoi. Byte th hai cung cho biet thong tin nh vay nhng theo truc Y. Byte th ba cha trang thai hien tai cua cac nut nhan. oi khi ngi ta con dung 2 byte cho moi truc toa o. Phan mem cap thap trong may tnh nhan thong tin nay va oi chuyen ong tng oi do chuot gi ti thanh v tr tuyet oi. Sau o mot mui ten (con tro) c hien th tren man hnh v tr tng ng vi v tr cua chuot. Khi mui ten tro ti mot muc thch hp, ngi s dung nhap (click) mot nut nhan, nut o may tnh se hieu muc nao a c chon t s nhan biet mui ten ang ni nao tren man hnh . Cuoi nam 1996, Microsoft a ra mot loai chuot mi goi la chuot thong minh (intelligent mouse), tuy giong nh cac chuot Microsoft chuan nhng co them mot banh xe nho ben tren gia hai nut phai va trai cua chuot. Banh xe nay co hai chc nang chu yeu la cuon cac tai lieu hoac nhng trang Web bang cach ay banh xe ti lui ,

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-48-

chc nang th hai giong nh nut nhan th ba cua mot chuot co ba nut nhan . Loai chuot nay rat thuan tien khi ta duyet nhieu trang Web, lam viec vi cac ban tnh , v.v e s dung chuot thong minh ta phai co phan mem ho tr nh Microsoft Internet Explorer. Nhng ng dung trong Office 97 cung ho tr chuot thong minh, phan mem nay con cho phep ta an gi phm Ctrl khi xoay banh xe e phong to, thu nho. Hien nay, chuot co the ghep noi vi cac PC bang cach giao tiep: Giao tiep noi tiep. Giao tiep chuot PS / 2 . Giao tiep bus Vi giao tiep noi tiep, chuot noi vi cac PC qua cac cong noi tiep COM (thng co hai cong noi tiep cho mot PC la COM1 va COM2). au noi tren cap cua chuot la au noi c 9 chan hoac 25 chan. Phan ln nhng may tnh mi hien nay co cong chuot chuyen dung tren board chnh, giao tiep nay goi la giao tiep chuot PS/2 v c s dung tren cac he thong PS/2 cua IBM t nam 1987. Chuot s dung giao tiep bus thng c dung trong cac he thong khong co cong chuot dung tren board chnh hoac khong co cac cong noi tiep. Board chnh hoac khong co cac cong noi tiep. Board giao tiep bus rieng cam tren khe h rong cua board chnh va truyen thong vi trnh ieu khien thiet b bang bus cua board chnh.

5. May in :
Thiet b au cuoi CRT co the ap ng c vi nhieu ng dung, nhng oi vi nhng ng dung khac nh can in ho s ra giay phai can en mot loai thiet b khac. e thoa man c nhu cau nay ngi ta a che tao ra nhieu loai may in. Di ay chung ta se mo ta van tat cac loai may in chnh va cach lam viec cua chung . May in tac ong . May in loai co xa nhat, may in tac ong (impact), lam viec giong nh mot may anh ch : Mot mieng kim loai hoac plastic co ch noi ap vao mot dai ruy bang mc tiep xuc vi t giay, e lai mot ch tren giay. Tren cac may tnh ca nhan hien nay, dang in nay c dung trong cac may in co banh xe loai vong (daisy wheel), chung co mot banh xe hnh nang hoa (giong nh hnh mot hoa cuc) vi cac ky t tren cac canh. e in mot ky t, may in quay ky t ung en trc mot nam cham ien, sau o cho ien chay qua nam cham, ng ky t o ap vao ruy bang. May in loai nay co chc lng tot, ac biet khi dung vi dai ruybang than (carbon), at toc o t 20 en 40 ky t moi giay. Cac mainframe ln cung dung may in tac ong, nhng ay cac ky t c tao noi tren mot xch bang thep bao boc tren t giay. May in 80 cot se co 80 cai bua, moi bua cho mot v tr cot. Mot dong c in bang cach hng dan bua ap vao ngay ch

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-49-

thch hp pha trc no. Trong mot vong quay cua xch, tng ky t se xuat hien moi cot, v vay co the in toan bo mot dong. Nhng may in nay co the in mot trang ch trong vai giay hoac t hn. May in ma tran. Loai may in thong dung khac la may in ma tran (matrix printer), trong o au in co t 7 en 24 kim hoac hoa t tnh c quet ngang qua moi dong in. May in loai re tien co 7 kim e in 80 ky t tren mot dong vi moi ky t la mot ma tran la 5x7. Thc te dong in luc o gom 7 dong ngang, moi dong co 5x80 iem. Moi iem co the c in hoac khong in tuy thuoc vao ky t c in. Hnh 2.26(a) minh hoa ch A c in tren mot ma tran 5x7. Ngi ta co the tang chat lng in len bang hai ky thuat : Dung nhieu kim hn va co cac vong tron chong cheo len nhau. Hnh 2.26(b) the hien mot ch A c in bang may in 24 kim tao ra cac iem chong cheo nhau. Thng mot dong phai c quet nhieu lan e sinh ra cac iem chong cheo nhau, do o chat lng in tang len nhng ong thi toc o in cung giam xuong. Cac may in ma tran tot co the hoat ong vi nhieu che o e ieu hoa s khac biet gia chc lng in va toc o.

Hnh 2.26 (a) Ch A Tren mot ma tran 5x7 ( b) ch A c sinh vi may in 24 kim chong cheo nhau. May in laser Co le s phat trien ly thu nhat ve in, t khi Johann Gutenberg che ra loai may di ong vao the k 15, la may in laser (laser printer). Thiet b nay cho mot hnh anh chat lng cao, co tnh linh hoat tuyet hao, toc o nhanh va lam giam gia thanh thiet b ngoai vi. Cac may in laser hau het eu dung ky thuat giong nh may sao chep quang (photocopy), va chac chan chang bao lau na ky thuat hay co the s dung c trong cac may ket hp in va sao chep . Ky thuat c ban c in hoa trong hnh 2. 27. Phan chnh cua may in la mot trong quay chnh xac. Luc bat au moi trang in, trong c nap ien ap 1000 volt va c phu mot chat cam quang, sau o anh sang t phan nguon phat laser c quet doc theo chieu dai trong nh chum tia ien t cho en hnh CRT, nhng thay v dung ien ap e lam lech ngang, ngi ta dung mot

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-50-

gng quay hnh bat giac e quet doc theo chieu dai trong. Tia laser c ieu che e sinh ra mau cac vet sang va toi . Cac mau ma tia laser ap vao se mat ien tch.

Hnh 2.27: Hoat ong cua mot may in laser . Sau khi mot dong cac iem c quet, trong quay mot phan cua o e cho phep dong ke tiep c quet. Cuoi cung, dong cac iem th nhat at en toner, mot hop cha bot en nhay cam vi tnh ien ma ta goi la bot in tnh ien. Bot in tnh ien b hut bi cac iem van con tch ien, v the hnh thanh mot anh cua dong o. Mot lat sau, tren ng truyen tai, trong a phu bot in tnh ien c ng len giay va chuyen bot en nay len giay. Sau o giay i qua mot cuon ru lo nhiet e ket dnh bot in tnh ien len giay, co nh hnh anh. lan quay sau, trong phong ien va lam sach bot in tnh ien con tren o, chuan b tch ien va phu bo in lan na cho trang ke tiep. Qua trnh nay la s ket hp cc k phc tap cua ky thuat vat ly hoa hoc, c kh va quang hoc . Tuy nhien, khi c lap rap ay u, ngi ta thng goi la ong c in (print engine). Cac nha che tao may in laser ket hp cac ong c in vi mot so mach ien t va phan mem rieng cua ho e tao ra mot may in hoan hao . Cung co the s dung mot loai ong c in hi khac khong dung tia laser, bang cach gan mot hang LED doc theo chieu dai trong (hoac hng ti trong qua si quang ). Phan mem se ieu khien cac LED sang va tat e hnh thanh mot dong. ay la mot thiet ke quang n gian, nhng can nhieu mach ien t e ieu khien cac LED. Hai phng phap khac e sap at ong c in vao trong mot may in hoan hao. Vi phng phap au, may tnh ch cho ra dang van ban thong thng vi cac lenh chon kieu ch, ve ng thang, ch nhat va hnh tron. Mot may tnh ben trong may in xay dng mot ban o bit (bit map) cho tng trang va chuyen ti may in. Thuan li cua phng phap nay la bang thong can thiet gia may in va may tnh rat thap. e in mot trang 50 dong 80 ky t vi mot kieu ch, can nhap 4000 byte. Mot may in co toc o in 12 trang/phut yeu cau bang thong gia may tnh va may in la 6400 bps, trong khi o ng truyen RS232C co the lam viec vi toc o 9600 baud. iem bat li la can co mot may tnh ben trong may in. e lu gi mot ban o bit cho mot trang kich thc

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-51-

8,5x11 inch vi mot inch vuong co 300 x 300 iem, ta can mot megabyte bo nh trong may tnh . e tranh ton kem ve may tnh va may in, mot so he thong dung may tnh va bo nh ben trong may tnh e xay dng ban o bit, va ch chuyen anh bit tho (cha x ly) ti may in . Phng phap nay lam cho may in re hn nhieu, nhng luc nay can phai chuyen 1 megabyte anh trong 5 giay, toc o d lieu la 1.6 megabit/giay. Do vay, toc o may in co the b cham lai neu toc o d lieu khong at c yeu cau nay. Cung co the thiet ke mot he thong dung hoa c 2 thai cc nay, nhng ro rang khi di chuyen 600 iem/inch hoac cao hn, ngi ta can mot lng kha ln bo nh, cong xuat tnh toan va bang thong . ang tiec la cac he thong sap ch in chuyen nghiep can t 1000 ti 2000 iem/inch. Ta nhan thay, may quay phim co the sao chep tai lieu e in de dang bang cach dung may in LED ( LED printer ) co o phan giai 450 iem/inch. Neu so sanh nhng tai lieu c sap xep ch in chuyen nghiep, dung mot knh hien vi con g suat thap, ta se thay s khac biet thc ro rang. Hy vong la tnh noi dung cao se bu lai c bo phan giai vat ly thap cua tai lieu. May in laser a lam phat sinh mot cong nghe hoan toan mi, goi la desktop publishing (dung mot may tnh nho va mot may in laser e lam tai lieu in co chat lng cao). May Macintosh, IBM PC va nhng may tnh khac co phan mem cho phep ngi s dung anh cac tai lieu va cho xuat hien tren man hnh giong nh dang xuat cuoi cung cua chung. He thong nay thng goi la WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get). Nhieu he thong dch van ban nhap thanh mot ngon ng trung gian goi la PostScript, va sau o nap vao may in laser. Trnh phien dch (interpreter) trong may in oi ngon ng PostScript thanh cac pixel va in chung. PostScript la mot chuan quan trong oi vi may in laser . May in phun mc Mc dan ien c phun thanh tia qua mot lo rat nho. Kch thc va khoang cach gia tng giot mc c ieu khien qua bo dao ong ap ien. Tan so dao ong nam trong pho am tan (100KHz). ng knh giot mc vao khoang 0,06mm va khoang cach gia moi giot la 0,15mm. Giot mc c tch ien qua mot ien cc nam pha trc ong phun. Sau o, giot mc c hai ien cc th hai ieu khien va phun len giay (hai trang thai: co mc va khong co mc). au phun c quet theo chieu ngang tao nen tng dong in.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-52-

Hnh 2.28: Nguyen tac hoat ong may in phun mc Nguyen tac in da tren ien tch cua giot mc. Neu giot mc c tch ien, no se b anh lech hng va phun thang len giay in. Neu khong c tch ien, giot mc se ap phai khuon che va b bm lai hop ng mc. Ky t c hnh thanh trong mot ma tran iem. e co chat lng tot, mot ky t can co khoang 1000 giot mc. Vi 100000 giot trong mot giay (tan so 100 KHz) ta co toc o in la 100 ky t trong 1 giay. Nguyen tac phun mc lien tuc tren ngay nay hau nh c thay the bang nguyen tac phun gian oan. Bo dao ong ap ien ch hoat ong khi can phun mc, khong can en khuon che. Nhieu ong phun c xep thanh hang tren au in lam tang toc o in. Mc co the c phun theo nguyen tac bot hi (Bulbe Jet Printer). Bot kh c tao bang mot ien tr ot rat nho. ien tr nung nong mc in va tao nen bot kh, ap suat bot kh ay giot mc ra khoi lo phun. Nhieu lo phun xep thanh hang hnh thanh au may in.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-53-

Hnh 2.29: Nguyen tac hoat ong may in phun bot hi Hien nay, cac may tnh ca nhan, may in c ghep vi PC qua cong song song (parallel port) hay con goi la cong may in (printer port) LPT. Giao tiep qua cong may in cho phep ta xuat ong thi 8 bit d lieu ra may in nen toc o truyen nhanh. Cac he thong khac truyen d lieu qua cong may in co the truyen mot lan 4 bit (xuat 8 bit song song va nhan 4 bit song song) . ieu nay xay ra do luc ban au cac IBMPC khong quan tam en van e nhap d lieu qua cong may in va goi cac cong nay la cong 4 bit. Khi cac he thong PS/2 xuat hien, IBM a ra cac cong song song 8 bit roi sau o cac cong song song 8 bit s dung ky thuat truy xuat trc tiep bo nh DMA (Direct Memory Access). Tuy nhien chung lai khong c ho tr trong cac PC chuan. Cau hnh cua cac cong song song khong phc tap nh cac cong noi tiep. Cac IBMPC ngay t ban au a co phan mem he xuat nhap c ban BIOS (Basic Input Output System) cung nh he ieu hanh DOS ho tr cho 3 cong may in. Bang hnh 2.30 trnh bay cac a ch I / O va cac ngat chuan cho cua cong song song. Ngat ia ch bus con g 8/16 bit LPT1 --3B IRQ7 ISA CH 8/16 bit LPT2 LPT 37 RQ5 ISA 1 8H 8/16 bit LPT2 LPT 27 Khon ISA 2 8H g co Hnh 2.30:Cac a ch I/O va cac ngat chuan cua cong song song . He thong LPT chuan LPT thay the Hien nay cong song song khong ch s dung e ghep noi vi may in ma con ghep noi vi cac thiet b khac nh cac thiet b lu tr , LAN adaptor, CDROM va ca cac modem. Cac cong song song tang cng EPP (Enhanced Parallel Port ), cac cong co cac kha nang tang cng ECP (Enhanced Capabilities Port ) giup ta nang toc o truyen len 2 MB/giay thay v la 4060 KB/giay va 80 --300 KB/giay cac cong song song 4 bit va 8 bit. Cac cong EPP va ECP c cac cong ty Microsoft va Hewlett Packard hp tac phat trien. Cac PC co nhng chip superI/O ( SIO ) co the ho tr EPP va ECP. Ca hai cong nay eu c xac nh theo chuan IEEE 1284 ( ay la chuan giao tiep cac thiet b ngoai vi song song hai chieu cho may tnh ca nhan, xac nh cac tnh chat vat ly cua cong, cac che o truyen d lieu, cac tieu chuan ve ien v. v.. ), EPP c thiet ke cho

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-54-

LAN adaptor, cac o a va cac thiet b lu tr d phong trong khi ECP thiet ke cho cac may in toc o cao va co s dung kenh DMA .

6. Ngo ra noi tiep chuan RS232C .

Co hang chuc cong ty che tao may tnh va hang tram cong ty che tao cac thiet b au cuoi. e thiet b au cuoi bat ky dung c vi bat ky may tnh nao , ngi ta che ra mot chuan giao tiep cho phep ket noi gia may tnh va thiet b au cuoi (Standard computerterminal- interface ), goi la RS232C (Reference Standard). Bat ky thiet b au cuoi nao c ho tr chuan giao tiep RS232C eu co the ket noi vi mot may tnh bat ky cung c ho tr chuan giao tiep nay . Cac thiet b au cuoi theo chuan RS232C co mot bo ket noi chuan 25 chan (25pin). Chuan RS232C nh ngha kch thc c kh va hnh dang bo ket noi, cac mc ien ap va y ngha cua tng tn hieu tren. e truyen thong, moi may tnh va thiet b au cuoi eu co mot chip goi la thu phat khong ong bo chung UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter ) cung nh mach logic truy xuat bus. e hien th mot ky t, may tnh tm nap ky t t bo nh chnh va gi en UART, sau o UART dch ky t ra tren cap RS232C tng bit mot. Thc te UART la mot bo oi t song song ra noi tiep, v toan bo mot ky t (1 byte) c a en UART theo kieu song song, UART xuat ra tng bit mot tng thi iem vi mot toc o cho san. Cac toc o thng s dung la110, 300, 1200, 2400, 9600 va 19200 bit / sec . Trong thiet b au cuoi, mot UART khac thu nhan cac bit va tai tao lai toan bo ky t sau co hien th len man hnh. D lieu nhap t ban phm cua thiet b au cuoi i qua mot bo chuyen oi song song ra noi tiep trong thiet b au cuoi, va sau o c UART tap hp lai trong may tnh . Hau het chuan RS232C nh ngha 25 ng tn hieu nhng trong thc te ch co mot so t c s dung ( hau het b bo qua khi thiet b au cuoi c noi trc tiep vi may tnh khong qua modem ). Cac chan 2 va 3 tng ng vi chan phat va nhan d lieu. Moi chan ieu khien mot luong bit theo mot hng (oneway) ngc nhau. Khi bat nguon thiet b au cuoi hoac may tnh, tn hieu DTR, d lieu thiet b au cuoi san sang (Data Terminal Ready), c lap len 1 e bao cho modem biet rang ang hoat ong. Tng t, modem lap ng tn hieu DSR, d lieu c at san sang (Data Set Ready), len 1 e bao s hien dien. Khi muon phat d lieu, thiet b au cuoi hoac may tnh a ng tn hieu yeu cau phat RTS (Request To Send ) len 1 e yeu cau cho phep. Neu modem muon cap phep, modem se a tn hieu xoa e phat CTS (Clear To Send ), len 1 e tra li.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

Cac chan cua au noi cong noi tiep 9 chan. Chan 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Tn CD RxD TxD DTR SG DSR RTS CTS RI Mo ta Phat hien song mang Nhan d lieu Phat d lieu D lieu au cuoi san Noi at D lieu c at san

-55-

hieu

I/O Nhap Nhap Xuat Xuat Nhap Xuat Nhap Nhap

sang

sang

Yeu cau phat Xoa e phat Tn hieu ch bao rung chuong

Ket noi 9 chan thanh 25 chan 9 chan 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 25 chan 8 3 2 20 7 6 4 5 22 Tn hieu CD RxD TxD DTR SG DSR RTS CTS RI

Hnh 2.31 Cac chan ra cua au noi 9 chan va ket noi oi 9 chan thanh 25 chan

Cac chan con lai c dung cho nhng trang thai khac nhau, e kiem tra va cac cha nang ve nh th. Cac bang trong hnh 2.31 ch ro nhng chan ra cua nhng noi noi tiep 9 chan va ket noi oi 9 thanh 25 chan.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-56-

Chip 8250 UART s dung trong cac may tnh IBM PC chuan ban au va hien van con s dung trong cac board noi tiep gia thanh thap. Cac PC AT 286 s dung chip 16450 UART, chip nay thch hp hn oi vi cac ng truyen toc o cao so vi chip 8250. Tuy nhien ca hai eu giong nhau oi vi hau het cac phan mem. Chip 16550A UART s dung trc tien trong cac he thong PS/2, chip nay co cac chc nang giong va co chan tng thch vi chip 16450, ch khac la co them vung em thu phat 16 byte tr giup cho nhng truyen thong nhanh hn va cho phep nhieu kenh DMA truy xuat. Hien nay chip nay s dung rong rai trong cac IBM PC hoac trong cac he thong tng thch . Chip UART la thanh phan chu yeu cong noi tiep COM trong cac IBM PC hien nay. Khi mot cong noi tiep c cai at trong he thong, ta phai cau hnh cong e s dung cac a ch I/0 rieng biet ( a ch cong ) va cac yeu cau ngat IRQ ( interrupt request ) ( chi tiet ve ngat c trnh bay trong cac chng sau ). Sau ay la nhng a ch cong va cac ngat chuan (hnh 2.32) He thong bus Tat ca Tat ca Bus ISA Bus ISA COMx COM1 COM2 COM3 COM4 a ch cong 3F8H 2F8H 3E8H 2E8H IRQ IRQ4 IRQ3 IRQ4* IRQ3*

Hnh 2.32 Cac a ch cong va ngat chuan . (* : Thc te nen chon cac ngat khac ). Bus ISA ( industry standard architecture ) ban au la bus 8bit cua IBM PC cho cac may PC chuan va XT, sau o m rong thanh 16 bit cho IBM PC AT. ISA la c s cho may tnh ca nhan hien ai va la kien truc ban au c s dung trong ai a so cac he thong PC. Chi tiet ve cac loai bus se e cap trong chng 3. He thong bus ISA 8bit co 8 mc ngat trong khi he thong bus ISA 16-bit co 16 mc ngat . Hien nay Windows 95 ho tr ti 128 cong noi tiep, cho phep ta s dung nhng board nhieu cong noi tiep trong he thong. Cac board nay cho phep he thong thu thap va s dung d lieu chung vi nhieu thiet b vi ch mot khe m rong va mot ngat.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-57-

CHNG 3: LP VAT LY
Cac may tnh c xay dng t nhng chip mach tch hp cha cac phan t chuyen mach rat nho goi la ca (gate). Nhng ca thng dung nhat la AND, OR, NAND, NOR va NOT. Cac mach logic n gian c xay dng bang cach to hp trc tiep cac cong rieng re trong cac chip co o tch hp thap SSI. Cac mach logic phc tap hn c xay dng t nhng chip co o tch hp trung bnh MSI chuan nh : mach chon kenh (multiplexer), mach phan kenh (demultiplexer), mach ma hoa (encoder), mach giai ma (decoder), mach dch bit (shifter) va ALU. Cung co the lap trnh cho mot day logic lap trnh c PLA (Programmable Logical Array) e co cac ham ai so logic tuy y. Khi can nhieu ham ai so logic, viec s dung cac PLA mang lai hieu qua cao hn nhieu so vi viec s dung cac chip SSI. Phep toan so hoc cua may tnh c thc hien bang cac mach cong. Mach cong toan phan 1 bit (full adder) co the c xay dng t 2 mach cong ban phan 1 bit (half adder). Mach cong mot t nhieu bit (multibit word) c xay dng bang cach noi nhieu mach cong toan phan 1 bit. Nhng bo nh c s dung trong may tnh la RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM va EEPROM. Cac bo nh RAM tnh SRAM (static RAM ) khong can lam ti (refresh) nhng cac bo nh RAM ong DRAM (dynamic RAM) can phai lam ti theo chu ky e bu lai s ro r do cac tu ien ky sinh tren chip gay ra. Toan bo cac khai niem tren thng c tm thay trong cac sach va tai lieu ve ky thuat so, ve mach so, do vay ta khong e cap lai ay. Noi dung chnh cua chng nay e cap en cac van e ve n v x ly trung tam CPU (central processing unit) va ac biet la cach mot chip CPU giao tiep vi bo nh va cac thiet b ngoai vi.

I. CAC CHIP VI X LY VA CAC BUS

Trong phan nay, trc tien chung ta xem xet mot so kha canh chung cua cac bo vi x ly (microprocessor) t goc canh lp vat ly, ke ca cac chan ra (pinout) (y ngha cua cac tn hieu tren cac chan khac nhau). V cac bo vi x ly lien quan rat chat che en viec thiet ke cac bus chung s dung, chung ta cung gii thieu ve thiet ke bus trong phan nay. Cac phan ke tiep se a ra cac th du chi tiet cho cac bo vi x ly va cac bus.

1. Cac chip vi x ly:

Chung ta se dung thuat ng bo vi x ly e dien ta mot CPU bat ky cha trong mot chip, mac du mot so CPU co cau truc va cong suat tnh toan cua mot mainframe nho. nh ngha cua chung ta da tren s ong goi (packaging), phu hp vi cap logic so ang nghien cu.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-58-

Chung ta se tap trung vao cac CPU cha trong mot chip n vi ly do s giao tiep cua cac CPU nay vi phan con lai cua he thong c xac nh ro. Cac chip vi x ly tieu bieu co khoang t 40 en 300 chan, qua cac chan nay, tat ca thong tin cua chung vi the gii ben ngoai eu thc hien c. Mot so chan xuat cac tn hieu t CPU, mot so khac nhan tn hieu vao t ben ngoai va mot so co the thc hien c ca 2 chc nang nay. Bang cach hieu ro chc nang cua tng chan, chung ta co the biet c bang cach nao CPU co the tac ong qua lai vi bo nh va cac thiet b I / O cap logic so. Mac du tai lieu sau ay lien quan co the en cac bo vi x ly, cac y tng c ban nh cach thc cac CPU tham khao bo nh, cach thc cac CPU giao tiep vi cac thiet b I / O v.v cung lien quan en cac may tnh mini (minicomputer) va trong pham vi nao o lien quan en cac mainframe, tuy dang hi khac. Cac chan tren mot chip vi x ly c chia thanh 3 loai chnh : a ch, d lieu va ieu khien. Nhng chan nay c noi en cac chan tng t tren cac chip bo nh va cac chip I/O thong qua mot tap hp cac ng song song goi la bus. e tm nap mot lenh, trc tien bo vi x ly at a ch bo nh cua lenh o len cac chan a ch. Sau o bo vi x ly xac lap (chuyen trang thai t thu ong sang tch cc) mot ng ieu khien e thong bao cho bo nh rang muon oc mot t. Bo nh tra li bang cach a t c yeu cau (requested word) len cac chan d lieu cua bo vi x ly va xac lap mot tn hieu cho biet yeu cau a c thc hien. Bo vi x ly thay tn hieu nay se nhan t yeu cau va thc thi lenh. Lenh co the yeu cau oc hoac ghi cac t d lieu, trong trng hp nay toan bo qua trnh c lap lai cho moi t them vao. Chung ta se i vao chi tiet cach oc va ghi phan di, vao thi iem nay, ieu quan trong can quan tam la CPU truyen thong tin vi bo nh va cac thiet b I/O bang cach a cac tn hieu ra va nhan cac tn hieu vao tren cac chan. Khong co cach truyen thong tin nao khac. en ay co mot lu y ve mat thuat ng. Tren mot so chan, mc ien ap cao (+ 5 volt) cua tn hieu se gay ra mot tac ong. Tren mot so chan khac, mc ien ap cua tn hieu tao ra mot tac ong lai la mc thap. e tranh nham lan, chung ta se thong nhat noi rang tn hieu c xac lap (asserted) (hn la noi tn hieu chuyen thanh mc cao hoac mc thap), ngha la tn hieu chuyen trang thai t thu ong sang tch cc e tao ra mot tac ong. V the oi vi mot so chan, xac lap co ngha la c thiet lap mc cao va oi vi mot so chan khac, c thiet lap mc thap. Nhng chan c xac lap mc thap, ten cac tn hieu co them mot gach ngang tren. V vay WRITE c xac lap mc cao, con write c xac lap mc thap. Ngc vi xac lap la khong xac lap (negated). Khi mot tn hieu trang thai thu ong, khong tao ra mot tac ong nao, chan tng ng hay tn hieu la khong xac lap. Co 2 thong so chnh e xac nh hieu suat (performance) cua mot bo vi x ly, o la so chan a ch va so chan d lieu. Mot chip vi m chan a ch co the a ch hoa

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-59-

(address) en 2m byte bo nh, ngha la nh a ch cho toi a 2m byte bo nh. Cac gia tr thng dung cua m la 16, 20, 24, 32 va 36. Tng t, mot chip vi n chan d lieu, co the oc hoac ghi mot t (word) n-bit vi mot thao tac n. Cac gia tr thng dung cua n la 8, 16, 32 va 64. Mot bo vi x ly co 8 chan d lieu, se mat 4 thao tac (operation) e oc mot t 32- bit, trong khi o bo vi x ly co 32 chan d lieu thc hien cung cong viec o ch vi mot thao tac. Vay chip co 32 chan d lieu se x ly nhanh hn nhieu, nhng bao gi cung at hn. Ngoai cac chan a ch va d lieu, moi bo vi x ly con co mot so chan ieu khien. Cac chan ieu khien ieu hoa dong d lieu va nh th cho d lieu en hoac t bo vi x ly, va co cac cong dung linh tinh khac. Bo vi x ly nao cung co chan cap nguon (thng la 5 volt hay thap hn), chan tiep at va chan tn hieu clock dang xung vuong (ta goi la xung clock). Cac chan khac co cong dung thay oi tuy theo cac chip vi x ly khac nhau. Tuy vay, cac chan ieu khien co the c nhom thanh cac loai chnh nh sau : ieu khien bus (bus control). X ly ngat (interrupt). Phan x bus (bus arbitration). Bao hieu vi ong x ly (coprocessor signaling). Trang thai (status). Cac tn hieu khac. Chung ta se mo ta tom tat tng loai trong cac muc di ay. Nhieu thong tin chi tiet hn se c cung cap khi em xet cac chip cua Intel va Motorola sau nay. Mot chip CPU tong quat s dung cac nhom tn hieu tren c trnh bay trong hnh 3.1. Hau het cac chan ieu khien bus la cac ngo ra t bo vi x ly ti bus (vay th chung la cac ngo vao oi vi cac chip bo nh va cac chip I/O ; cho biet bo vi x ly hoac muon oc bo nh hoac muon ghi bhn hoac lam mot ieu g khac.

Hnh 3.1: Cac chan ra logic cua 1 bo vi x ly ien hnh Cac chan x ly ngat la cac ngo vao t thiet b I/O ti bo vi x ly. Trong hau het cac he thong, bo vi x ly co the yeu cau mot thiet b I/O khi ong, sau o chuyen

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-60-

sang thc hien mot cong viec hu ch khac trong khi cac thiet b I/O toc o cham van ang thc hien cong viec cua chung. Khi I/O a hoan tat cong viec, chip ieu khien I/O xac lap mot tn hieu tren mot trong so cac chan x ly ngat e ngat CPU va yeu cau CPU phuc vu thiet b I/O, th du nh kiem tra xem co loi I/O nao xay ra hay khong. Mot so bo vi x ly co mot ngo ra dung e tra li tn hieu yeu cau ngat. Cac chan phan x bus c can en e ieu hoa lu lng thong tin tren bus, nham tranh trng hp hai thiet b cung s dung bus ong thi. Vi muc ch phan x bus, CPU cung c xem nh mot thiet b. Nhieu chip vi x ly c thiet ke e hoat ong vi cac bo ong x ly, hau het la cac chip dau cham ong (floating point), nhng oi khi la chip o hoa (graphic) hoac la cac chip khac. e bo vi x ly va bo ong x ly thong tin vi nhau de dang, ngi ta cung cap nhng chan ac biet e tao ra va chap nhan nhng yeu cau khac nhau. Ngoai nhng chan tn hieu nay, cac bo vi x ly con co nhieu chan linh tinh khac. Mot so chan cung cap hoac nhan cac thong tin trang thai, mot so khac dung cho viec reset may tnh (lap lai trang thai ban au cho may tnh ) va so chan khac na dung e am bao s tng thch vi cac chip I/O cu.

2. Cac bus cua may tnh

Mot bus la mot nhom cac ng dan chung gia nhieu thiet b. Mot th du pho bien la bus he thong (system bus ) hien co tren tat ca may vi tnh, bao gom t 50 an 100 ng ong c khac song song tren board chnh, vi cac au noi (connector) at nhng khoang cach eu nhau e cam cac board bo nh va cac board I/O. Tuy nhien, cac bus cung c danh cho nhng muc ch ac biet nh la ket noi mot bo vi x ly vi mot hoac nhieu bo ong x ly, hoac vi cac bo nh cuc bo (local memory ). Hn na, trong mot chip vi x ly cung co nhieu bus e ket noi cac thanh phan ben trong, nh minh hoa trong hnh 3.2. Trong tai lieu, oi khi bus c ve giong cac mui ten ln trong hnh ve nay. Trong khi nhng nha thiet ke bo vi x ly c t do s dung bat ky loai bus nao ho muon ben trong chip, e co the noi cac board c thiet ke vi bus he thong phai co nhng quy luat xac nh ro rang ve cach lam viec cua bus. Tat ca thiet b noi vi bus eu phai tuan theo cac quy luat nay. Nhng quy luat nh vay c goi la nghi thc bus (bus protocol). Ngoai ra phai co them cac ch tieu ky thuat ve ien va c e cac board gan them se at va trong khung chc card (card cage) va cac au noi phai phu hp vi cac ranh cam tren board chnh, ca ve tnh vat ly va ien ap.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-61-

Hnh 3.2 He thong may tnh co nhieu bus Nhieu bus a c s dung pho bien trong the gii may tnh. Mot so bus noi tieng nh : Camac bus (vat ly hat nhan), EISA bus (80386), Fastbus (vat ly nang lng cao), cac bus cua IBM PC va PC AT (IBM PC and PC AT bus), Massbus (PDP-11, VAX), Megabus (Honeywell), Microchannel (PS/2), Multibus I (8086), Multibus II (80386), Nubus (Macintosh II), Omnibus (PDP-8), Qbus (LSI-11), S-100 bus (hobby computer), SBI (VAX11/780 ), Unibus (PDP-11), Versabus (Motorola) va VME bus (680 x 0). ang tiec la viec tieu chuan hoa trong lanh vc nay dng nh rat kho co the xay ra khi a co qua nhieu au t cho nhng he thong khong tng thch nay. Mot so bus a va ang s dung hien nay tren cac may tnh ca nhan, chu yeu la cac may tnh cua IBM va tng thch s dung cac chip vi x ly cua Intel, se c e cap co the trong phan cac th du ve bus. Bay gi chung ta bat au nghien cu ve cach lam viec cua bus. Mot so thiet b (t thiet b c dch t ch device, dung ch chung cac thanh phan cau tao nen mot he thong may tnh ) noi vi bus la cac thiet b tch cc (active) co the khi ong viec truyen bus, trai lai mot so khac la cac thiet b thu ong (passive) ch cac yeu cau. Thiet b tch cc goi la thiet b chu bus hay thiet b chu (master), thiet b thu ong goi la thiet b phu thuoc bus hay thiet b phu thuoc (slave). Khi CPU ra lenh bo ieu khien a oc hoac ghi mot khoi d lieu, CPU ong vai tro mot thiet b chu va bo ieu khien a hanh ong nh mot thiet b phu thuoc. Tuy nhien, vao thi iem sau, bo ieu khien a tr thanh thiet b chu khi yeu cau bo nh nhan cac t d lieu oc t o a. Cac thanh phan cua may tnh thng xuat cac tn hieu nh phan co dong khong u manh e cung cap cho bus, ac biet neu bus tng oi dai hoac co nhieu thiet b noi vi bus. V ly do nay, hau het cac thiet b chu eu c noi vi bus qua mot chip goi la bo kch bus (bus driver), bo kch bus chu yeu la mot mach khuyech ai tn hieu

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-62-

so. Tng t, hau het cac thiet b phu thuoc eu c noi ti bus qua mot bo thu bus (bus receiver). oi vi cac thiet b co the hoat ong ca 2 vai tro chu va phu thuoc, mot chip ket hp goi la bo thu phat bus (bus transceiver) c dung en. Cac chip giao tiep bus nay (bus interface chip) thng la thanh phan co ngo ra 3 trang thai (tri-state output), cho phep tha noi khong ket noi (disconnect) khi khong can en, hoac la thanh phan co cac ngo ra cc thu h (open collector output) nham at c cung mot hieu qua. Khi co 2 hoac nhieu thiet b cung xac lap cac ngo ra ong thi tren mot ng cc thu h, ket qua la tat ca cac tn hieu c OR vi nhau. S sap xep nay goi la OR noi day (wired- OR ). Tren hau het cac bus, mot so ng c thiet ke co 3 trang thai va mot so khac, can ac tnh OR noi day, co cc thu h. Giong nh bo vi x ly, bus cung co cac ng a ch , d lieu va ieu khien. Tuy nhien khong nhat thien phai co mot anh xa 1-1 gia cac tn hieu cua bo vi x ly va cua bus. Th du: mot so bo vi x ly dung 3 chan tn hieu e ma hoa cac thao tac nh oc bo nh, ghi bo nh, oc I/O, ghi I/O hoac mot so thao tac khac. Bus tieu bieu co mot ng ieu khien oc bo nh, mot ng ieu khien ghi bo nh, mot ng ieu khien oc I/O, mot ng ieu khien ghi I/O v.v Mot chip giai ma can co gia CPU va mot bus nh vay e chuyen oi tn hieu ma hoa 3 bit thanh cac tn hieu rieng biet co the ieu khien cac ng bus. Cac van e chnh trong viec thiet ke bus (ngoai so ng a ch va ng d lieu) la ong bo (clocking) bus, c che phan x bus, x ly ngat va x ly loi. Nhng van e nay anh hng nghiem trong en toc o va bang thong cua bus, chung ta se nghien cu ky chung trong phan sau.

3. Bus ong bo
Cac bus co the chia thanh 2 loai rieng biet tuy thuoc vao phng phap ong bo cua chung. Loai bus ong bo (synchronous bus) co mot ng c cap tn hieu t mot bo dao ong dung thach anh. Tn hieu tren ng nay la mot song vuong co tan so thng nam trong khoang 5 MHz va 100 MHz goi la xung ong ho. Tat ca hoat ong tren bus, goi la chu ky bus (bus cycle), eu chiem mot so nguyen chu ky xung ong ho. Loai bus kia, bus khong ong bo (asynchronous bus), khong co xung ong ho chu. Chu ky bus co the co chieu dai bat ky theo yeu cau, khong can phai giong nhau gia tat ca cac cap thiet b. Sau ay chung ta se lan lt khao sat tng loai bus nay. e biet cach lam viec cua mot bus ong bo, ta hay khao sat gian o thi gian hnh 3.3 (a) lam th du. Trong th du nay, xung ong ho co tan so 4 MHz nen mot chu ky dao ong se dai 250 ngiay. Gia thiet rang viec oc mot byte t bo nh mat 3 chu ky dao ong, tong cong 750 ngiay t luc bat au chu ky T1 en khi ket thuc chu ky T3. Ta cung gia thiet phai mat 10 ngiay e tn hieu thay oi t mc thap sang mc cao hoac ngc lai. Cac ng xung ong ho, a ch, d lieu, yeu cau bo nh MREQ (memory request) va ieu khien oc RD (read) eu c the hien theo cung mot ty le thi gian.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-63-

Chu ky T1 c bat au bi canh len cua xung clock. Mot khoang thi gian sau canh len cua T1, CPU at a ch cua byte muon oc trong bo nh len cac ng a ch. Do co nhieu ng a ch, khong phai mot nh xung clock, nen khong the bieu dien chung nh mot ng n trong hnh ve, thay vao o la 2 ng va chung cat cheo nhau tai thi iem thay oi a ch. Ngoai ra, phan vet m ngay trc 2 ng cheo cat nhau cho biet gia tr phan vet m khong quan trong hoac khong co gia tr s dung. Bang cach dung quy c nh vay ta se thay khong co noi dung nao cua cac ng d lieu co y ngha cho en khi vao chu ky T3. Sau mot khoang thi gian sao cho cac ng a ch on nh gia tr mi, MREQ va RD c xac lap. Tn hieu MREQ cho biet bo nh , khong phai thiet b I/O, ang c truy xuat va tn hieu RD giup phan biet viec oc vi viec ghi. Khong co g xay ra trong suot chu ky T2 thi gian nay danh cho bo nh e giai ma a ch va a d lieu len bus. canh xuong cua chu ky T3, CPU oc cac ng d lieu va cat gia tr vao mot thanh ghi noi. Khi a oc d lieu, CPU khong xac lap cac ng tn hieu MREQ va RD . Neu can, mot chu ky bo nh khac co the bat au canh len ke cua xung ong ho. Trong bang ac tnh thi gian (timing specification) hnh 3.3(b), 8 ky hieu trong gian o thi gian (timing diagram) c giai thch ro hn. Th du TAD la khoang thi gian gia canh len cua xung clock T1 va thi iem cac ng a ch a c thiet lap on nh. Trong bang ac tnh thi gian, TAD 110 ngiay. ieu nay co ngha la nha san xuat chip phai am bao rang trong thi gian cua bat ky chu ky oc toan hang nao, CPU cung phai xuat a ch cho toan hang trong khoang thi gian 110 ngiay ke t iem gia canh len cua xung clock T1. Bang ac tnh thi gian cung yeu cau d lieu phai co gia tr s dung tren cac ng d lieu t nhat 50 ngiay trc khi xuat hien canh xuong cua xung clock T3 e d lieu co thi gian on nh trc khi CPU oc. Ket hp cac rang buoc tren TAD va TDS, trong trng hp xau nhat, bo nh ch co 250 + 250 + 125 110 50 = 465 ngiay t thi iem a ch xuat hien cho en khi bo nh phai xuat d lieu len bus. Neu bo nh khong ap ng u nhanh, bo nh xac lap ng tn hieu WAIT ( khong the hien tren hnh ve) trc canh xuong cua xung clock T2 khi WAIT c chot. Tac ong nay chen them cac trang thai ch (wait state) vao chu ky oc bo nh cho ti khi bo nh hoan tat cong viec va khong xac lap ng tn hieu WAIT . Bang ac tnh thi gian con am bao a ch se c thiet lap t nhat 60 ngiay trc khi MREQ c xac lap. Thi gian nay se quan trong neu tn hieu MREQ tac ong len chan chon chip CS (chip select) cua chip bo nh bi v mot so bo nh yeu cau thi gian thiet lap a ch phai xay ra trc thi iem chon chip. Ro rang ngi thiet ke may vi tnh khong nen chon mot chip bo nh co thi gian thiet lap a ch la 75 ngiay.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-64-

a ch D lieu MREQ RD

Hnh 3.3 (a) : Gian o thi gian oc d lieu tren bus ong bo Vi s rang buoc tren TM va TRL, ca 2 tn hieu MREQ va RD se c xac lap trong khoang thi gian 85 ngiay ke t canh xuong cua xung clock T1. Trong trng hp xau nhat, chip bo nh se ch co 250 + 250 85 50 = 365 ngiay sau khi MREQ va
RD xac lap e a d lieu t bo nh len bus. S rang buoc nay c cong them vao s rang buoc tren a ch.

Thi gian TMH va TRH cho biet phai mat bao lau e MBREQ va RD khong con xac lap sau khi d lieu a c oc. Cuoi cung, TDH cho biet phai duy tr d lieu tren bus bao lau sau khi RD khong con xac lap. Bo nh co the loai bo d lieu ra khoi bus ngay khi RD khong con xac lap, tuy nhien oi vi mot so bo vi x ly trong thc te, d lieu phai c duy tr on nh tren bus lau hn mot chut. Ky Thong so M M hieu in ax n v Tr hoan a ch 1 TA n 10 s D n TM a ch on nh trc MREQ 6 0 s L TM Tr hoan MREQ t canh xuong T1 8 n 5 s TR Tr hoan RD ke t canh xuong cua T1 8 n 5 s L TD Thi gian thiet lap d lieu trc canh 5 n xuong T3 0 s S TM Tr hoan MREQ ke t canh xuong T3 8 n 5 s H n TR Tr hoan RD ke t canh xuong cua T3 8 5 s H TD Thi gian lu gi d lieu sau khi RD 0 n khong xac lap s H Hnh 3.3 (b) : Bang ac tnh thi gian

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-65-

Hnh 3.3(a) va 3.3(b) ch la mot phien ban rat n gian ve cac rang buoc thi gian thc. Tren thc te, co nhiau thi gian ti han hn luon luon c xac nh ro. Tuy nhien, ay la mot th du tot ve cach lam viec cua mot bus ong bo. Ngoai cac chu ky oc va ghi, nhieu bus ong bo con ho tr viec chuyen cac khoi d lieu. Khi bat au oc mot khoi, thiet b chu phai cho thiet b phu thuoc biet can chuyen bao nhieu byte d lieu bang cach a so em byte len cac ng d lieu trong thi gian cua chu ky T1. Thay v ch chuyen ung mot byte, thiet b phu thuoc xuat tng byte trong thi gian cua moi chu ky xung clock cho ti khi so em byte giam het. Trong th du nay, viec oc mot khoi n byte chiem (n +2) chu ky xung clock thay v 3 n chu ky. Mot phng phap khac e gia tang toc o bus la thu ngan thi gian cua mot chu ky. Trong th du tren, e chuyen mot byte phai mat 750 ngiay vi bang thong toi a la 1.33 Mbyte/giay. Vi xung ong ho co tan so 8 MHz, thi gian mot chu ky giam mot na va chung ta nhan c 2.67 Mbyte/giay. Tuy nhien, viec thu ngan chu ky xung ong ho co the dan en mot so van e ky thuat. Cac tn hieu tren cac ng khac nhau khong phai tat ca eu co cung toc o, anh hng nay goi la lech bus (bus skew). ieu quan trong la thi gian cua mot chu ky phai dai so vi thi gian lech bus e ngan can y tng ve cac khoang thi gian c so hoa khoi s pha v trong ong bo tn hieu tng t. Van e cuoi cung la cac tn hieu ieu khien se c xac lap mc cao hay mc thap. Van e nay se c ngi thiet ke bus quyet nh sao cho thuan tien, s la chon chu yeu la ngau nhien. Ngi ta co the xem van e nay nh phan cng tng ng vi s chon la cua ngi lap trnh bieu dien cac khoi trong cua a trong mot ban o bit bang cac bit 0 hay cac bit 1.

4. Bus khong ong bo

Mac du lam viec vi cac bus ong bo se de hn do cac khoan thi gian ri rac cua chung, nhng cung co mot so van e xay ra. Do moi cong viec eu c thc hien trong nhng khoang thi gian la boi so cua chu ky xung clock, neu mot CPU ca biet va bo nh co kha nang hoan tat viec chuyen d lieu trong 3.1 chu ky, chung van phai keo dai ti 4 chu ky bi v nhng chu ky b phan oan nho khong c phep dung trong bus ong bo. Te hn na, mot khi chu ky xung clock c chon, bo nh va thiet b I/O a c thiet ke cho chu ky bus nay, that kho co the nang cap trong tng lai. Gia s mot vai nam sau khi he thong trong hnh 3.3 c thiet ke, cac CPU va bo nh mi hoat ong vi thi gian mot chu ky la 100 ngiay thay v 250 ngiay, he thong cu mac du van chay c vi he thong mi nhng khong the tang toc o len c v nghi thc bus yeu cau bo nh xac lap cac ng d lieu ngay trc canh xuong cua chu ky T3.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-66-

at s kien nay vao nhng trng hp khac, neu bus co mot tap hp khong ong nhat cac thiet b, mot so co toc o nhanh va mot so co toc o cham, bus phai thch ng vi cac thiet b co toc o cham nhat va do o cac thiet b co toc o nhanh khong the c s dung het kha nang cua chung. Ky thuat pha tron nay co the giai quyet bang cach dung bus khong ong bo, bus khong co xung clock chu, trnh bay trong hnh 3.4. Thay v rang buoc moi th vi xung clock, khi thiet b chu a xac lap cac ng a ch, tn hieu MREQ , tn hieu RD va cac tn hieu can thiet khac, thiet b chu se xac lap not tn hieu ac biet goi la tn hieu ong bo chu MSYN ( master synchronibzation ). Khi thay tn hieu nay, thiet b thu ong se thc hien cong viec bang chnh toc o cua mnh. Khi thc hien xong, thiet b phu thuoc se xac lap ng tn hieu ong bo phu thuoc SSYN (slave synchronization ). Ngay khi tn hieu chu bus thay tn hieu SSYN c xac lap, thiet b nay biet rang d lieu a s dung c, v the se chot d lieu lai, sau o khong xac lap cac ng a ch cung vi MREQ , RD va MSYN . Khi thay tn hieu MSYN khong con xac lap, thiet b phu thuoc biet chu ky a hoan tat, se khong xac lap SSYN va chung ta tr lai trang thai ban au, vi tat ca cac tn hieu khong con xac lap, i thiet b chu ke tiep. Gian o thi gian cua cac bus khong ong bo s dung cac mui ten e ch nguyen nhan va ket qua, nh trong hnh 3.5. Xac lap tn hieu MSYN lam cho cac ng d lieu c xac lap, va cung lam cho thiet b phu thuoc xac lap SSYN . Xac lap SSYN lam cho cac ng a ch, MREQ , RD va MSYN khong con xac lap. Cuoi cung,

MSYN khong con xac lap se lam SSYN khong xac lap, ket thuc thao tac oc d lieu.

Hnh 3.4 : Hoat ong cua mot bus khong ong bo Tap cac tn hieu phoi hp vi nhau theo cach nay goi la bat tay hoan toan (full handshake ). Phan c ban bao gom 4 s kien sau : 1.

MSYN c xac lap

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

2. 3. 4.

-67-

SSYN c xac lap e ap ng theo MSYN MSYN khong xac lap e ap ng theo SSYN . SSYN khong xac lap e ap ng theo s khong xac lap cua MSYN .

Ro rang phng phap bat tay hoan toan co thi gian oc lap. Moi s kien c gay ra bi mot s kien trc, khong phai bi xung clock. Neu mot cap thiet b chu phu thuoc ca biet co toc o cham, chung van khong lam anh hng en cap thiet b co toc o nhanh hn nhieu. Thuan li cua loai bus khong ong bo en ay a ro, nhng tren thc te hau het cac bus la bus khong ong bo. Nguyen nhan la do he thong ong bo de lap at hn. CPU ch phai xac lap cac tn hieu va bo nh ch phai tng tac lai. Khong co s hoi tiep ( nguyen nhan va hau qua ) va neu cac thanh phan c chon hoan toan thch hp, cac thiet b lam viec se khong can bat tay.

5. Phan x bus
Cho ti luc nay, chung ta a ngam gia thiet ch co mot thiet b chu la CPU. Thc ra, cac chip I/O cung co the tr thanh cac thiet b chu khi oc va ghi bo nh, va chung cung gay ra cac ngat. Cac bo ong x ly cung tr thanh thiet b chu khi can en cac toan hang. Mot cau hoi c at ra : ieu g se bay ra neu co hai hoac nhieu thiet b cung luc muon tr thanh thiet b chu ?. Cau tra li la can co mot so c che phan x bus nao o e ngan can s tranh chap. Cac c che phan x bus co the la tap trung hoac khong tap trung. Trc tien, chung ta hay xet c che phan x bus tap trung. Mot dang n gian ca biet cua phan x bus tap trung c trnh bay trong hnh 3.5. Trong s o nay, bo phan x bus n se quyet nh thiet b nao ke tiep la thiet b chu. Nhieu bo vi x ly thiet ke san bo phan x bus ngay trong chip CPU, nhng trong cac he thong may tnh mini oi khi la mot thiet b rieng. Bus cha mot ng yeu cau thiet ke theo kieu OR noi day c xac lap bi mot hoac nhieu thiet b vao bat c luc nao. Vi cach ket noi nay, khong co cach nao bo phan x bus biet c co bao nhieu thiet b ang yeu cau bus, bo phan x bus ch biet co hay khong co yeu cau s dung bus. Khi thay co yeu cau bus, bo phan x bus phat tn hieu cho phep dung bus bang cach xac lap ng cap bus ( bus grant line ). ng nay c noi qua tat ca cac thiet b I/O theo kieu noi tiep giong nh chuoi cac bong en tren cay giang sinh. Khi thay tn hieu cap bus, thiet b ng gan bo phan x bus nhat se kiem tra xem co phai a a ra mot yeu cau bus hay khong. Neu ung, thiet b nay se tiep quan bus va khong truyen tn hieu cap bus xuong cho cac thiet b khac. Neu khong yeu cau bus, thiet b nay truyen tn hieu cap bus ti thiet b ke tiep tren ng day va c nh vay cho en khi co mot thiet b nao o nhan tn hieu cap bus va tiep quan bus.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-68-

S o nay c goi la s rang buoc chuoi (daisy chaining ). S o nay co ac tnh la cac thiet b c cap quyen u tien tuy thuoc vao cac thiet b o ng gan bao nhieu oi vi bo phan x bus. Thiet b nao ng gan nhat se co u tien cao nhat. e en gan nhng u tien ngam nh da tren khoang cach t bo phan x ti thiet b, nhieu bus co nhieu mc u tien. Moi mc u tien co mot ng yeu cau bus va mot ng cap bus. Bo phan x bus co the co 2 mc u tien, 1 va 2 (cac bus tren thc te thng co 4, 8 hoac 16 mc). Moi thiet b c noi en mot trong cac mc yeu cau bus. Nhng thiet b cang co yeu cau cap bach ve thi gian se c noi en cac mc u tien cang cao.

Hnh 3.5: Bo phan x bus tap trung Neu co nhieu mc u tien c yeu cau ong thi, bo phan x bus ch phat tn hieu cap bus tren mc u tien cao nhat. Trong so cac thiet b co cung mc u tien, ngi ta ap dung s o rang buoc chuoi. Nhieu bo phan x bus co them ng tn hieu th 3 e mot thiet b xac lap ng nay khi nhan cap bus va chiem gi bus. Ngay khi ng tn hieu tra li nay (acknowledgement line) c xac lap, cac ng yeu cau bus va cap bus se oi thanh khong xac lap. Ket qua la cac thiet b khac co the yeu cau bus trong luc thiet b au tien ang s dung bus. Vao luc thao tac chuyen d lieu hien tai hoan tat, thiet b chu ke tiep a c chon, co the bat au ngay khi ng tra li oi sang trang thai thu ong. Tai thi iem nay, phan tiep theo sau cua phan x bus co the bat au. S o nay oi hoi them mot ng bus na va nhieu mach logic cho tng thiet b, nhng viec s dung cac chu ky bus tr nen tot hn. Cac chip PDP-11, Motorola va mot chip khac na s dung he thong nay. Trong nhieu he thong, CPU cung phai danh quyen s dung bus va co u tien thap nhat, ch danh c bus khi khong co thiet b nao khac chiem dung. Y tng ay la CPU co the luc nao cung phai i, con cac thiet b I/O thng xuyen phai danh bus nhanh v neu khong d lieu se mat. Cac a quay toc o cao nen khong the i. Khi s dung phng phap phan x bus khong tap trung, ta khong can co bo phan x bus. Th du VAX SBI co 16 ng yeu cau bus co u tien, mot ng cho moi thiet b. Thiet ke nay se gii han so thiet b la 16. Khi mot thiet b muon dung bus, thiet b nay xac lap ng yeu cau. Tat ca cac thiet b eu kiem tra tat ca cac ng yeu cau bus, do vay vao cuoi moi chu ky, thiet b nao cung eu biet co phai la thiet b co u tien cao nhat hay khong, va do o co c phep dung bus trong chu ky ke tiep hay

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-69-

khong. So vi phng phap phan x bus tap trung, phng phap nay oi hoi nhieu ng bus hn, nhng giam c gia thanh do khong co bo phan x bus. Mot kieu phan x bus khong tap trung khac c dung he thong Multibus. S o trnh bay trong hnh 3.6 ch s dung 3 ng va van e co bao nhieu thiet b hien dien khong quan trong. ng bus au tien la ng yeu cau bus ket noi theo kieu OR noi day. ng th 2 goi la BUSY c xac lap bi thiet b chu hien tai. ng th ba c dung e phan x bus. Tat ca thiet b c noi theo s o rang buoc chuoi. au cua chuoi nay c gi trang thai xac lap bang cach noi vi ng cap ien 5

volt. Hnh 3.6 : Phan x bus khong tap trung cua Multibus. Khi khong co thiet b nao yeu cau bus, ng phan x bus a xac lap c truyen ti tat ca thiet b. e chiem bus, trc tien thiet b kiem tra xem bus co ranh hay khong va tn hieu phan x bus ang nhan ngo vao IN co c xac lap khong. Neu tn hieu ngo vao IN khong xac lap, thiet b khong the tr thanh thiet b chu. Tuy nhien, neu tn hieu ngo vao IN c xac lap, ngo ra out cua thiet b se khong c xac lap e yeu cau moi thiet b khac phan di cua chuoi khong xac lap IN va OUT. Khi s tranh chap qua i, ch co mot thiet b co ngo vao IN xac lap va ngo ra OUT khong xac lap. Thiet b nay tr thanh thiet b chu, xac lap ng BUSY va ngo ra OUT, bat au truyen d lieu. Mot y tng nho ve phan x bus cho thay, thiet b au tien ben trai luon c truy xuat bus lien tuc. V the, s o nay tng t vi s o phan x bus theo kieu rang buoc chuoi ban au, ch khac la khong co bo phan x bus, v the gia thanh se re hn, nhanh hn, va tranh c anh hng khi bo phan x bus b h trng hp phan x bus tap trung. He Multibus cung a ra phng phap phan x bus tap trung, v the ngi thiet ke he thong co kha nang la chon. Phng phap sau cung ve phan x bus co lien quan en cac thao tac a chu ky (multiple cycle operation). Trong cac he thong a x ly, ngi ta thng dung mot t nh e bao ve cac cau truc d lieu dung chung (shared data structure). Neu t nh nay la 0, bo x ly c phep lap t len 1 va s dung cau truc d lieu o. Neu t nh nay a la 1, bo x ly o phai i cho ti khi bo x ly hien ang dung cau truc d lieu ket thuc va lap t nh tr ve 0. Chuoi cac s kien sau ay trnh bay mot tnh huong xay ra sai. 1. 2. Bo x ly A oc t x va thay bang zero (chu ky bus 0) Bo x ly B oc t x va thay bang zero (chu ky bus 1)

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

3. 4. Bo x ly A ghi 1 vao t x (chu ky bus 2) Bo x ly B ghi 1 vao t x (chu ky bus 3)

-70-

Neu chuoi s kien nay xay ra, 2 bo x ly se ong thi ngh rang co s truy xuat loai tr oi vi cau truc d lieu dung chung, ket qua dan en s roi loan. e tranh tnh trang nay, nhieu CPU co lenh oc t nh, neu la 0 se lap len 1. ieu rac roi la mot lenh nh vay can 2 chu ky bus, mot e oc va mot e ghi. Co mot c hoi nho (nhng khong phai la khong co) la bo x ly th 2 se len vao gia chu ky oc va chu ky ghi, pha v tnh trang rac roi nay. Giai phap cho van e nay la them mot ng tn hieu phu thuoc vao bus, goi la LOCK, c xac lap khi bat au mot lenh nh vay. Khi LOCK xac lap, khong co bo x ly nao c phep tr thanh thiet b chu cho ti khi LOCK tr lai trang thai khong xac lap. Nguyen tac nay cho phep mot CPU co kha nang thc hien nhieu chu ky bus ma khong co s ngan can nao. oi vi cac bus khong tnh chat nay, that kho thiet ke mot he thong a x ly lam viec ung. 6. X ly ngat Cho ti ay, chung ta ch mi e cap en nhng chu ky bus thong thng, vi thiet b chu oc d lieu t thiet b thu ong hoac ghi d lieu len thiet b thu ong. Mot cong dung quan trong khac cua bus la x ly ngat. Khi CPU yeu cau thiet b I/O thc hien mot cong viec, CPU, thng ch i mot ngat khong cong viec c thc hien. Viec bao hieu ngat se yeu cau bus. V co the co nhieu thiet b ong thi tao ra ngat, nen van e phan x ay cung giong nh oi vi cac chu ky thong thng. Giai phap thng dung la gan mc u tien cho thiet b va dung bo phan x tap trung e cap u tien cho cac thiet b co yeu cau ve thi gian ti han. Hien nay co nhieu chip chuan ieu khien ngat ang s dung rong rai. IBM PC, PC AT, PS/2 va cac may tng thch vi IBM PC s dung chip 8259A cua Intel, mo ta trong hnh 3.7

Hnh 3.7: S dung bo ieu khien ngat 8259A Co the noi trc tiep 8 chip ieu khien I/O (cua 8 thiet b I/O) vi 8 ngo vao yeu cau ngat Irx ( Interrupt Request ) cua 8259A. Khi co mot thiet b muon gay ra mot

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-71-

ngat, thiet b nay xac lap ng tn hieu Irx tng ng. Khi co mot hoac nhieu ngo vao IRx xac lap, 8259 se xac lap ng tn hieu ngat INT (interrupt), ng nay trc tiep ieu khien chan yeu cau ngat tren CPU. Khi CPU co the x ly mot ngat, CPU gi mot xung tr lai 8259A tren chan tra li ngat INTA (interrupt acknowledge). Tai thi iem o 8259 c ky vong e xac nh ngo vao tao ra yeu cau ngat bang cach xuat so cua ngo vao len bus d lieu. Phan cng cua CPU dung so nay tao ch so (index) trong mot bang cac con tro (interrupt vector), e tm a ch cua thu tuc (procedure) va thc thi trnh phuc vu ngat. 8259A co mot so thanh ghi noi, CPU co the oc va ghi d lieu tren chung bang cach dung cac chu ky bus thong thng va cac chan ieu khien oc RD (read), ieu khien ghi WR ( write ), chon chip CS (chip select ) va a ch A0. Khi phan mem a x ly ngat va san sang nhan mot ngat ke tiep, phan mem se ghi mot ma ac biet vao mot trong nhng thanh ghi cua 8259A, ma nay se gay cho 8259A khong xac lap ng INT, tr phi ang co mot ngat khac ch giai quyet. Cac thanh ghi cua 8259A cung co the c ghi e a 8259A vao mot trong cac che o hoat ong, lap mat na mot tap cac ngat va cac ac tnh khac. Khi co nhieu hn 8 thiet b I/O, cac 8259A c noi theo kieu cascade. Trong trng hp nay, kha nang ln nhat co the co, tat ca 8 ngo vao Irx cua mot 8259A c noi bbvi cac ngo ra INT cua 8 bo x ly ngat 8259A na, cho phep ket noi vi 64 thiet b I/O trong mot he thong ngat 2 tang (two-stage). 8259A co mot vai chan e quan ly s noi tang nay, chung ta a bo qua e n gian van e. Trong luc tap trung nghien cu vao e tai thiet ke bus, phan giai thch tren cung u cho chung ta hieu nhng ieu c ban thiet yeu ve cach lam viec cua bus va cach tng tac gia bo vi x ly vi cac bus. Bay gi chung ta hay xet mot so th du ve cac bo vi x ly thc te va cac bus cua chung.

II. TH DU VE CHIP VI X LY VA BUS

Trong phan nay chung ta khao sat chi tiet bo vi x ly thuoc ho Intel cap phan cng, xem xet loai bus thong dung dung cho ho vi x ly nay, IBM PC bus

1. Chip vi x ly 8088 cua ho Intel

8088 la bo vi x ly loai NMOS at trong mot vo 40 chan. Ben trong chip nay co mot nhom ng d lieu 16 bit, nhng mot thi iem ch oc va ghi 8 bit vi bo nh (ngha la bus d lieu cua he thong ch rong 8 bit), 8088, vi 20 ng a ch, co the a ch hoa toi a 1 megabyte bo nh. Bat c khi nao co the, 8088 eu thc hien tm nap lenh trc, e khi can en lenh ke tiep, lenh nay a san sang c s dung. 8088 co the hoat ong mot trong hai che o : che o toi thieu (minimum mode) va che o toi a (maximum mode). Che o toi thieu c dung trong cac he thong nho vi vai thiet b ngoai vi, thc te la che o ch co mot bo x ly. Th du 8088 s dung

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-72-

trong mot bo ieu khien may giat se hoat ong che o toi thieu. Y ngha cua cac chan trong 2 che o khac nhau, chung n gian hn trong che o toi thieu. Trong cac he may tnh ca nhan, 8088 hoat ong che o toi a, thc te la che o co nhieu hn mot bo x ly, v the chung ta se khong ban them ve che o toi thieu trong tai lieu nay. Cac chan ra (pinout ) cua 8088 che o toi a c trnh bay trong hnh 3.8 (a), 20 trong 40 chan gi a ch bo nh hoac I/O ma 8088 se oc hoac ghi. Cac chan nay c goi la A0 A19. V 8088 truyen d lieu 8 bit mot thi iem, can co them 8 chan cho bus d lieu. Tuy nhien, do muon giam so chan can thiet sao cho 8088 at va trong mot vo 40 chan, cac ng d lieu D0 D7 c ghep tren cung chan vi A0-A7. ng vi thi gian au cua chu ky bus nhng chan nay c goi la AD0-AD7, la cac chan a ch, thi gian sau cua chu ky bus chung la cac chan d lieu. Ngi ta dung nhng quy luat chnh xac e chi phoi viec nh th nay, v the khong bao gi co s lam lan. Cac chan t 35 en 38 cung c ghep, la cac chan a ch luc bat au moi chu ky bus va la cac chan cho biet thong tin trang thai luc ket thuc. Tnh huong nay c the hien bi cac ky hieu A16/ S3 en A19/ S6 ( xem cac chan t 35 en 38 ), gach cheo dung e phan biet hai tn hieu khong lien quan nhau nhng co chung mot chan. Chan 33 c goi la MN / MX (minimum / maximum), nhng khong bieu th hai tn hieu Mn va MX . Chan nay c xac lap mc cao e a CPU vao che o toi thieu va c xac lap mc thap e a CPU vao che o toi a, 2 ten vi dau gach cheo c dung ay ch la 2 cach khac nhau e noi ve cung mot s viec. Tuy viec dung ky hieu nay de gay lam lan, nhng ay la cach at ten cua Intel. e tranh toi a s nham lan nay, chung ta se ve cac chip vi cac chan logic (logical pinout) hn la cac chan ra vat ly (Physical pinout) cua chung. Trong hnh 3.8(b) ta lai thay 8088, lan nay cac tn hieu logic c the hien, khong quan tam en cac tn hieu nay c at tren chan nao. Th du, ay chung ta the hien A0-A19 rieng vi D0-D7, bi v chung khong lien quan nhau ve tnh logic. Thc te viec e cap en mot so chan dung chung khong can thiet cho s hieu biet ve cach lam viec cua chip. Mot ng cheo ngan, ben canh co ghi mot con so cho biet co bao nhieu ng tn hieu tren o (th du 20 cho A0-A19). Cuoi cung v tr chung ta chon cho moi tn hieu trong hnh ve; khong da vao chan nao c s dung, thay vao o cac tn hieu lien quan vi nhau c nhom lai e tien cho viec giai thch. 8088 dung 6 chan e ieu khien bus. Cac chan trang thai S0 S2 (Status) xac nh lai chu ky bus ma 8088 muon s dung. Bang liet ke trong hnh 3.8(c) trnh bay cac loai bus. RD cho biet CPU ang chu ky oc bo nh. RD khong nhat thiet phai dung trong che o toi a, do bi cac thong tin giong nh vay, co the xuat phat t cac tn hieu S0-S2 nhng oi khi lai rat thuan tien. 8088 xac lap chan LOCK e bao cho cac thiet b chu khac khong c s dung bus. Tn hieu nay can dung e danh oc quyen truy xuat ti bo nh trong mot so lenh quyet nh cua CPU yeu cau nhieu chu ky bus. Chan tn hieu nay thng dung chu yeu

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-73-

trong cac he thong a x ly. Khong giong 5 tn hieu ieu khien bus khac READY la mot ngo vao (input). Khi 8088 yeu cau mot byte t bo nh, CPU muon bo nh xuat d lieu ra trong 4 chu ky xung clock. Neu bo nh thoa man yeu cau nay bo nh xac lap ng READY trong luc a byte d lieu yeu cau len bus d lieu, va ch co vay. Tuy nhien, neu bo nh co toc o qua cham, bo nh phai at tn hieu READY trang thai khong xac lap trc chu ky xung clock th 4, va gi trang thai nay cho en byte yeu cau c a len bus, ay la trang thai i. Bang phng phap nay, co the dung 8088 vi cac bo nh co toc o nhanh hay cham.

Hnh 3.8 :

(a) Cac chan ra vat ly cua 8088 (b) Cac chan ra logic cua 8088 (c) Cac loai chu ky bus cua 8088

Cac tn hieu ngat che c INTR (maskable interrupt) va ngat khong che c NMI (non - maskable interrupt) c dung e ngat CPU. S khac nhau gia 2 tn hieu la phan mem co the tam thi che (vo hieu hoa) loai ngat che c. Ngat b che (masked interrupt) khong b mat, nhng phai i cho ti khi phan mem cho phep ngat tr lai. Bnh thng ng INTR c cac thiet b I/O s dung, trai lai ng NMI c dung e ch ra cac loi kiem tra chan le cua bo nh, hoac mot so van e quan trong khac khong the i.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-74-

Hai ng yeu cau bus va cap bus RQ / RTx (request/grant) c dung e phan x bus, th du, gia 8088 va chip ong x ly dau cham ong (floating point coprocessor) 8087. S dung 2 ng nay bo ong x ly co the yeu cau 8088 tha noi tat ca cac bus ( ngha la 8088 t khong ket noi vi bus ve mat ien ), bo ong x ly tr thanh thiet b chu truy xuat bo nh . Bnh thng 8088 se cap bus cho bat ky yeu cau bus nao nh vay vao cuoi chu ky bus hien tai, tr khi ng tn hieu LOCK hien ang c xac lap. Ngi ta co the dung 2 ng nay e ieu khien 2 bo ong x ly. Tn hieu TEST cho phep 8088 kiem tra trang thai cua bo ong xac lap. S kiem tra nay can thiet bi v khi gap mot lenh dau cham ong, 8088 se khi ong 8087 ( chip ong x ly dau cham ong ) song song vi bo ong x ly. Khi 8088 can ket qua cua phep toan dau cham ong, 8088 co the kiem tra xem bo ong x ly a thc hien cha, neu cha 8088 phai i. Cac tn hieu S3-S6 va QSx cha thong tin ve trang thai noi cua CPU. Ngi ta cung khong ro tai sao nha san xuat cung cap nhng tn hieu nay. Trong thc te, chung thng khong c s dung. Chung ta a ban ve tn hieu MN / MX , vay ch con tn hieu RESET. Tn hieu nay dung e thiet lap lai trang thai cho CPU, th du, khi ngi s dung an nut reset tren ban ieu khien. Sau khi c thiet lap lai, CPU c at trang thai ban au.

2. Th du ve bus
Bus la mot chat keo e noi cac he thong may tnh vi nhau. Trong phan nay chung ta se xem xet ky IBM PC bus. IBM PC bus la mot th du tot ve mot bus s dung tren cac he thong may tnh dan dung gia thanh thap. Bus co 20 ng a ch, 8 ng d lieu va c s dung rong rai trong cac he thong da tren 8088. Hau het cac may tnh tng thch vi PC eu s dung bus nay. IBM PC bus la nen tang cua IBM PC AT bus cung nh cac bus khac. IBM PC bus a tr thanh bus chuan ton tai tren cac he thong da tren 8088 bi v gan nh tat ca cac may tnh tng thch vi PC eu s dung bus nay e cho phep cac board I/O ket noi vao he thong cua chung. Bus co 62 ng liet ke trong hnh 3.9. Trong hnh nay, cot ky hieu In la cac tn hieu vao t bus ti board chnh, va cot ky hieu Out la cac tn hieu c tao ra tren board chnh va xuat len bus. Bus c khac tren board chnh, co khoang 6 au noi (connector) hay con goi la cac khe m rong (extension slot) at cach nhau 3/4 inch e gan cac card vao. Moi card co mot bang chan (tab) tren card at va vao khe m rong. Tab co 31 chan ranh ma vang moi mat tao tiep xuc tot ve ien vi au noi. Theo tai lieu, IBM goi bus la kenh I/O (I/O channel), nhng khong co ai khac goi nh vay. Chung ta ch e cap en v co 2 trong so cac tn hieu cua bus dung ten nay.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-75-

Cac may IBM PC ban au (cung nh nhng may tng thch) co mot bo dao ong thach anh tao xung clock tan so 14.31818 MHz. Tan so nay khong c chon tuy y ma do yeu cau tao ra tn hieu burst mau (color burst) s dung trong cac he thong truyen hnh mau Bac My va Nhat. (Ban au IBM ngh rang ngi tieu thu muon dung nhng may thu hnh mau lam thiet b hien th e tiet kiem chi ph khi mua mot man hnh may tnh (monitor). Du khong co ai lam nh vay, nhng v a chon la nen IBM van cai tan so nay vao may tnh). Tn hieu 14.31818 MHz hien dien tren ng tn hieu dao ong OSC (oscillator) cua bus. Tn hieu OSC CLK RESET A0-A19 D0-D7 ALE MEMR MEMW IOR IOW AEN IO CH IO CH ng 1 1 1 20 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 3 4 1 5 3 1 Vao Ra X X X X X X X X X X Mo ta Tn hieu ong ho 70ns (14,31818MHz) Tn hieu ong ho 210 ns (4,77 MHz) Khi ong CPU 20 ng a ch 8 ng d lieu Cho phep chot a ch oc bo nh Viet bo nh oc vao/ra Viet vao/ra Cho phep a ch (CPU tha noi bus) Kiem tra kenh vao/ra Kenh vao/ra san sang Yeu cau ngat Yeu cau DMA X X Tra li DMA em +5V, +12V at Khong dung tren PC

CHK RDY IRQ7

X X X X X

IRQ2-

DRQ1DRQ3 DACK0DACK3 T/C Power GND Reserve d

Hnh 3.9 : Cac tn hieu tren IBM PC bus Tan so cua tn hieu OSC qua cao oi vi 8088 (tan so hoat ong toi a cua 8088 la 5 MHz) nen ta phai chia tan so OSC cho 3 e co tn hieu 4.77 MHz, thc s lam viec

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-76-

nh mot xung clock chu (master clock) e quyet nh thi gian cua mot chu ky bus. Viec chia tan so cua bo dao ong thach anh cho 3 c thc hien bi mot chip tao xung clock 8284A cua Intel. Tn hieu tan so 4.77 MHz cung tren bus va c goi la CLK, co mc thap trong 2/3 va mc cao trong 1/3 chu ky tn hieu, khong oi xng nh tn hieu OSC.Mot so mat tng tbhch vi PC chay tan so 8 MHz s dung phien ban nhanh hn cua chip 8088, cac may nay co tn hieu CLK tan so cao hn. 8284A cung tao ra tn hieu RESET tren bus. e thiet lap lai trang thai ban au cho CPU, mach ien ben ngoai gi mot tn hieu ti 8284A e xac lap RESET, bat buoc CPU va cac thiet b I/O t khi ong lai. IBM PC bus cung co 20 ng a ch va 8 ng d lieu e bus c s dung vi 8088. Tuy nhien, e nhan biet nhieu ng khac cua bus, can phai hieu khong ch 8088 ma con phai biet mot so chip ho tr cho 8088 va cach s dung chung.

Hnh 3.10:S o n gian bus PC chuan s dung vi 8088

III. Bo nh
Bo nh ban dan, nh tnh tng thch ve kch thc va mc o logic, toc o truy cap cao, nang lng tieu thu thap nen c thiet ke lam bo nh chnh. Chung c che tao nh nhng chip rieng biet. Xu the ngay nay la phai tao ra cac chip nh va co dung lng ln vi kch thc nho va phai co toc o cao vi gia thanh thap. Trong khi cac chip nh thong thng co kch thc cau truc ien hnh c 1m th cac chip nh 64MB giam ti 0,3m vi hn 200 trieu transistor, tu ien va ien tr phai cung hoat ong chnh xac vi toc o cao tren cung mot chip o. Ch can mot trong so phan t o co van e th ca chip khong the hoat ong c

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

1. Phan loai bo nh ban dan

-77-

Ch can da tren thi gian viet va cach viet, co the chia thanh bo nh co nh, bo nh na co nh vabo nh oc/viet. Bo nh co noi dung ghi san mot lan khi che tao goi la bo nh co nh va c ky hieu la ROM (Read Only Memory). Sau khi a viet (bang mat na) t nha may th ROM loai nay khong viet lai c na. PROM la mot dang khac, cac bit co the ghi bang thiet b ghi cua ngi s dung trong mot lan (Programmable ROM). Bo nh co the oc/viet nhieu lan goi la RAM (Random Access Memory) gom co 2 loai:bo nh oc/viet tnh SRAM (Static RAM) thng c xay dng tren cac mach ien t flip-flop vabo nh oc/viet ong DRAM (Dynamic RAM) c xay dng tren c s nh cac ien tch tu ien, bo nh nay phai c hoi phuc noi dung eu an, neu khong noi dung se mat theo s ro ien tch tren tu. Gia ROM va RAM co mot lp cac bo nh c goi laEPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM ) co the xoa c bang tia cc tm va ghi lai c, EEPROM (Electric Earasable PROM) co the xoa c bang dong ien. Cac loai nay con c goi labo nh na co nh. Cac bo nh DRAM thng thoa man nhng yeu cau khi can bo nh co dung lng ln: trong khi o khi can co toc o truy xuat ln th lai phai dung cac bo nh SDRAM vi gia thanh ac hn. Nhng ca hai loai nay co nhc iem la thuoc loai bay hi (volatile), thong tin se b mat i khi nguon ien nuoi b cat. Do vay cac chng trnh dung cho viec khi ong PC nh boot vaBIOS phai nap tren cac bo nh ROM.

Hnh 3.11: Phan loai bo nh ban dan

2. To chc bo nh:
Bo nh thng c to chc gom nhieu vi mach nh c ghep lai e co o dai t va tong so t can thiet. Nhng chip nh c thiet ke sao cho co ay u mot so chc nang cua mot bo nh: Mot ma tran nh gom cac o nh, moi o nh ng vi mot bit nh. Mach logic giai ma a ch o nh.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

Mach logic cho phep oc noi dung o nh. Mach logic cho phep viet noi dung o nh. Cac bo em vao, bo em ra va bo m rong a ch v.v...

-78-

Cach to chc n gian nhat la to chc theo t (word organized) vi s chon tuyen tnh (linear selection). Mot ma tran nh nh vay co o dai cua cot bang so lng t W va o dai cua hang bang so lng bit B trong mot t. Bo chon t phai giai ma 1 t W. Phng phap chon tuyen tnh co thi gian tam nhap ngan nhng can mot bo giai ma ln khi tong so t ln do o lam tang gia thanh san pham. Kch thc cua phan giai ma a ch se giam i khi to chc ma tran nh va phan logic chon t cho phep giai ma hai bc (two-level decoding). Ma tran nh s dung giai ma hai bc ng vi t vat ly va t logic. T vat ly bao gom so lng bit trong mot hang ma tran. T logic bao gom so lng bit tng ng vi mot t logic c nhan biet va gi ra cung mot luc. can 2 bo giai ma: mot bo giai ma hang e chon mot vat ly va mot bo giai ma cot gom mot vai mach don kenh (multiplexor) chon mot t logic t mot t vat ly a chon.

Hnh 3.12: Mot th du ve giai ma 2 bc cho ma tran ROM 128x128

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-79-

Hnh 3.13: Mot th du s o cau tao cua 1 chip DRAM

3. Mot so khai niem ve bo nh khac:

- Bo nh chp nhoang (Flash Memory) Trong t nam gan ay, mot loai bo nh khong bay hi mi a xuat hien tren th trng, thng c s dung thay the cho cac o a mem va cng trong nhng may tnh xach tay (notebook). o la bo nh flash. Cau truc cua chung c ban nh EEPROM. Do vay ch can ien the c 12 V la co the cho phep thc hien 10 000 chu trnh xoa va lap trnh. Bo nh flash co the hoat ong gan mem deo nh DRAM va SRAM nhng lai khong mat so lieu khi b cat ien. Muc ch s dung chnh cua bo nh flash la e thay the cho cac o a mem va o a cng dung lng nho> Do no la mach tch hp nen co u iem la kch thc nho va tieu tan nang lng thap, khong b anh hng cua va ap. Cac a cng chat ran da tren c s cac bo nh flash co li the ve cong suat tieu thu cung nh gia thanh co dung lng ti vai MByte. Cac card nh loai nay cung co u iem la khong gap phai van e mat thong tin nh trng hp RAM CMOS khi pin Ni-Cd b hong. Thi gian lu tr thong tin trong bo nh flash t nhat cung la 10 nam con th phai la 100 nam, trong thi gian nay th cac a mem va cng a b hong roi. - Bo nh cache (khay) Vi cac cpu toc o nhanh (tren 33MHz), can phai xen cac trang thai i khi truy xuat d lieu ti cac DRAM re tien nhng co thi gian tham nhap cham (60-120ns). ieu o lam giam hieu suat cua toan may tnh. Co the giai quyet bang cach dung cac SRAM co thi gian tham nhap ngan hn (20-25ns, tha.m ch 12ns) nhng gia thanh lai rat at. Bo nh cache ket hp c cac li iem nhanh cua SRAM va re cua DRAM e xay dng c mot bo nh co hieu suat cao cho PC. Gia CPU va bo nh chnh bang DRAM, ngi ta xen vao mot bo nh SRAM nhanh co dung lng nho bang 1/10 hoac 1/100 lan bo nh chnh goi la cache; di s ieu khien cua bo ieu khien cache,

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-80-

bo nh nay se lu tr tam thi cac so lieu thng c goi va cung cap no cho CPU trong thi gian ngan. - Bo nh video Trc ay ngi ta s dung RAM ong DRAM (Dynamic RAM) lam RAM video nhng loai RAM nay ngay cang khong thch hp vi cac board video o hoa co o phan giai cao oi hoi toc o truyen d lieu phai rat cao. Th du o phan giai 1024*768, tan so quet doc 72 Hz, so bit mau la 24 bit (mau thc) bo nh RAM video phai c oc toc o khoang 170 trieu bit trong mot sec, la toc o gan toi a cua cac DRAM quy c. Hien nay ngi ta dung cac loai RAM khac nh EDORAM (Extended Data Out), VRAM ( Video RAM ), MDRAM (Multibank RAM ). SGRAM (Synchronous Graphics RAM ) lam RAM video. EDORAM la loai RAM nap oc lap trc cho nhng mach rieng biet lan truy xuat ke tiep se bat au trc khi lan truy xuat trc o hoan tat. EDORAM con c s dung trong bo nh chnh. VRAM la loai bo nh co cong kep cho phep bo x ly va chip gia toc tren board video cung nh chip DAC hoac ngay ca bo vi x ly cua PC co the truy xuat RAM video cung mot luc. MDRAM la kieu bo nh chuyen dung cho nhng ng dung o hoa va hnh anh. MD-RAM c to chc thanh nhng day nho cho phep cai at nhieu kych thc a tch hp 32KB. Lay th du vi o bo phan giai 1924 * 768 va 24 bit mau ta can kych thc bo nh RAM video la 2.3MB. Neu dung cac DRAM 256 K* 16 va bus 64-bit kych thc bo nh RAM video phai la 4 MB bao gom hai day moi day bon chip nh. Bang cach dung MDRAM ta co the cau tao bo nh 2.5 MB vi hai hoac ba chip ri. Nh vay tranh lang ph c 1.5 MB, t o giam gia thanh cho bo nh RAM video . SGRAM la kieu bo nh co the hoat ong c tan so 66 MHz hoac nhanh hn cung nh c s dung trong cac board me co nh chuan bus lien ket noi thanh phan ngoai vi PCI ( peripheral component interconnect ) . Cac he thong bus s dung trong may tnh (nh ISA, EISA hoac MCA) anh hng en toc o x ly cac thong tin hnh anh. Chi tiet cac loai bus nay va cac bus khac se c e cap en trong chng 3. Bus ISA co 16 bit d lieu hoat ong tan so 8.33 MHz. Cac bus EISA va MCA co 32 bit d lieu nhng ch hoat ong tan so th 10 MHz . Cac tan so va neu la cac toc o bus, khong phai la toc o cua CPU . e cai thien gii han nay, ngi ta o xung bus cuc bo VESA (VLBus) 32bit hoat ong toc o ay u CPU len en 40 MHz. Khi he thong bus PCI c ap dung , so bit d lieu c x ly ong thi la 64 bit vi toc o 66MHz .

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-81-

Cho en hien nay nhng ngi s dung may tnh a c nghe nhieu ve cac board video a phng tien (Multimedia ) co kha nang s ly cac anh tnh va anh ong, x ly tnh hieu hnh, x ly o hoa v.v . Cung nh cac board video x ly anh ong ba chieu ( 3 D ) . Tren cac board video loai nay ngi ta dung chip chuyen dung ASIC e nen va giai nen tn hieu video theo giai thuat cua MPEG .

IV. Giao tiep

Mot he thong may tnh co kch thc nho en trung bnh tieu bieu bao gom mot chip vi x ly, cac chip nh va mot so bo ieu khien I/O, tat ca eu c noi qua mot bus. Ta a nghien cu chi tiet ve cac bo nh, cac bo vi x ly va cac bus. Phan nay se xem xet phan cuoi cung, cac chip I/O. Qua nhng chip nay may tnh truyen thong vi the gii ben ngoai.

1. Cac chip I/O

Co nhieu chip I/O a c s dung va cung co nhieu chip mi san xuat ang c gii thieu. Cac chip thong dung bao gom cac UART, USART, cac bo ieu khien CRT, cac bo ieu khien a va cac PIO. UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) la mot chip co the oc mot byte t bus d lieu va tng thi iem xuat tng bit noi tiep nhau ti thiet b au cuoi tren ng truyen noi tiep, hoac nhap d lieu t thiet b au cuoi. Toc o cho phep cua cac UART thng t 50 bps ti 19.2 Kbps, o rong ky t t 5 ti 8 bit; co 1, 1.5 hoac 2 bit stop, co the dung hoac khong dung bit kiem tra chan le, tat ca eu di s ieu khien cua chng trnh. USART (Universal Synchronous Receiver Transmitter) co the ieu khien truyen ong bo bang cach dung nhieu nghi thc khac nhau va cung thc hien tat ca chc nang cua mot UART. V chung ta a xet UART chng 2, nen phan nay ch nghien cu ve giao tiep song song ( parallel interface ) nh mot th du cho mot chip I/O. Chip PIO Chip xuat / nhap song song PIO ( Parallel Input / Output ) tieu bieu la chip 8255A cua Intel, c trnh bay trong hnh 3.14. 8255A co 24 ng I/O e giao tiep vi bat ky thiet b nao tng thch vi TTL, th du nh ban phm, chuyen mach, en hoac may in. Chng trnh cua CPU co the ghi 0 hoac 1 len mot ng bat ky hoac oc trang thai nhap cua mot ng bat ky, cung cap s linh hoat nhat trong giao tiep vi ngoai vi. Mot he thong nho da tren bo vi x ly s dung mot PIO thng co the thay the hoan toan mot board gom nhieu chip SSI va MSI.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

Hnh 3.14 : Chip PIO 8255A

-82-

Mac du CPU co the nh cau hnh cho 8255A theo nhieu cach bang viec nap cac thanh ghi trang thai ben trong chip, chung ta se tap trung tren mot so che o hoat ong n gian. Cach n gian nhat la s dung 8255A nh 3 cong 8 bit (8 bit port) oc lap: A, B va C. Moi cong ket hp vi mot thanh ghi chot 8 bit ben trong 8255A. e thiet lap cac ng tn hieu tren cong, CPU ch phai ghi mot so 8 bit vao thanh ghi tng ng, so 8-bit se xuat hien tren cac ng tn hieu xuat va se duy tr gia tr (c chot) cho ti khi thanh ghi c ghi lan na. e dung cong lam mot cong nhap, CPU ch phai oc thanh ghi tng ng. Cac che o hoat ong khac cung cap kha nang bat tay vi cac thiet b ngoai vi va xuat nhap 2 chieu. Th du e xuat d lieu cho mot thiet b khong luon luon san sang nhan d lieu trong che o bat tay, 8255A se a d lieu len cong xuat va i thiet b ngoai vi gi 1 xung tr ve bao rang va nhan d lieu va yau cau d lieu ke. Mach logic can thiet e chot nhng xung nh vay va lam cho chung co gia tr oi vi CPU c bao gom ben trong phan cng cua 8255A. T s o chc nang cua 8255A chung ta thay ngoai 24 chan cho 3 cong, 8255A con co 8 ng d lieu noi trc tiep vi bus d lieu va cac ng khac: mot ng chon chip, cac ng ieu khien oc va ghi d lieu, 2 ng a ch va mot ng e thiet lap lai trang thai ban au cho chip. Hai ng a ch chon mot trong 4 thanh ghi noi, tng ng vi cac cong A, B, C va thanh ghi trang thai. Thanh ghi nay co cac bit xac nh cong nao la cong nhap va cong nao la cong xuat va nhng chc nang khac. Bnh thng, 2 ng a ch cua 8255A c noi vi cac bit thap nhat cua bus a ch.

2. Giai ma a ch.
Cho en luc nay chung ta a s bo biet qua cach chon chip oi vi cac chip bo nh va cac chip I/O a khao sat. Muc nay giup chung ta xem xet ky hn van e nay. Hay xet mot may vi tnh n gian bao gom mot CPU 8-bit vi 16 ng a ch, mot EPROM 2K x 8 bit cho chng trnh, mot RAM 2K x 8 bit cho d lieu va mot PIO. He thong nho nay co the c dung nh mot mau (prototype) cho bo nao cua mot o chi hoac cua mot thiet b n gian. Trong san xuat EPROM co the c thay the bang ROM. PIO c chon theo mot trong hai cach : nh mot thiet b I/O thc s hoac nh mot phan cua bo nh. Neu c chon nh mot thiet b I/O, chung ta phai xac nh mot khong gian a ch I/O ro rang, th du s dung tn hieu IORQ tren IBM PC bus. Neu c chon nh mot phan cua bo nh, goi la I/O c anh xa bo nh (memory-mapped

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-83-

I/O), chung ta phai danh 4 byte trong khong gian a ch bo nh cho 3 cong 8 bit va thanh ghi ieu khien. S chon la sau co hi tuy tien nhng ta se chon theo cach nay nham minh hoa mot so van e ang quan tam trong giao tiep vi I/O. EPROM can 2K khong gian a ch, RAM cung can 2K va PIO can 4 byte. Do khong gian a ch la 64 khac, chung ta phai chon v tr at 3 thanh phan nay vao trong khong gian a ch o. Mot kha nang c trnh bay trong hnh 3.12, trong o EPROM chiem cac a ch t 0 en 2K, RAM chiem cac a ch t 32K en 34K va PIO chiem 4 byte cao nhat cua khong gian a ch t 65532 ti 65535. Theo quan iem cua ngi lap trnh, khong co s khac nhau trong viec chon cach nh a ch cho I/O. Tuy nhien, oi vi van e giao tiep, neu chung ta a chon a ch cho PIO thong qua khong gian a ch I/O, ta se khong mat a ch danh cho bo nh (nhng tat nhien se mat 4 a ch trong khong gian a ch I/O). Vi cach phan a ch nh trong hnh 3.15, mot byte cua EPROM c tham chieu bi mot a ch bo nh 16 bit co dang 00000xxxxxxxxxxx (nh phan). Do EPROM chiem cac a ch t 0 en 2K trong khong gian a ch 64K nen 5 bit cao cua a ch eu bang 0. Do vay, viec chon chip EPROM co the thc hien bang cach s dung mot bo so sanh 5 bit, ta se so sanh 5 ng a ch cao vi 00000.

Hnh 3.15 : V tr cua EPROM, RAM va PIO trong khong gian a ch 64K Phng phap tot hn e nhan c cung ket qua la dung mot cong OR co 5 ngo vao, 5 ngo vao nay c noi vi cac ng a ch A11-A15. Neu va ch neu 5 ng a ch nay eu bang 0, do vay CS c xac lap (xac lap mc thap). Tren thc te khong co cong OR 5 ngo vao cac ho SSI chuan. Cong NOR 8 ngo vao c san xuat nhieu va co so ngo vao tng oi thch hp, ta s dung cong nay bang cach noi at 3 ngo vao khong dung va ao tn hieu ngo ra e co cung ket qua vi cong OR 5 ngo vao, nh trong hnh 3.13 (a). Theo quy c, cac ngo vao khong s dung se khong c ve tren s o mach. Ta cung dung cung nguyen tac nh vay cho RAM. Cac byte cua RAM ng vi cac a ch nh phan co dang 10000xxxxxxxxxxx, nen can them mot cong ao cho ng a ch A15 nh tren hnh ve. Giai ma a ch cho PIO hi phc tap hn do PIO c chon bi 4 a ch co dang 11111111111111xx. Mot mach co the xac lap CS cho PIO ch khi tren bus a ch xuat hien ung a ch nh trnh bay trong hnh ve. Ta s dung 2 cong NAND 8 ngo vao mot

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-84-

cong OR 2 ngo vao e noi cac ng tren bus a ch vi chan CS cua PIO. e thiet lap mach logic giai ma a ch cho hnh 3.16 (a), can dung 6 chip SSI : 4 chip 8 ngo vao, 1 cong OR 2 ngo vao va mot chip co 3 cong ao.Tuy nhien, neu may tnh thc s ch co mot CPU, 2 chip nh va PIO, ta co the dung mot thu thuat e n gian hoa viec giai ma a ch. Thu thuat nay thc te da vao tat ca cac a ch cua EPROM va ch co a ch cua EPROM co bit A15 bang 0, ta co the noi trc tiep CS vi A15 nh trong hnh 3.16 (b). en ay ta nhan thay viec quyet nh at RAM a ch 8000H co ve bt tuy tien. Co the thc hien giai ma RAM bang cach chu y en cac a ch cua RAM eu co dang 10xxxxxxxxxxxxxx, do vay ch can 2 bit la u. Tng t, mot a ch bat ky bat au bang 11 phai la a ch cua PIO. Mach logic giai ma ay u bay gi ch can 2 cong NAND va 1 cong ao. Do cong ao con c tao ra t mot cong NAND bang cach noi 2 ngo vao lai vi nhau, ta ch can 1 chip co 4 cong NAND 2 ngo vao. Mach logic giai ma a ch hnh 3.16(b) c goi la mach giai ma a ch tng phan ( partial address decoding ) do khong s dung toan bo a ch. Bat li cua cach giai ma a ch nay la viec oc cac a ch 0-001000000000000 hoac 0-0011-00000000000 hoac 0-0100-00000000000 se cho cung ket qua. Thc te, moi a ch na di cua khong gian a ch se chon EPROM. Do ta khong s dung cac a ch khac vi 00000xxxxxxxxxxx nen s viec tren khong gay mot ton hai nao. Tuy nhien, neu cac nha thiet ke may tnh muon co the nang cap trong tng lai, ho se khong dung phng phap giai ma a ch tng phan.

Hnh 3.16:

(a) Giai ma a ch toan phan (b) Giai ma a ch tng phan

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-85-

CHNG 4 LP VI CHNG TRNH

Ranh gii gia phan cng va phan mem khong c xac nh ro, hn na lai thng xuyen dch chuyen. Cac may tnh trc ay co cac lenh so hoc, logic, dch, so sanh, lap vong, v.v. c thc thi trc tiep bi phan cng. Vi moi mot lenh, hen hu mot mach phan cng rieng biet e thc hien lenh nay. Ngi ta co the thao oc cac ban mach cu (back panel) va ch ra cac thanh phan ien t dung cho lenh chia, toi thieu cung ve mat nguyen tac. Tren cac may tnh lp hien nay, khong con u kha nang tach rieng cac mach chia do bi chung khong hien hu. Tat ca cac lenh co the co co lp may qui c (th du cac lenh so hoc, logic, dch, so sanh va lap vong) c thc thi tng bc bi mot trnh phien dch chay tren lp vi chng trnh . Ngay nay, thay v tm kiem cac mach chia chung ta lay ra mot bang liet ke cua vi chng trnh va tm kiem phan chng trnh phien dch cac lenh chia. Mac du cac phng trnh mot lp co the c thc thi bi mot trnh phien dch, va mac du trnh phien dch nay cung co the c thc thi bi mot trnh phien dch khac, he thong lp bac nay khong the tiep tuc en vo tan. Lp di cung phai la mot may phan cng thc s vi cac mach tch hp, cac nguon cung lp va cac oi tng cng tng t khac, chung a c e cap en trong chng trc. Trong chng nay chung ta se nghien cu cach thc vi chng trnh ieu khien cac thanh phan phan cng va cach thc vi chng trnh phien dch cac lenh cua lp may quy c. Ngay nay, co nhng may khong c vi chng trnh hoa (may RISC), cung chnh v vay nen vi lp nay chung ta ch khao sat s lc co tnh chat lch s ma thoi. Do cau truc cua lp vi chng trnh, goi la vi cau truc, c xac nh bi phan cng nen thng tho s va kho lap trnh. Cac khao sat ve nh th thng quan trong va chung a dan Rosin ( 1974 ) en nh ngha vi chng trnh la s hien thc cac he thong hp ly ay trien vong thong qua s phien dch tren cac may khong hp ly . Lp vi chng trnh co mot chc nang ac biet: Thc thi cac trnh phien dch cho cac may ao khac. Muc ch cua thiet ke nay hien nhien dan en mot to chc c toi u hoa cao o oi vi viec tm-nap, giai ma va thc thi cac lenh cua lp may quy c, va trong mot so trng hp, cac lenh phc tap hn na. Chung ta se bat au viec khao sat lp vi chng trnh bang viec nhac lai mot cach tom tat cac khoi c ban trong mach so, chung la mot phan trong cau truc cua lp vi chng trnh do vay cung lien quan en cac vi lap trnh vien (microprogrammer). Vi chng trnh vien la ngi viet cac vi chng trnh, khong phai la lap trnh vien nho (small programmer).

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-86-

Ke en chung ta i vao trong tam cua van e, cach thc cac lenh phc tap hn c thiet lap t chuoi cac lenh (primitive). Cong viec cua vi lap trnh vien la viet mot chng trnh ieu khien cac thanh ghi, cac bus, cac ALU, cac bo nh va cac thanh phan phan cng khac cua may. Cac thanh phan nay hoac c tm thay trong cac tai lieu ve mach so hoac a c khao sat trong chng trc, ay chung ta ch nhac lai mot cach tom tat.

I. NHAC LAI LP VAT LY:

1. Cac thanh ghi:
Thanh ghi la thanh phan lu tr thong tin. Lp vi chng trnh luon luon co mot so thanh ghi nham lu d thong tin can thiet cho viec x ly lenh ang c phien dch. Cac thanh ghi ai khai cung giong nh bo nh chnh, iem khac nhau la cac thanh ghi c at ben trong bo x ly nen chung c oc va ghi nhanh hn so vi viec oc va ghi cac t trong bo nh chnh, bo nh thng at ben ngoai chip x ly. Cac may tnh ln hn va at tien hn thng co nhieu thanh ghi hn cac may nho va re tien, chung phai s dung bo nh chnh e lu tr cac ket qua trung gian. Tren mot so may tnh, mot nhom thanh ghi c anh so 0, 1, 2 , n - 1 co gia tr lp vi chng trnh con c goi la cuc bo (local) hay bo nh nhap (Scratchpad memory). Mot thanh ghi co the at trng hoa bang mot con so cho biet thanh ghi lu tr bao nhieu bit. Thong tin at trong thanh ghi se ton tai cho en khi co mot thong tin khac thay the. Qua trnh oc thong tin ra khoi mot thanh ghi khong lam thay oi noi dung cua thanh ghi nay. Noi cach khac, khi mot thanh ghi c oc, mot ban sao noi dung cua thanh ghi c tao ra va ban goc trong thanh ghi khong b xao tron.

2. Bus noi:
Bus noi la tap hp cac ng day truyen tn hieu theo dang song song. Th du: cac bus c dung e cho phep noi dung cua mot thanh ghi c sao chep en mot thanh ghi khac. Khong giong bus he thong a khao sat chng 3, cac bus nay ch ket noi hai thanh phan do vay khong can cac ng a ch hoac cac ng ieu khien bao quat ch can n ng d lieu va trong trng hp tong quat mot hoac hai ng ieu khien cung u. Cac bus c dung do bi viec chuyen song song tat ca cac bit cung mot luc se nhanh hn nhieu so vi truyen noi tiep tng bit mot moi thi iem. Mot bus co the la n hng (unidirectional) hay song hng (bidirectional). Bus n hng ch co the chuyen d lieu theo mot chieu trong khi bus song hng chuyen d lieu theo ca hai chieu nhng khong ong thi. Cac bus n hng ien hnh c dung e noi hai thanh ghi, mot thanh ghi luon luon la nguon va thanh ghi con lai luon luon la ch. Cac bus song hng ien hnh c dung khi bat ky thanh ghi nao trong tap thanh ghi cung co the la nguon hoac la ch. Nhieu thanh phan co kha nang t ket noi hoac khong ket noi ve mach en vi bus (nhng van ket noi ve mat vat ly. Cac ket noi nay co the c thc hen hoac khong trong vai ngiay. Mot bus ma cac thanh phan ket noi co ac tnh nay c goi la

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-87-

bus ba trang thai (tristate bus) v moi mot ng cua bus co the la 0, 1 hoac khong ket noi. Cac bus ba trang thai c s dung rong rai khi co nhieu thanh phan noi en bus va chung eu co kha nang a thong tin len bus . Hnh 4.1 (a) mo ta mot thanh ghi 8 bit c noi vi mot bus nhap va mot bus xuat. Thanh ghi bao gom 8 flip flop loai D, moi flip flop lu tr 1 bit va c noi vi bus xuat qua mot cong em khong ao. Thanh ghi co hai tn hieu ieu khien, CK va cho phep xuat OE (output enable), noi en tat ca cac flip flop. Bnh thng 2 tn hieu nay trang thai tnh nhng thnh thoang chung c xac lap, gay nen tac ong tng ng. Khi CK khong xac lap, noi dung cua thanh ghi bi cac tn hieu tren Bus. Khi CK xac lap, thanh ghi c nap t bus nhap. Khi OE khong xac lap, thanh ghi khong c ket noi vi bus xuat. Ngc lai khi OE c xac lap, noi dung cua thanh ghi c nap nen bus xuat ( thanh ghi xuat thong tin len bus )

Hnh 4.1 (a) chi tiet mot thanh ghi 8-bit noi vi mot bus nhap va mot bus xuat b) ky hieu cua mot thanh ghi 16 bit vi mot bus nhap va 2 bus xuat Neu co mot thanh ghi khac, R chang han, co cac ngo vao noi vi Bus xuat cua thanh ghi va mo ta tren, thanh gi nay co the truyen thong tin en R. e thc hien ieu nay, OE phai c xac lap va gi trang thai nay u lau e a thong tin len bus on nh. Ke en ng CK cua R c xac lap e nap cho R thong tin nay. Thao tac m cong a thong tin cua mot thanh ghi len bus e not thanh ghi khac nap vao thng xay ra lp vi chng trnh.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-88-

Hnh 4.1 b) trnh bay mot thanh ghi 16 bit vi 2 bus xuat , moi bus c ieu khien bi mot tn hieu OE khac nhau

II. MOT V DU VE VI CHNG TRNH:

Hnh 4.2: S o khoi cua 1 CPU n gian cua mot may tnh ien t thiet ke theo phng phap vi chng trnh hoa. e thc hien mot lenh cong (ADD) can mot he toi thieu cac phep vi toan: Ky t gi nh Ghi chu MAR-M Noi MAR vi BUS M MBR-M Noi MBR vi BUS M PC-D Noi PC vi BUS D IA-D Noi IA (cua IR) vi BUS D AC-D Noi Accumulator vi BUS D MTS Noi BUS M vi BUS S qua ALU DTS Noi BUS D vi BUS S qua ALU S-MAR Noi BUS S vi MAR

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

Noi BUS S vi MBR Noi BUS S vi PC Noi BUS S vi IR Noi BUS S vi AC oc noi dung trong Mem ra MBR Viet noi dung t MBR vao Mem Cong noi dung co tren BUS D va BUSM tai ALU va a ra BUS S ONE Noi BUS D vi BUS S qua ALU cong 1 JMP Nhay en a ch trong lenh sau neu A=0 JOPC Nhay en a ch cua ma lenh (giai ma lenh) Hnh 4.3: he toi thieu cac phep vi toan S-MBR S-PC S-IR S-AC R W PLUS

-89-

VI LENH

MEM

Nhay

ALU

BUSM

BUSD

BUSS

a ch

PC-MAR DTS PCD SMAR |ADDR| R (MBR)IR MTS MBRM SIR DECOD JOPC (IA)MAR DTS IAD SMAR |DATA| R MBR+A PLUS MBRM ACD SAC PC+1 ONE PCD SPC Hnh 4.4: Vi chng trnh thc hien lenh ADD S dung cac phng phap viet chng trnh: - Moc noi chng trnh con - anh a ch ch so hoa - anh a ch thong so hoa u iem: Giam sai lam logic - Co kha nang mo phong nhieu thiet b co chc nang khac nhau bang 1 may - Xay dng ket cau cua he thong co the quyet nh trong giai oan cuoi cua qua trnh thiet ke

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-90-

CHNG 4: LP VI CHNG TRNH

Ranh gii gia phan cng va phan mem khong c xac nh ro, hn na lai thng xuyen dch chuyen. Cac may tnh trc ay co cac lenh so hoc, logic, dch, so sanh, lap vong, v.v. c thc thi trc tiep bi phan cng. Vi moi mot lenh, hen hu mot mach phan cng rieng biet e thc hien lenh nay. Ngi ta co the thao oc cac ban mach cu (back panel) va ch ra cac thanh phan ien t dung cho lenh chia, toi thieu cung ve mat nguyen tac. Tren cac may tnh lp hien nay, khong con u kha nang tach rieng cac mach chia do bi chung khong hien hu. Tat ca cac lenh co the co co lp may qui c (th du cac lenh so hoc, logic, dch, so sanh va lap vong) c thc thi tng bc bi mot trnh phien dch chay tren lp vi chng trnh . Ngay nay, thay v tm kiem cac mach chia chung ta lay ra mot bang liet ke cua vi chng trnh va tm kiem phan chng trnh phien dch cac lenh chia. Mac du cac phng trnh mot lp co the c thc thi bi mot trnh phien dch, va mac du trnh phien dch nay cung co the c thc thi bi mot trnh phien dch khac, he thong lp bac nay khong the tiep tuc en vo tan. Lp di cung phai la mot may phan cng thc s vi cac mach tch hp, cac nguon cung lp va cac oi tng cng tng t khac, chung a c e cap en trong chng trc. Trong chng nay chung ta se nghien cu cach thc vi chng trnh ieu khien cac thanh phan phan cng va cach thc vi chng trnh phien dch cac lenh cua lp may quy c. Ngay nay, co nhng may khong c vi chng trnh hoa (may RISC), cung chnh v vay nen vi lp nay chung ta ch khao sat s lc co tnh chat lch s ma thoi. Do cau truc cua lp vi chng trnh, goi la vi cau truc, c xac nh bi phan cng nen thng tho s va kho lap trnh. Cac khao sat ve nh th thng quan trong va chung a dan Rosin ( 1974 ) en nh ngha vi chng trnh la s hien thc cac he thong hp ly ay trien vong thong qua s phien dch tren cac may khong hp ly . Lp vi chng trnh co mot chc nang ac biet: Thc thi cac trnh phien dch cho cac may ao khac. Muc ch cua thiet ke nay hien nhien dan en mot to chc c toi u hoa cao o oi vi viec tm-nap, giai ma va thc thi cac lenh cua lp may quy c, va trong mot so trng hp, cac lenh phc tap hn na. Chung ta se bat au viec khao sat lp vi chng trnh bang viec nhac lai mot cach tom tat cac khoi c ban trong mach so, chung la mot phan trong cau truc cua lp vi chng trnh do vay cung lien quan en cac vi lap trnh vien (microprogrammer). Vi chng trnh vien la ngi viet cac vi chng trnh, khong phai la lap trnh vien nho (small programmer). Ke en chung ta i vao trong tam cua van e, cach thc cac lenh phc tap hn c thiet lap t chuoi cac lenh (primitive). Cong viec cua vi lap trnh vien la viet mot chng trnh ieu khien cac thanh ghi, cac bus, cac ALU, cac bo nh va cac thanh phan phan cng khac cua may. Cac thanh

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-91-

phan nay hoac c tm thay trong cac tai lieu ve mach so hoac a c khao sat trong chng trc, ay chung ta ch nhac lai mot cach tom tat.

I. NHAC LAI LP VAT LY:

1. Cac thanh ghi:
Thanh ghi la thanh phan lu tr thong tin. Lp vi chng trnh luon luon co mot so thanh ghi nham lu d thong tin can thiet cho viec x ly lenh ang c phien dch. Cac thanh ghi ai khai cung giong nh bo nh chnh, iem khac nhau la cac thanh ghi c at ben trong bo x ly nen chung c oc va ghi nhanh hn so vi viec oc va ghi cac t trong bo nh chnh, bo nh thng at ben ngoai chip x ly. Cac may tnh ln hn va at tien hn thng co nhieu thanh ghi hn cac may nho va re tien, chung phai s dung bo nh chnh e lu tr cac ket qua trung gian. Tren mot so may tnh, mot nhom thanh ghi c anh so 0, 1, 2 , n - 1 co gia tr lp vi chng trnh con c goi la cuc bo (local) hay bo nh nhap (Scratchpad memory). Mot thanh ghi co the at trng hoa bang mot con so cho biet thanh ghi lu tr bao nhieu bit. Thong tin at trong thanh ghi se ton tai cho en khi co mot thong tin khac thay the. Qua trnh oc thong tin ra khoi mot thanh ghi khong lam thay oi noi dung cua thanh ghi nay. Noi cach khac, khi mot thanh ghi c oc, mot ban sao noi dung cua thanh ghi c tao ra va ban goc trong thanh ghi khong b xao tron.

2. Bus noi:
Bus noi la tap hp cac ng day truyen tn hieu theo dang song song. Th du: cac bus c dung e cho phep noi dung cua mot thanh ghi c sao chep en mot thanh ghi khac. Khong giong bus he thong a khao sat chng 3, cac bus nay ch ket noi hai thanh phan do vay khong can cac ng a ch hoac cac ng ieu khien bao quat ch can n ng d lieu va trong trng hp tong quat mot hoac hai ng ieu khien cung u. Cac bus c dung do bi viec chuyen song song tat ca cac bit cung mot luc se nhanh hn nhieu so vi truyen noi tiep tng bit mot moi thi iem. Mot bus co the la n hng (unidirectional) hay song hng (bidirectional). Bus n hng ch co the chuyen d lieu theo mot chieu trong khi bus song hng chuyen d lieu theo ca hai chieu nhng khong ong thi. Cac bus n hng ien hnh c dung e noi hai thanh ghi, mot thanh ghi luon luon la nguon va thanh ghi con lai luon luon la ch. Cac bus song hng ien hnh c dung khi bat ky thanh ghi nao trong tap thanh ghi cung co the la nguon hoac la ch. Nhieu thanh phan co kha nang t ket noi hoac khong ket noi ve mach en vi bus (nhng van ket noi ve mat vat ly. Cac ket noi nay co the c thc hen hoac khong trong vai ngiay. Mot bus ma cac thanh phan ket noi co ac tnh nay c goi la bus ba trang thai (tristate bus) v moi mot ng cua bus co the la 0, 1 hoac khong ket noi. Cac bus ba trang thai c s dung rong rai khi co nhieu thanh phan noi en bus va chung eu co kha nang a thong tin len bus .

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-92-

Hnh 4.1 (a) mo ta mot thanh ghi 8 bit c noi vi mot bus nhap va mot bus xuat. Thanh ghi bao gom 8 flip flop loai D, moi flip flop lu tr 1 bit va c noi vi bus xuat qua mot cong em khong ao. Thanh ghi co hai tn hieu ieu khien, CK va cho phep xuat OE (output enable), noi en tat ca cac flip flop. Bnh thng 2 tn hieu nay trang thai tnh nhng thnh thoang chung c xac lap, gay nen tac ong tng ng. Khi CK khong xac lap, noi dung cua thanh ghi bi cac tn hieu tren Bus. Khi CK xac lap, thanh ghi c nap t bus nhap. Khi OE khong xac lap, thanh ghi khong c ket noi vi bus xuat. Ngc lai khi OE c xac lap, noi dung cua thanh ghi c nap nen bus xuat ( thanh ghi xuat thong tin len bus )

Hnh 4.1 (a) chi tiet mot thanh ghi 8-bit noi vi mot bus nhap va mot bus xuat b) ky hieu cua mot thanh ghi 16 bit vi mot bus nhap va 2 bus xuat Neu co mot thanh ghi khac, R chang han, co cac ngo vao noi vi Bus xuat cua thanh ghi va mo ta tren, thanh gi nay co the truyen thong tin en R. e thc hien ieu nay, OE phai c xac lap va gi trang thai nay u lau e a thong tin len bus on nh. Ke en ng CK cua R c xac lap e nap cho R thong tin nay. Thao tac m cong a thong tin cua mot thanh ghi len bus e not thanh ghi khac nap vao thng xay ra lp vi chng trnh. Hnh 4.1 b) trnh bay mot thanh ghi 16 bit vi 2 bus xuat , moi bus c ieu khien bi mot tn hieu OE khac nhau

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh II. MOT V DU VE VI CHNG TRNH:

-93-

Hnh 4.2: S o khoi cua 1 CPU n gian cua mot may tnh ien t thiet ke theo phng phap vi chng trnh hoa. e thc hien mot lenh cong (ADD) can mot he toi thieu cac phep vi toan: Ky t gi nh Ghi chu MAR-M Noi MAR vi BUS M MBR-M Noi MBR vi BUS M PC-D Noi PC vi BUS D IA-D Noi IA (cua IR) vi BUS D AC-D Noi Accumulator vi BUS D MTS Noi BUS M vi BUS S qua ALU DTS Noi BUS D vi BUS S qua ALU S-MAR Noi BUS S vi MAR S-MBR Noi BUS S vi MBR S-PC Noi BUS S vi PC S-IR Noi BUS S vi IR

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

S-AC R W PLUS Noi BUS S vi AC oc noi dung trong Mem ra MBR Viet noi dung t MBR vao Mem Cong noi dung co tren BUS D va BUSM tai ALU va a ra BUS S ONE Noi BUS D vi BUS S qua ALU cong 1 JMP Nhay en a ch trong lenh sau neu A=0 JOPC Nhay en a ch cua ma lenh (giai ma lenh) Hnh 4.3: he toi thieu cac phep vi toan MEM R MTS JOPC DTS R IAD SMAR MBRM SIR Nhay ALU DTS BUSM BUSD PCD BUSS SMAR a ch

-94-

PLUS MBRM ACD SAC ONE PCD SPC Hnh 4.4: Vi chng trnh thc hien lenh ADD S dung cac phng phap viet chng trnh: - Moc noi chng trnh con - anh a ch ch so hoa - anh a ch thong so hoa u iem: Giam sai lam logic - Co kha nang mo phong nhieu thiet b co chc nang khac nhau bang 1 may - Xay dng ket cau cua he thong co the quyet nh trong giai oan cuoi cua qua trnh thiet ke

VI LENH PC-MAR |ADDR|MBR (MBR)IR DECODE (IA)MAR |DATA|MBR MBR+A PC+1

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-95-

CHNG 5: LP MAY QUY C

Chng nay gii thieu lp may qui c (lp 2) va thao luan nhieu kha canh ve cau truc cua lp nay. Theo lch s, ngon ng may lp 2 c phat trien trc bat ky mot ngon ng may nao khac va van c xem la mot ngon ng may pho bien. Do bi tren nhieu may, vi chng trnh c at trong bo nh ch oc, ngi s dung (khong phai ngi che tao may) khong the viet chng trnh cho may lp 1. Hn na, ngay tren nhng may ngi s dung co the vi lap trnh, s phc tap rat ln cua cau truc lp 1 cung u lam hau het nhng ngi lap trnh e ngai, tr nhng ngi lap trnh chuyen nghiep. Ngoai ra, do khong co mot may nao co s bao ve phan cng lp 1, nen khong the cho phep mot ngi sa sai (debug) cac vi chng trnh mi trong khi mot ngi khac ang s dung may. ac tnh nay hn na con lp ngi s dung lap vi chng trnh.

I. CAC TH DU VE LP MAY QUI C:

Thay v co gang nh ngha mot cach chnh xac lp may qui c la g (co le khong the nh ngha c), chung ta se gii thieu lp may nay bang cach khao sat cac v du, trc tien la Intel. Muc ch cua viec nghien cu ho CPU hien co nay la nham trnh bay nhng y tng c thao luan ay co the c ap dung nh the nao vi the gii thc. Cac may nay se c so sanh va oi chieu theo nhieu cach khac nhau e trnh bay nhng chon la khac nhau cua cac nha thiet ke khac nhau. Cac CPU nay c dung e minh hoa y tng thiet ke mot may tnh nh la mot chuoi cac lp may. Nhng ac tnh khac nhau ve cau truc cua chung se c khao sat va thong tin ve lap trnh tren chung cung c gii thieu tai nhng iem can thiet. Tuy nhien, ay khong cung cap mot mo ta hoan toan ay u. e hieu thong suot ve tat ca chi tiet cua cac CPU, hay tham khao nhng tai lieu c cac nha che tao ra chung xuat ban. Cuoi cung, chng nay chu yeu x ly nhng lenh va cau truc ma cac chng trnh cua ngi s dung dung en (ngha la chng trnh ng dung). Cac kha canh ve cau truc va nhng lenh lien quan en ngi viet he ieu hanh se b bo qua hoac c gac lai cho ti khi van e c ban en trong chng 6. 1. Ho 8088 cua Intel : Bat au thao luan ve lp may qui c vi chip 8088 cua Intel la thch hp v ay la bo oc cua cac may IPM PC va nhng may mo phong theo, va do vay CPU nay c s dung rong rai hau nh tren khap the gii.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-96-

Hnh 5.1:Cau truc bo nh cua 8088 lp may qui c, 8088 va 8086 giong het nhau nen moi ieu chung ta noi ve 8088 cung ap dung c cho 8086. Chip 8088 co the a ch hoa 220 byte, anh so lien tuc bat au t 0 nh trnh bay trong hnh 5.1. Cac lenh co the hoat ong tren cac byte 8 bit hoac tren cac t 16 bit. T khong nhat thiet bat au byte chan mac du vi cac t bat au byte chan, 8086 lam viec co hieu qua hn. Vi bo nh 220 byte, 8088 thc s can cac a ch 20 bit e a ch hoa bo nh. V cac thanh ghi va moi th khac cua may eu dung cac t 16 bit, nen cac so 20 bit ro rang khong thuan tien. e giai quyet van e nay, cac nha thiet ke CPU phai can en giai phap goi la "que quat" (kludge=mot biet ng cua may tnh ch mot phng phap khong lch s va vung ve c dung e lam mot ieu g o). Giai phap nay a ra 4 thanh ghi phan oan (segment): ma, d lieu, ngan xep va phu (code, data, stack va extra), moi thanh ghi phan oan cha mot a ch bo nh tro ti nen (base) cua mot phan oan 64K. Moi thanh ghi phan oan tro ti mot ni nao o trong khong gian a ch 220 byte, nh trnh bay trong hnh 5.2. tat ca viec tm nap lenh eu co lien quan en thanh ghi phan oan ma. Th du, neu thanh ghi nay tro en a ch 96000 va bo em chng trnh co gia tr 1024, lenh ke tiep se c tm nap t a ch 97024. Vi gia tr nay cua thanh ghi phan oan ma, cac lenh at trong tam a ch t 96000 ti 161535 eu c truy xuat. e truy xuat mot lenh ngoai tam nay, ta phai thay oi noi dung thanh ghi phan oan ma. Tng t, thanh ghi phan oan d lieu va thanh ghi phan oan ngan xep dung e truy xuat cac phan oan d lieu va phan oan ngan xep. Cuoi cung, thanh ghi phan oan phu (cung dung e truy xuat phan oan d lieu) la mot thanh ghi d phong khi can.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-97-

S o nay co ngha la bat c luc nao, 256K bo nh eu co the truy xuat c ma khong phai thay oi mot thanh ghi phan oan nao ca.

Hnh 5.2: S dung cac thanh ghi phan oan tren 8088 Mot so trnh bien dch gii han chng trnh vi chieu dai 64K cho van ban chng trnh (ngha la cac lenh) va 64K khac cho ca d lieu va ngan xep nham tranh ton ph (overhead) thi gian ket hp vi viec nap va cat lien tuc cac thanh ghi phan oan hoac dung thanh ghi phan oan phu. Theo ly thuyet, cac thanh ghi phan oan nen co o rong 20 bit e tro ti bat ky a ch nao trong khong gian a ch 220 byte. Tuy nhien, nh a noi tren, 8088 khong c trang b e x l cac so thanh ghi phan oan ch tro ti nhng a ch la boi so cua 16 e 4 bit thap nhat cua a ch la zero va 4 bit nay khong can cat vao thanh ghi phan oan. Nh vay, cac thanh ghi phan oan ch cha 16 bit cao cua a ch 20 bit. 8088 co 14 thanh ghi 16 bit ( hnh 5.3 ). Thanh ghi AX chu yeu c dung cho cac phep toan so hoc. Th du e tnh tong 2 so nguyen, chng trnh co the nap 1 trong 2 so nguyen nao o vao AX, sau o cong so th 2 vi AX va cuoi cung cat AX vao bo nh. Cung co the dung nhng thanh ghi khac, nhng cac lenh tng ng e thc hien phep toan se dai hn va cham hn so vi nhng lenh dung thanh ghi AX.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-98-

(a)

Hnh 5.3: Cac thanh ghi 8088

Thanh ghi BX tieu bieu dung e cha con tro ( pointer ) tro en bo nh, thanh ghi CX cha so em trong cac lenh vong lap. e lap lai mot vong lap n lan, CX c nap gia tr n sau moi lan lap, CX c giam 1 cho en khi CX bang zero, vong lap ket thuc. DX la mot thanh ghi m rong cua AX trong cac lenh nhan va chia, thanh ghi nay cha na cao cua mot tch 32 bit hoac na cao cua so b chia 32 bit. Moi thanh ghi 16 bit nay (AX, BX,CX,DX) eu co na thap va na cao, chung eu co the c a ch hoa rieng le. Khi dung phng phap a ch hoa nay, chung hnh thanh mot tap 8 thanh ghi 1 byte co the dung vi lenh thao tac tren cac ai lng 1 byte. S dung cac thanh ghi theo kieu nay la dau vet con ton tai cua cach lam viec trong 8088 cu (CPU 8 bit). Thanh ghi SI va DI c dung cho cac thao tac chuoi. Mot thao tac chuoi ien hnh can co a ch nguon xac nh bi thanh ghi SI trong phan oan d lieu va a ch ch xac nh bi thanh ghi DI trong phan oan phu. Th du, lenh cho phep di chuyen 1 so byte t nguon ti ch. Thanh ghi BP va SP thng c dung e a ch hoa stack. BP tro ti ay cua khung ngan xep hien tai va SP tro ti nh cua khung ngan xep. Bien cuc bo cua thu tuc hien tai thng c a ch hoa bang cach cung cap bc nhay (offset) cua bien t BP (bi v bien cuc bo khong the ch ro a ch lien quan ti SP). Ke tiep la 4 thanh ghi phan oan, nh a mo ta trc ay, theo sau la bo em chng trnh PC dung e tro ti lenh ke tiep (lien quan ti v tr bat au cua phan oan ma).

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-99-

Hai thanh ghi cuoi cung la con tro chng trnh IP (instruction pointer) va cac c (flag), tren hau het cac may khac chung c goi la bo em chng trnh va t trang thai chng trnh PSW (program status word). Bo em chng trnh tro ti lenh ke tiep se c thc hien. Thanh ghi cac c (xem hnh 5.4) la thanh ghi mi. That ra ay khong phai la thanh ghi bnh thng mala 1 tap hp cac bit co the c thiet lap (set), xoa (clear) va kiem tra bi nhng lenh khac nhau. Mot cach tom tat, cac bit co y ngha nh sau: Bit D xac nh hng (direction) cua cac thao tac chuoi. Bit I cho phep ngat. Bit T cho phep chay chng trnh tng bc e theo doi.

Hnh 5.4: Thanh ghi cac c cua 8088 Cac bit con lai thng c goi la cac ma ieu kien (condition code) bi v chung c thiet lap va xoa bi nhng lenh khac nhau tuy thuoc vao nhng ieu kien khac nhau xay ra (ket qua am, zero, va v.v ). Bit 0 c thiet lap khi ket qua cua phep toan so hoc b tran. Bit S c thiet lap bi cac lenh so hoc, 1 cho ket qua am, 0 cho ket qua dng. Tng t, bit Z c thiet lap la 1 khi ket qua bang zero va b xoa ve 0 khi ket qua khac zero. Cac bit A va C bieu th so nh xuat hien gia va cuoi toan hang. Cuoi cung, bit P la bit kiem tra chan le (parity) ket qua cua mot lenh so hoc. Co 7 bit khong c s dung trong 8088, nhng mot so trong chung c dung cho nhng chip ke tha. Tap lenh cua 8088 c liet ke trong hnh 5.5. Nhieu lenh tham chieu 1 hoac 2 toan hang (operand), hoac trong cac thanh ghi hoac trong bo nh. Th du, lenh INC cong them 1 vao toan hang. Lenh ADD cong nguon vao ch. Mot so lenh co vai bien the lien quan mat thiet. Th du, cac lenh dch bit co the dch trai hoac dch phai, co the x ly vi bit co dau hoac khong. Hau het cac lenh eu co nhieu dang ma hoa khac nhau tuy thuoc vao ban chat cua cac toan hang. Trong hnh 5.5, trng scr la nguon cua thong tin va khong b thay oi. Trai lai, trng dst la ch cua thong tin va thng b thay oi bi lenh. Co nhng quy luat cho phep mot toan hach nao o la nguon hay la ch , chung thng thay oi gia lenh nay vi lenh khac va chung ta se khong ban them ay. a so lenh eu co 2 bien the, mot bien the hoat ong tren cac t 16-bit va mot so bien the hoat ong tren cac byte 8-bit. Nhng bien the nay c phan biet bang mot bit trong lenh. e thuan tien, ta se chia cac lenh thanh nhieu nhom. Nhom au tien cha cac lenh di chuyen d lieu ben trong may ; gia cac thanh ghi, bo nh va ngan xep. Nhom th 2 thc hien cac phep tnh so hoc, ca so co dau va khong co dau. oi vi phep nhan

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-100-

chia, tch so hoac so b chia 32-bit c cat trong AX (cha phan thap) va DX (cha phan cao). Nhom th 3 thc hien cac phep tnh so BCD (binary-coded decimal), x ly tng byte nh la hai nibble (na byte)4 bit. Moi nibble cha mot so thap phan (t 0 en 9). Cac to hp bit t 1010 ti 1111 khong c dung . mot so nguyen 16-bit co the cha mot so thap phan t 0 en 9999. Du dang lu tr nay khong co hieu qua nhng tranh c s can thiet phai oi so thap phan sang nh phan roi sau o phai oi lai thanh thap phan e xuat ket qua. Nhng lenh nay c dung e thc hien cac phep tnh so hoc tren cac so BCD. Cac lenh ai so logic va dch / quay thao tac vi cac bit trong 1 t hoac 1 byte theo nhieu cach khac nhau. Mot vai ket hp cung c cung cap.

Hnh 5.5 tap lenh cua 8088 Hai nhom lenh ke tiep thc hien phep kiem tra va so sanh, sau o thc hien nhay da vao ket qua sinh ra. Ket qua cua cac lenh kiem tra va so sanh c cat trong nhng bit khac nhau cua thanh ghi c. Jxx ngha la tap cac lenh nhay co ieu kien tuy thuoc vao ket qua cua phep so sanh trc ( ngha la, cac bit trong thanh ghi c ).

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-101-

8088 co vai lenh nap, cat, di chuyen, so sanh va quet chuoi cac k t hoac cac t. Nhng lenh nay co the c m au bang 1 byte ac biet goi la REP, byte nay lam cho lenh c lap lai cho ti khi thoa man mot ieu kien nao o, nh CX chang han, trong o CX b giam 1 sau moi lan lap cho ti khi bang 0. Bang cach nay, cac khoi d lieu tuy y co the c di chuyen, so sanh, va v.v Nhom cuoi cung la nhng lenh hon on khong thch hp trong mot nhom nao ca. Nhng lenh nay bao gom cac lenh bien oi, xuat / nhap va dng CPU. 8088 ( va ca 80286, 80386 ) co mot so lenh tien to ( prefix ), va chung ta a e cap en mot tien to, REP. Moi tien to nay la mot byte ac biet thng ng trc lenh. REP lam cho lenh theo sau tien to nay c lap lai. LOCK danh rieng bus cho toan bo lenh e cho phep ong bo a x l. Nhng tien to khac c dung e buoc lenh phai tm nap toan hang cua lenh t ngan xep hoac t phan oan phu thay v t phan oan d lieu.

II. CAC KHUON DANG LENH

Chng trnh bao gom mot chuoi cac lenh, moi lenh xac nh mot ong tac cu the nao o. Mot phan cua lenh c goi la ma thao tac (operation code ) hoac opcode cho biet ong tac g c thc hien. Nhieu lenh cha hoac ch ro v tr cua d lieu c lenh s dung. Th du lenh so sanh 2 ky t xem chung co giong nhau khong can phai xac nh ro cac ky t nao c so sanh. Van e chung cho biet cac toan hang au c goi la nh a ch hay a ch hoa hay anh a ch ( addressing ) se c thao luan trong phan sau na. Hnh 5.6 trnh bay vai khuon dang ( format ) tieu bieu cho cac lenh lp 2. Tren mot so may lp 2, tat ca cac lenh co cung chieu dai, tren mot so may khac co the co 2 hoac 3 chieu dai khac nhau. Hn na cac lenh co the co chieu dai ngan hn, bang hoac dai hn chieu dai cua 1 t.

Hnh 5.6: 3 khuon dang ch th tieu bieu Th du ve cac khuon dang lenh Ho 8088/80286/80386 cua Intel Vi cac CPU cua Intel,tnh huon hoan toan khac va rat t theo quy luat. Nhn chung, vi cac lenh 2 toan hang, neu 1 toan hang trong bo nh, toan hang kia khong trong bo nh. V vay ton tai nhng lenh cong 2 thanh ghi,cong thanh ghi vi bo nh

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-102-

va cong bo nh vi thanh ghi,nhng khong ton tai lenh cong t nh nay vi t nh kia, PDP-11 cho phep ieu nay nh la mot ket qua trc tiep cau tnh trc giao. Tren 8088 moi opcode la 1 byte, nhng vi 80386 cac opcode-byte eu a c tan dung het, v the opcode 15 c dung nh la phng tien e i ti cac opcode 2 byte. Cau truc duy nhat trong trng opcode la viec dung bit thap trong mot so lenh e cho biet byte /t va dung bit ke ben e cho a ch bo nh (neu co) la nguon hay ch. Theo sau byte opcode trong hau het cac lenh la 2 byte th 2 cho biet toan hang au, tng t vi 2 trng kieu/thanh ghi trong hnh 5.21. V ch co 8 bit nen byte th 2 c chia thanh 1 trng kieu 2 bit va 2 trng thanh ghi 3 bit . Nh vay ch co 4 cach e a ch hoa cac toan hang (PDP-11 co 8) va 1 trong cac toan hang luon luon phai la thanh ghi. Mot cach logic, mot thanh ghi bat kytrong cac thanh ghi AX, BX, CX, DX, SI, DI, BP hoac SP can c ch ro nh thanh ghi khac, nhng cac quy luat ma hoa cam mot so to hp nao o va dung chung cho nhng trng hp ac biet. Tren 80386, trong cac phan oan 32 bit, cac kieu hoan toan khac vi cac kieu tren 8088 va80286. Mot so cac kieu nay can them 1 byte, goi la SIB (scale, index, base ) e cho them mot ac tnh ky thuat na. S o nay khong phai la s o ly tng nhng n gian la v chung khong con bit. Ngoai ra mot so lenh co 1, 2 hoac 4 byte na e xac nh a ch bo nh va 1, 2 hoac 4 byte khac dc dung lam toan hang hang so ( th du e chuyen so 100 vao thanh ghi). Moi lenh co the co 6 trng, moi trng co tam t 0 ti 5 byte. Tren 8088 va 80286, lenh ngan nhat dai 1 byte va lenh dai nhat co 9 byte ( ke ca cac tien to REF, LOCK va cac tien to thay the phan oan ). Tren 80386, lenh ngan nhat van dai 1 byte, nhng vi viec cong them cac tien to, kch thc cua toan hang va kch thc cua a ch, mot lenh co the dai ti 17 byte.

III. KIEU NH V A CH :
Cac lenh co the c phan loai theo so a ch s dung. Nen nh rang tap cac thanh ghi c anh so cua CPU thc te hnh thanh mot bo nh tot o cao va xac nh mot khong gian a ch. Mot lenh cong thanh ghi 1 vi thanh ghi 2 c xep vao loai co 2 a ch bi v lenh phai xac nh cac thanh ghi nao tham gia vao phep cong, giong nh lenh cong 2 t nh phai cho biet cac t nh nao c cong. Mot cach tong quat, cac lenh co the co 1, 2 va 3 a ch. Tren nhieu may, viec thc hien phep toan so hoc ch co 1 a ch va ngi ta s dung 1 thanh ghi ac biet goi la thanh cha (accumulator), thanh ghi nay cung lp 1 toan hang.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-103-

Tren nhng may nay a ch thng la a ch ca t nh m, o toan hang c nh v. Lenh cong xac nh a ch m co ket qua la Accumulator:= accumulator + memory[m] Cac lenh cong co 2 a ch s dung 1 a ch la nguon va a ch kia la ch . sau o cong nguon vi ch: Destination := destination + source Cac lenh co 3 a ch cho biet 2 nguon va 1 ch. Noi dung cua 2 nguon c cong vi nhau va cat ket qua vao ch. Chung ta a t chu y en cach cac bit cua 1 trng a ch c phien dch e tm toan hang. Tuy nhien, cung co nhng kha nang khac va trong phan tiep theo chung ta se kham pha ra ieu o.

1. nh a ch tc thi:
Cach n gian nhat e 1 lenh xac nh 1 toan hang la phan a ch cua lenh cha chnh toan hang o, khong phai la a ch hoac thong tin khac mo ta toan hang o au. Mot toan hang nh vay c goi la toan hang tc thi (immediate operand) bi v toan hang c tm nap t ong t bo nh cung luc vi lenh va c s dung ngay lap tc. nh a ch tc thi (immediate addressing) co cong dung khong yeu cau mot tham chieu bo nh e tm nap toan hang. iem bat li la toan hang b gii han bi mot so at va trong mot trng a ch. Trong mot lenh vi a ch 3 bit (ngha la trng thanh ghi), gii han cua cac toan hang la 3 bit, han che nhng li iem cua cach nh a ch nay. Cac CPU cua Intel khong co kieu nh a ch cho cac toan hang tc thi. Thay vao o, chung co mot tap ln cac lenh phan biet trong o mot trong hai toan hang la tc thi. Thc te, 9 opcode khac nhau s dung cho lenh Add, 5 trong so o cho phep co toan hang tc thi, tuy thuoc vao cach ch ra ch va chieu dai cua toan hang tc thi (8, 16 hoac 32 bit). 680x0 co kieu nh a ch tc thi, mot toan hang nguon bat ky co the la hang so. Tren 68000, mot so lenh ch cho phep hang so la 8 bit hoac 16 bit, nhng tren 68020 va 68030 ca 3 loai chieu dai eu c phep. Ngoai ra, cac lenh at biet nh ADDI, ADDQ va CMPI cho phep cac lenh tc thi e c ma hoa mot cach hieu qua hn.

2. nh a ch trc tiep
Phng phap n gian khac e xac nh mot toan hang la cung lp a ch cua t nh cha toan hang. Dang nay c goi la nh a ch trc tiep (Direct addressing ). Chi tiet ve cach thc may tnh nhan biet a ch nao la tc thi, a ch nao la trc tiep se c thao luan sau. Mot cach tong quat, co 2 phng phap: s dung cac

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-104-

opcode khac nhau hoac s dung mot kieu nh a ch ac biet cho moi loai toan hang.

Hnh 5.7: a ch trc tiep Cac CPU cua Intel eu co nh a ch trc tiep. 8088 va 80286 s dung cac a ch trc tiep 16 bit. 80386 s dung cac a ch 16 bit cac che o thc va ao, cac phan oan 16 bit che o bao ve. Trong che o bao ve 32 bit, cac a ch trc tiep dai 32 bit. Lu y la trong moi trng hp, cac a ch trc tiep deu khong bao trum toan bo khong gian a ch . 860x0 co 2 dang nh a ch trc tiep, mot dang vi a ch 16 bit va mot dang vi a ch 32 bit. Cac a ch trong 64K au tien cua bo nh c tham chieu bang dang ngan trong khi cac a ch tren 64K can dang dai. Ca 2 dang nay c xac nh bi cac gia tr trong trng MOD 3 bit, va do vay ap dung cho tat ca cac lenh co mot hoac nhieu trng toan hang.

3. nh a ch thanh ghi
Khai niem nh a ch thanh ghi cung giong nh nh a ch trc tiep. trong dang nh a ch nay, trng a ch cha so cua cac thanh ghi lu gi toan hang. Mot may vi 16 thanh ghi va 65536 t nh thc s co 2 khong gian a ch. Ngi ta ngh en mot a ch tren mot may nh vay co 2 phan: (a) mot bit cho biet thanh ghi hoac t nh (b) mot trng a ch cho biet thanh ghi nao hoac t nh nao. Do co t thanh ghi hn t nh nen can a ch nho hn va nh vay cac lenh co dang khac nhau thng c dung cho cac toan hang thanh ghi va cac toan hang bo nh. Neu co mot lenh thanh ghi tng ng vi moi mot lenh bo nh, mot na so opcode danh cho cac toan hang bo nh va mot na danh cho cac toan hang thanh ghi. Mot bit trong opcode c can en e ghi ro khong gian a ch nao c s dung. Neu sau o bit c loai bo khoi trng opcode va c at vao trng a ch, viec s dung 2 khong gian a ch se ro hn. Bit se cho biet khong gian a ch nao c s dung. Cac may c thiet ke vi cac thanh ghi v 2 ly do :

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-105-

(a) cac thanh ghi nhanh hn bo nh chnh (b) bi v co qua t thanh ghi nen ch can t bit e a ch hoa chung. ang tiec la co 8 hoac 16 thanh ghi cung lam phc tap cho viec lap trnh do bi phai tao ranhieu quyet nh nh : cac toan hang nao, cac ket qua trung gian nao c gi trong so thanh ghi gii han o va cac toan hang nao, cac ket qua trung gian nao c gi trong bo nh chnh. W.L.vander Poel (1968) a nhan xet mot cach tinh te, cac may tnh phai c cung lp hoac 0, 1 hoac mot so vo han cho moi ac tnh (vo han co ngha la nhieu u e ngi lap trnh khong can phai ton thi gian suy ngh phai lam g neu ieu g o a c dung het ). Ca 2 chip Intel va Motorola eu co mot lng ln cac lenh lay cac toan hang t cac thanh ghi va at ket qua vao mot thanh ghi.

4. nh a ch gian tiep
nh a ch trc tiep las o trong o a ch cho biet t nh nao hoac thanh ghi nao cha toan hang. nh a ch gian tiep la s o trong o a ch cho biet t nh nao hoac thanh ghi nao cha a ch cua toan hang. Th du xet mot lenh nap mot thanh ghi (chung ta se goi la thanh ghi R1 ) gian tiep t v tr nh 1000, noi dung tai v tr 1000 la 1510.

Hnh 5.8: a ch gian tiep Trc tien noi dung tai v tr 1000 c tm nap vao 1 thanh ghi noi cua CPU. Noi dung 16 bit nay (1510) khong c at trong thanh ghi R1. Neu 1510 co trong R1, ta co lenh a ch trc tiep. Thay vao o noi dung cua v tr 1510 c tm nap va at vao R1. Noi dung v tr 1000 khong phai la toan hang ma tro ti toan hang va v ly do nay, ta goi la con tro (pointer). Cac bo x ly cua Intel eu co nh a ch gian tiep thong qua thanh ghi. Th du co the at con tro trong SI va ch ra rang toan hang at trong bo nh tai a ch c tro ti bi SI. Tren 8088 va 80286, ch co BX, BP, SI va DI c s dung trong kieu a ch gian tiep, tren 80386 tat ca cac thanh ghi eu co the s dung c cho kieu nh a ch nay. nh a ch gian tiep dung con tro trong bo nh khong thc hien c tren bat ky thanh ghi nao.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-106-

68000 cho phep ng a ch gian tiep thong qua cac thanh ghi a ch va khong co dang nh a ch gian tiep nao khac. Tren 68020 va 68030 nh a ch gian tiep con co dang thong qua bo nh. ay la mot trong nhng khac nhau chnh gia 68000 va cac CPU sau nay. Mot so may cho phep nh a ch gian tiep nhieu lp. kieu nh v a ch nay, ngi ta dung mot con tro e nh v mot t nh va chnh t nh nay tro ti mot t nh khac va vv a ch tc thi, trc tiep, gian tiep va a ch gian tiep nhieu lp bieu dien mot s tien trien trong viec nh a ch. nh a ch tc thi khong can tham chieu bo nh v toan hang c tm nap cung luc vi lenh. nh a ch trc tiep can mot tham chieu bo nh e tm nap toan hang. nh a ch gian tiep can 2 tham chieu bo nh, mot cho con tro va mot cho toan hang. nh a ch gian tiep nhieu lp can t nhat 3 tham chieu bo nh, 2 hoac nhieu tham chieu cho con tro va mot cho toan hang. Cac tham chieu bo nh trong ng canh nay gom cac tham chieu thanh ghi.

5. nh ch so
Nhieu thuat toan can thc hien mot thao tac nao o tren mot chuoi cau truc d lieu lu gi trong nhng v tr nh lien tiep. Th du xet mot khoi n t may chiem cac v tr A, A +1, A+2,,A+n-1 Cac t nay phai c chuyen en cac v tr B,B+1,B+2,,B+n-1 Gia thuyet rang may co lenh MOVE A,B Chuyen noi dung cua v tr A ti v tr B, ngi ta co the thc thi lenh nay va thay oi tren chnh lenh thanh MOVE A+1,B+1 Thc thi lenh lan na, sau o lai thay oi lenh lan na va lap lai cho ti khi tat ca n t c sao chep het. Mac du cac chng trnh t thay oi c dung pho bien trc kia, nhng nay c xem nh mot phng cach lap trnh d. Cac chng trnh nh vay kho sa sai va lam kho khan cho viec dung chung mot chng trnh gia nhieu ngi s dung trong he thong phan chia thi gian. Van e sao chep cung co the c giai quyet bang nh a ch gian tiep. Mot thanh ghi hoac mot t nh c nap vi a ch A ; mot thanh ghi hoac mot t nh th 2 c nap vi a ch B. lenh MOVE dung 2 thanh ghi nay lam cac con tro. Sau moi lan sao chep mot t , cac con tro c tang them 1. Cac con tro la mot phan cua d lieu, khong phai la phan cua chng trnh va nhng ngi s dung khong c dung chung ong thi.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-107-

Mot giai phap khac la co 1 hoac nhieu thanh ghi, goi la thanh ghi ch so (Index register) hoat ong nh sau. a ch co 2 phan: so cua mot thanh ghi ch so va mot hang so. a ch cua toan hang la tong cua hang so vi noi dung cua thanh ghi ch so. Trong th du trc, neu ca 2 a ch c nh ch so bang cach dung mot thanh ghi ch so cha so nguyen k, lenh MOVE A, B se chuyen noi dung cua v tr nh A+k ti B+k. Bang cach khi ong thanh ghi ch so la 0 va tang noi dung thanh ghi nay len mot lng bang kch thc cua t sau khi sao chep 1 t, ch can mot thanh ghi cho vong lap sao chep. Hn na, viec tang thanh ghi se nhanh hn viec tang 1 v tr nh. nh ch so (indexing) cung thng c dung e nh a ch 1 trng co offset a biet t v tr bat au 1 cau truc a cho. Cac bien cuc bo trong mot thu tuc cung c truy xuat theo phng phap nay. Trong th du a cho tren, ngi ta can tang thanh ghi ch so mot lng ung bang kch thc cua t sau moi lan s dung. Nhu cau tang hoac giam thanh ghi ch so ngay trc hoac sau khi s dung rat pho bien nen 1 so may tnh cung lp nhng lenh hoac cac kieu nh a ch ac biet hoac tham ch cac thanh ghi ch so ac biet t ong tang hoac giam. S thay oi t ong cua mot thanh ghi ch so c goi la t nh ch so (autoindexing). Ca 2 chip cua Intel va Motorola eu co nhieu kieu nh a ch khac nhau bao gom nh ch so. 680x0 cung co kieu t nh ch so.

6. nh a ch ngan xep
Chung ta a lu y rang viec tao ra cac lenh may cang ngan cang tiet kiem bo nh va thi gian cua CPU. Gii han cuoi cung cua viec giam chieu dai a ch se dan en cac lenh khong co a ch, ch co opcode. ay la ieu co the xay ra bang cach to chc may xung quanh mot cau truc d lieu goi la ngan xep (Stack). Ngan xep bao gom cac phan t d lieu ( t, ky t, bit, vv) c cat theo mot trat t lien tiep trong bo nh. Phan t au tien c cat vao ngan xep. Phan t gan nhat c cat vao stack se nh cua ngan xep. Ket hp vi mot ngan xep la mot thanh ghi hoac t nh cha a ch cua nh ngan xep, c goi la con tro ngan xep (stack pointer). Mat du a thao luan ve ngan xep chng 4, chung ta cung se on lai ay bi v viec s dung ngan xep cho cac phep toan so hoc hoan toan khac vi viec s dung ngan xep e lu gi cac bien cuc bo ( d nhien co the dung ket hp ca 2). Hnh 5.9 minh hoa hoat ong cua ngan xep. Trong hnh 5.9(a) a co 2 phan t trong ngan xep. ay cua ngan xep v tr nh 1000 va nh cua ngan xep v tr nh 1001. Con tro ngan xep cha a ch cua phan t tren nh ngan xep, tc la 1001 ; ngha la tro ti nh cua ngan xep. Trong hnh 5.9(b), 6 c cat vao ngan xep va con tro ngan xep cha 1002 la nh mi cua ngan xep. Trong hnh 5.9(c), 75 c cat len ngan xep, tang con tro ngan xep len 1003. Trong hnh 5.9(d), 75 c lay ra khoi ngan xep.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-108-

Hnh 5.9: Hoat ong cua mot ngan xep Cac may tnh hng ngan xep (stack-oriented) co lenh cat ( push) cac noi dung cua v tr nh hoac thanh ghi vao ngan xep. Mot lenh nh vay phai thc hien viec sao chep phan t o va tang con tro ngan xep. Tng t, lenh lay (pop) nh cua ngan xep a vao thanh ghi hoac v tr nh phai thc hien mot sao chep mi vao ni thch hp va giam con tro ngan xep. Mot so may tnh co ngan xep ao ngc, vi nhng phan t c cat lien tiep vao nhng v tr thap hn cua bo nh thay v cat lien tiep vao nhng v tr cao hn nh trong hnh 5.9.

III. LUONG IEU KHIEN

Luong dieu khien co lien quan ti trnh t thc thi cac lenh. Nhn chung, cac lenh c thc hien lan lc c tm nap t nhng v tr lien tiep. Cac lenh goi thu tuc la nguyen nhan lam thay luong ieu khien, dng thu tuc ang thc hien hien tai va bat au thu tuc c goi. ong thng trnh (coroutine) lien quan en thu tuc (procedure) va lam cho luong ieu khien b thay oi. Cac bay va cac ngat cung lam cho luong ieu khien thay oi khi co cac ieu kien ac biet xay ra. Tat ca cac van e nay se c thao luan trong cac phan sau.

1. Luong ieu khien tuan t va cac lenh nhay.

a so cac lenh khong lam thay oi luong ieu khien. Sau khi mot lenh c thc hien, lenh tiep theo sau trong bo nh c tm nap va thc hien. Sau moi mot lenh, bo em chng trnh c tang bi chieu dai cua lenh. Neu quan sat tren mot khoang thi gian dai so vi thi gian trung bnh cua lenh, bo em chng trnh gan nh co mot ham tuyen tnh theo thi gian. Noi cach khac, trat t ong trong o bo x ly thc s thc hien cac lenh giong nh trat t trong o cac lenh xuat hien theo s liet ke cua chng trnh. Neu chng trnh cha cac lenh nhay, moi lien he n gian nay gia trat t trong o cac lenh c thc hien trong bo nh va trat t trong o cac lenh c thc hien khong con ung na. Khi co mat cac lenh nhay, bo em chng trnh khong con la mot ham tang eu theo thi gian. Ket qua la kho hnh dung chuoi thc thi lenh t ban danh

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-109-

sach cua chng trnh. Khi ngi lap chng trnh gap rac roi trong viec theo doi chuoi lenh ma bo x ly se thc thi, ho de gay ra loi. S quan sat nay a dan ng cho Dijkstra (1968) viet mot th gay tranh luan sau nay co ta e GO TO Statement Considered Harmfull (phat bieu GO TO c xem nh co hai), trong o ong e ngh nen tranh dung phat bieu GO TO. Bc th o lam khai sinh ra cuoc cach mang cho phng phap lap trnh co cau truc, mot trong nhng nguyen ly cua phng phap nay la thay the phat bieu GO TO bang nhng dang co cau truc hn cua luong ieu khien, nh vong lap WHILE. D nhien, nhng chng trnh nay bien dch thanh nhng chng trnh lp 2 cha nhieu lenh nhay, bi v hiebn thc IF, WHILE va nhng cau truc ieu khien lp cao khac yeu cau viec nhay.

2. Thu tuc
Ky thuat quan trong nhat oi vi cac chng trnh co cau truc la thu tuc. Lenh goi thu tuc cung lam thay oi dong ieu khien nh lenh nhay nhng khong giong. Khi thc hien song cong viec, thu tuc tra ieu khien tr ve cho phat bieu hoac lenh theo sau lenh goi. Tuy nhien, vi cach nhn khac, phan than cua thu tuc co the c xem nh xac nh mot lenh mi lp cao hn. T quan iem nay, lenh goi thu tuc c xem nh mot lenh n cho du co the rat phc tap. e hieu phan ma cha lenh goi thu tuc, ieu duy nhat can biet la lam g, khong can biet cach thc hien.

3. ong thu tuc.

goi. Trong chuoi goi thong thng, co s phan biet ro gia thu tuc goi va thu tuc c

Xet thu tuc A goi thu tuc B. Thu tuc B tnh toan trong mot khoang thi gianva sau o tr ve thu tuc A. Thoat nhn co le ta se ngh rang tnh huong nay co tnh oi xng, bi v ca A va B eu khong phai la chng trnh chnh, chung eu la cac thu tuc. Hn na, ieu khien au tien c chuyen t A ti B goi va sau o ieu khien c chuyen t B ti A tr ve. Tnh khong oi xng nay sinh t thc te. Khi ieu khien chuyen t A ti B , thu tuc B bat au c thc thi au thu tuc; khi ieu khien t B tr ve A , viec thc thi A khong phai au thu tuc ma phat bieu theo sau li goi thu tuc B. Neu A chay them mot khoang thi gian va goi B lan na, viec thc thi B lai bat au au thu tuc B, khong phai phat bieu theo sau lan tr ve trc. Trong hng hoat ong nay, neu A goi B nhieu lan, B luon luon bat au lai au thu tuc moi lan c goi, trai lai A khong bao gi bat au lai t au thu tuc. S khac nhau nay c phan anh trong cach ma ieu khien c chuyen gia A va B. Khi A goi B, A dung lenh goi thu tuc lenh nay at a ch quay ve (a ch cua phat bieu theo sau lenh goi ) vao ni nao o th du vao nh cua ngan xep. Sau o lenh

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-110-

nay at a ch cua B vao bo em chng trnh e hoan tat viec goi. Khi B tr ve, B khong s dung lenh goi ma la lenh quay ve, lenh nay n gian ch lay a ch tr ve t ngan xep va at vao bo em chng trnh . oi khi ta co 2 thu tuc A va B, thu tuc nay goi thu tuc kia nh la mot thu tuc. Khi t B tr ve A, ieu khien nhay ti phat bieu theo sau lenh goi B. Khi A chuyen ieu khien ti B, ieu khien khong i ti phat bieu au tien cua thu tuc (tr lau au tien) ma i ti phat bieu theo sau phat bieu tr ve gan nhat, ngha la, lan goi A gan ay nhat 2 thu tuc ma trong o thu tuc nay xem thu tuc kia nh la mot thu tuc c goi la cac ong chng trnh (coroutine) hay ong thu tuc.

4. Bay
Bay (trap) la mot loai li goi thu tuc t ong c khi ong bi 1 ieu kien nao o do chng trnh tao ra ,thng la ieu kien quan trong nhng hiem khi xay ra. Tran (overflow) la mot th du. Tren nhieu may tnh, neu ket qua cua 1 phep toan so hoc vt qua so ln nhat co the bieu dien, mot bay xuat hien, ngha la luong ieu khien c chuyen en 1 v tr nh nao o thay v tiep tuc theo trnh t. Tai v tr co nh o co mot lenh nhay ti 1 thu tuc goi la bo ieu khien bay (trap handler), bo nay thc hien 1 ong tac thch hp nao o, nh in 1 thong bao loi. Neu ket qua cua phep toan nam trong pham vi cho phep, bay khong xuat hien. iem c ban cua bay la bay c khi ong bi 1 ieu kien ngoai le nao o gay ra bi chnh chng trnh va c phan cng hoac vi chng trnh phat hien. Mot phng phap khac co kha nang ieu khien tran la dung mot thanh ghi 1 bit c thiet lap la 1 moi khi xay ra tran. Ngi lap trnh muon kiem tra tran phai a them vao mot lenh nhay neu bit tran c thiet lap sau moi lenh so hoc. Hien thc nh vay va ton khong gian nh va lam cho toc o cham lai. Bay tiet kiem c thi gian va bo nh so vi phng phap kiem tra ieu khien bi ngi lap trnh. Bay thng c thc hien bang cach co vi chng trnh, vi chng trnh nay n gian ch thc hien s kiem tra. Bay cung co the c thc hien nh vao viec kiem tra thc hien bi trnh bien dch lp 1. Neu phat hien thay co tran, a ch cua bay c nap vao bo em chng trnh. ieu nay ngha la bay mot lp co the di s ieu khien cua chng trnh lp thap hn. Vi chng trnh thc hien viec kiem tra van tiet kiem thi gian hn so vi viec kiem tra cua ngi lap trnh, bi v viec nay de dang chong lap vi viec khac va cung tiet kiem c bo nh, bi v viec nay ch can xay ra mot vai thu tuc cua lp 1, oc lap vi viec co bao nhieu lenh so hoc xuat hien trong chng trnh chnh. Mot vai ieu kien thng gay ra bay la tran tren dau cham ong, tran di dau cham ong, vi pham s bao ve, opcode khong c xac nh, tran stack, khi ong thiet b khong co thc, tm nap mot t a ch le va chia cho zero.

5. Ngat
Ngat (interrupt) la nhng thay oi trong luong ieu khien gay ra khong phai do chng trnh ang c thc thi ma do bi mot tac ong khac, thng lien quan ti I/O.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-111-

th du chng trnh ra lenh cho a khi ong truyen thong tin va thiet lap trang thai a e cung lp mot ngat ngay khi viec truyen thong tin hoan tat. Giong nh bay, ngat cung lam ngng chng trnh ang c thc thi va chuyen ieu khien en bo ieu khien ngat e thc hien mot so ong tac thich hp. Khi hoan tat, bo ieu khien ngat tra ieu khien cho chng trnh b ngat. Chng trnh nay phai khi ong lai qua trnh b ngat mot cach chnh xac trang thai giong nh a co khi xay ra ngat, ngha la khoi phuc lai tat ca cac thanh ghi noi ve trang thai trc khi xay ra ngat. S khac nhau c ban gia bay va ngat la cac bay ong bo vi chng trnh con ngat la khong ong bo. Neu chng trnh chay lai mot trieu lan vi cung d lieu vao, bay se lai xay ra cung mot ni cho moi lan chay nhng ngat lai khac, th du tuy thuoc chnh xac luc mot ngi thiet bi au cuoi an phm CR (carriage return). Nguyen nhan oi vi viet tai tao lai bay a khong tai tao lai ngat la bay c gay ra trc tiep bi chng trnh con ngat tot nhat c gay ra gian tiep bi chng trnh.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-112-

CHNG 6: LP MAY HE IEU HANH

Cac chng trc a trnh bay cach thc mot trnh bien dch chay tren lp vi chng trnh (lp 1) thc thi cac chng trnh viet cho lp may qui c (lp 2). Tren mot may tnh c vi lap trnh, cac lenh cua lp may qui c nh goi thu tuc, nhan va lap vong khong c thc hien trc tiep bang phan cng. Thay vao o, chung c tm nap, c khao sat va c thc thi nh mot chuoi cac bc nho bi vi chng trnh. May lp hai co the c lap trnh bi nhng ngi khong biet g ve may lp 1 va trnh phien dch cua lp nay. chng mc ma chung co lien quan, may lp 2 co the c s dung nh the may nay la mot phan cng that s . Cung nh mot trnh phien dch chay tren may lp 1 co the phien dch cac chng trnh viet bang ngon ng may lp 2 mot trnh phien dch chay tren may lp 2 co the phien dch cac chng trnh viet bang ngon ng may lp 3. Vi cac ly do co tnh lch s, trnh phien dch chay tren may lp 2 ho tr cho may lp 3 c goi la he ieu hanh (operating system). Do vay chung ta se goi lp 3 la lp may he ieu hanh do thieu thuat ng tong quat chap nhan c. Co s khac biet quan trong gia cach ma lp may he ieu hanh c ho tr cach ma lp may qui c c ho tr. s khac nhau nay thc te do bi lp may he ieu hanh c phat trien dan dan ra khoi lp may qui c. Hau het cac lenh cua lp may he ieu hanh cung hien dien lp may qui c. Chung ta se goi nhng lenh nay la cac lenh lp 3 "tam thng" (ordinary) do bi chung bao gom cac thao tac bnh thng nh cac phep toan so hoc, logic, dch bit v v chung ta cung se goi cac lenh khac cua may lp 3 (chung khong hien dien trong may lp 2) la cac lenh OSML (Operating System Machine Language) e nhan manh chung ch hien dien trong lp may he ieu hanh. Mac du ta co the co he ieu hanh phien dch tat ca cac lenh cua lp 3, nhng ieu nay khong co hieu qua cung nh khong can thiet. Cac lenh lp 3 tam thng co the c dch trc tiep bi vi chng trnh. Tnh huong nay c mo ta cho trng hp may tnh ch co 1 bo nh e lu tr moi chng trnh. Mien la ch co cac lenh tam thng ang thc thi, vi chng trnh tm nap cac lenh trc tiep t chng trnh ngi s dung, khao sat chung va thc thi chung. Tuy nhien ngay khi gap mot lenh OSML, tnh huong se thay oi. Vi chng trnh ngng phien dch chng trnh cua ngi s dung va bat au phien dch he ieu hanh. He ieu hanh sau o khao sat lenh OSML trong chng trnh ngi s dung va thc thi lenh nay. Khi lenh OSML a c thc thi, he ieu hanh thc thi mot lenh nao o lam cho vi chng trnh tiep tuc tm nap va thc thi cac lenh cua chng trnh ngi s dung. D nhien neu lenh ke cua chng trnh ngi s dung cung la lenh OSML, he ieu hanh se c khi ong lan na. Phng phap thc thi cac chng trnh lp 3 nay co ngha la mot phan thi gian may tnh co chc nang cua mot may 3-lp va mot phan thi gian co chc nang cua mot

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-113-

may 2-lp. Trong khi thc thi mot lenh OSML, 3 chng trnh ang chay, moi chng trnh tren moi may (ao). Moi chng trnh co mot trang thai rieng bao gombo em chng trnh rieng. Mot cach khai quat, bo em chng trnh cua lp 3 tro ti lenh OSML, bo em chng trnh cua lp 2 tro ti lenh cua he ieu hanh ang c thc thiva bo em chng trnh cua lp 1 cho biet phan cng thc s ma vi lenh c thc thi. Trong chng nay e n gian, he ieu hanh se c nghien cu nh mot lp n, ieu nay khong co ngha la moi he ieu hanh eu c to chc co mot lp. Ngc lai, mot so he ieu hanh nang cao c cau truc thanh 1 chuoi nhieu lp. ieu can e cap la a so cac he ieu hanh cua cac may tnh ln eu la cac he thong a lap trnh (multiprogramming system), ngha la thay v ch ho tr cho may ao lp 3, he ieu hanh ho tr cho vai may ao lp 3 chay song song. Neu moi may ao c noi vi mot thie b au cuoi t xa, ta co mot he thong chia se thi gian (time-shared system). Neu khong co cac thiet b au cuoi t xa, ta co mot he thong a lap trnh nhom (batch). Vi dang hon hp, mot so may ao ang c s dung trc tuyen (on line), mot so may khac th khong. Phan chu yeu cua he ieu hanh lien quan en viec quan ly tat ca may ao hn la phien dch cac lenh OSML. Chung ta se tap trung vao 3 van e quan trong. Trc tien la bo nh ao (virtual memory), mot ky thuat c cung cap bi nhieu he ieu hanh lam cho may co nhieu bo nh hn la may that s co. Th 2 la xuat/nhap tap tin(file I/O), mot khai niem mc cao hn cac lenh vao/ra ma ta a nghien cu trong chng trc. Th 3 va cuoi cung la x ly song song, cach ma cac qua trnh (process) co the thc thi ong thi lp 3. Khai niem qua trnh la mot khai niem quan trong, chung ta se mo ta chi tiet sau trong chng nay. Mot qua trnh co the xem nh mot chng trnh ang chay vi tat ca cac thong tin trang thai cua chng trnh (bo nh, cac thanh ghi, bo em chng trnh, trang thai vao/ra).

I. BO NH AO
Trong nhng ngay au cua may tnh, bo nh co dung lng nho va rat at tien. May IBM 650, may tnh khoa hoc hang au luc nay (vao nhng nam cuoi thap nien 1950) ch co mot bo nh 2000 t. Mot trong nhng trnh bien dch viet bang ALGOL 60 au tien c viet cho may tnh ch co 1024 t nh. Mot he thong chia se thi gian trc ay chay rat tot tren PDP-1 vi kch thc bo nh tong cong ch co 4096 t 18 bit cho ca he ieu hanh va cac chng trnh cua ngi s dung. Thi o nhng ngi lap trnh phai ton nhieu thi gian e nen kch thc cac chng trnh sao cho at va trong mot bo nh nho. Thong thng ho dung mot giai thuat chay rat cham so vi giai thuat khac ma giai thuat tot hn thng se rat ln ngha la chng trnh s dung giai thuat tot hn se khong at va trong bo nh cua may tnh. Giai phap cho van e nay la dung bo nh phu, nh a chang han. Ngi lap trnh chia chng trnh thanh mot so mang nho goi la phan phu lap (overlay) co the at va

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-114-

trong bo nh. e chay chng trnh, phan phu au tien c em vao bo nh va chay trong mot khoang thi gian. Khi phan phu a hoan tat, chng trnh oc phan phu ke tiep va goi phan phu nay va v.v. Ngi lap trnh co trach nhiem tach chng trnh thanh cac phan phu, quyet nh xem moi phan phu c cat au trong bo nh phu, va mot cach tong quat quan ly toan bo qua trnh phan phu ma khong can co s giup nao t may tnh. Mat du phan phu c dung rong rai qua nhieu nam nhng ky thuat nay keo theo nhieu cong viec lien quan en viec quan ly phan phu. Vao nam 1961, mot nhom ngi Manchester nc Anh a de ngh mot phng phap thc hien t ong qua trnh che phu, ngi lap trnh tham ch khong can biet qua trnh che phu dang xay ra (Fotheringham, 1961). Phng phap nay, bay gi goi la bo nh ao, ro rang co thuan li trong viec giup cho ngi lap trnh thoat khoi nhieu cong viec ke toan phien phc. au tien phng phap nay c dung tren mot so may tnh trong nhng nam 1960, hau het thng gan lien vi nhng e an nghien cu thiet ke he thong may tnh. Bay gi tham ch cac bo vi x ly, ke ca 80386 va 68030 cung nh cac bo vi x ly sau nay eu co he thong bo nh ao rat phc tap. Phan trang Nhom Manchester a nay sinh mot y tng tach rieng khai niem ve khong gian a ch va cac v tr o nh (memory location). Th du xet mot may tnh co mot trng a ch 16 bit trong cac lenh cua may nay va co 4096 t nh. Mot chng trnh tren may tnh nay co the a ch hoa 65536 t nh v co 65536(216) a ch 16 bit. So t a ch hoa c ch tuy thuoc vao so bit co trong mot a ch va khong co lien quan du bang cach nao vi so t nh thc s s dung c. Khong gian a ch (address space) cua may tnh nay bao gom cac so 0, 1, 2, 65535 bi v o la tap cac a ch co the co. Trc khi phat minh ra bo ao, ngi ta a co s phan biet gia cac a ch di 4096 va cac a ch bang hoac tren 4096. Mac du trc khi c phat bieu thang nhng 2 phan a ch c xem nh khong gian a ch co ch ( cac a ch tren 4096 khong c dung bi v chung khong tng ng vi cac a ch cua bo nh thc). Ngi ta khong co s phan biet nhieu gia khong gian a ch va cac a ch cua bo nh thc bi v phan cng bat buoc phai co s tng ng mot-mot gia chung vi nhau. Y tng tach rieng khong gian a ch va cac a ch bo nh nh sau. Bat c luc nao, 4096 t cua bo nh eu co the c truy xuat trc tiep nhng chung khong can tng ng vi cac a ch t 0 ti 4096. Th du ta co the bao may tnh rang t bay gi tr i moi khi a ch 4096 c tham chieu, t nh 0 c s dung; moi khi a ch 4097 c tham chieu, t nh 1 c s dung; moi khi a ch 8191 c tham chieu, t nh 4095 c s dung va v.v noi cach khac ta a nh ngha mot anh xa t khong gian a ch len cac a ch bo nh thc, nh trnh bay trong hnh 6.1.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-115-

Hnh 6.1: Anh xa trong o cac a ch t 4096 ti 8191 c anh xa len cac a ch bo nh chnh t 0 ti 4095 Bang hnh ve nay, hnh ve anh xa cac a ch t khong gian a ch len cac v tr bo nh thc, mot may 4K thng ch co mot anh xa co nh gia cac a ch t 0 ti 4095 va 4096 t cua bo nh, khong co bo nh ao. Mot cau hoi thu v la: ieu g se xay ra neu trng trnh nhay ti mot a ch nam trong khoang 8192 va 12297? tren may khong co bo nh ao, chng trnh se gay ra mot bay loi ( error trap) in ra mot thong bao thch hp nh bo nh c tham chieu khong hien hu (non-existent memory referenced) va ket thuc chng trnh. Tren may co bo nh ao, chuoi cac bc sau se xay ra: 1. Noi dung cac bo nh chnh se c cat vao bo nh phu 2. Cac t nh t 8192 ti 12287 c at vao bo nh phu 3. Cac t nh t 8192 ti 12287 c nap vao bo nh chnh 4. Ban o a ch c thay oi e anh xa cac a ch t 8192 ti 12287 len cac v tr t 0 ti 4095 5. Viec thc hien tiep tuc nh the khong co g bat thng a xay ra Ky thuat che phu t ong nay c goi la s phan trang (paping) va nhng oan (chunk) cua chng trnh c oc vao t bo nh phu c goi la cac trang (page) Cung co mot phng phap phc tap hn e anh xa cac a ch t khong gian a ch len cac a ch bo nh thc. e nhan manh, ta se goi cac a ch ma chng trnh co the tham chieu ti la khong gian a ch ao (virtual address space) va cac a ch bo nh c noi day (bo nh thc ) la khong gian a ch vat ly ( physical address space). Ban o bo nh (memory map) lien ket cac a ch ao vi cac a ch vat ly. Chung ta cung gia thuyet rang bo nh phu co u cho e cat toan bo chng trnh va d lieu cua chng trnh. Cac chng trnh c viet nh co the co u bo nh chnh cho toan bo khong gian bo nh ao, cho du khong ung nh the. Cac chng trnh co the nap t hoac cat vao bat ky t nh nao trong khong gian a ch ao ma khong quan tam en thc te la that ra khong co u bo nh vat ly. Nhng ngi lap trnh co the viet cac chng trnh ma tham ch ho khong can biet en s ton tai cua bo nh ao. May tnh dng nh co mot bo nh dung lng ln.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-116-

iem nay la van e chu yeu va se c oi chieu sau nay vi s phan oan (segmentation), trong o ngi lap trnh phai biet en s ton tai ccua cac segment. Nhan manh lai mot lan na, s phan trang cung cap cho ngi lap trnh ao tng ve mot bo nh chnh ln tuyen tnh va lien tuc co kch thc bang vi kch thc cua khong gian a ch trong khi bo nh chnh s dung c co the nho hn (hoac ln hn) khong gian a ch. Viec mo phong bo nh chnh ln nay bang cach phan trang khong b chng trnh phat hien (tr phi b phat hien khi ang chay cac chng trnh kiem tra nh th); moi khi mot a ch c tham chieu, lenh hoac t d lieu thch hp se xuat hien. Bi v ngi lap trnh co the lap trnh nh the s phan trang khong ton tai, nen c che phan trang c goi la trong suot (transparent). S phan trang (paging) va s phan oan (segmentation) c so sanh nh trong hnh 6.2 S xem xet Ngi lap trnh co can biet ky thuat nay ang c s dung khong ? Co bao nhieu khong gian a ch tuyen tnh? Khong gian a ch tong cong co the vt qua kch thc bo nh vat ly khong? Cac thu tuc va d lieu co the c phan biet va c bao ve rieng re khong ? Cac bang ma kch thc cua chung dao ong co the c ieu tiet de dang khong ? Viec dung chung cac thu tuc cua nhng ngi s dung co c thuan li khong ? S xem xet Tai sao ky thuat nay c phat minh ? Phan trang Khong 1 Co Phan oan Co Nhieu Co

Khong Khong

Co Co

Khong

Co

Phan trang e co mot khong gian a ch tuyen tnh ln ma khong can phai mua nhieu bo nh vat ly

Phan oan e cho phep cac chng trnh va d lieu c chia ra thanh nhieu khong gian a ch logic oc lap va e cung cap kha nang dung chung va

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

bao ve Hnh 6.2 So sanh phan trang va phan oan

-117-

Y tng ma ngi lap trnh co the s dung mot ac tnh nao o khong ton tai va khong quan tam en cach lam viec cua ac tnh nay khong phai la mi oi vi chung ta. Tap lenh cua may lp 2 khong ton tai trong y ngha khong co lenh nao hoan toan la lenh phan cng, nhng tat ca chung thc te eu c thc hien bi phan men lp 1. Tng t, ngi lap trnh lp 3 co the dung bo nh ao ma khong phai lo lang g ve cach bo nh nay lam viec. Ch co nhng ngi viet he ieu hanh can phai biet bo nh ao lam viec nh the nao.

II. CAC LENH VAO/RA AO

Thong thng tap lenh cua lp 2 hoan toan khac vi tap lenh cua lp 1. Cac thao tac ma ca hai co the c thc hien va cac khuon dang cua cac lenh cua ca hai rat khac nhau. S hien dien cua vai lenh giong nhau tren ca 2 lp ch la tnh c. Tap cac lenh cua lp 3 trai lai cha hau het cac lenh cua lp 2 cong them vai lenh mi nhng quan trong va vai lenh gay ton hai c loai bo. Vao/ra la mot trong nhieu pham vi trong o cac may lp 2 va lp 3 khac nhau. Ly do cua s khac nhau nay n gian la: nhng ngi s dung co the thc thi cac lenh lp 2 that s, co the oc cac d lieu rieng cha trong he thong, ghi cac thiet b au cuoi cua nhng ngi s dung khac va mot cach tong quat co the tao ra noi phien toai ln cho chnh ho cung h e doa s an toan cua he thong. Ly do th hai, nhng ngi lap trnh bnh thng va ung mc khong muon t viet cac chng trnh vao/ra rieng cho ho. Tieu bieu la cac thanh ghi thiet b oi vi a ien hnh co cac bit e phat hien cac loi. Khi mot trong cac loi xuat hien, bit tng ng trong mot thanh ghi thiet b c thiet lap. Vai ngi s dung muon c lo lang theo doi tat ca cac bit loi nay va cac thong tin trang thai khac.

1. Cac tap tin tuan t

Mot phng phap to chc vao/ra ao la tng tng d lieu c oc hoac ghi nh la mot chuoi cac ban ghi logic (logical record), trong o mot ban ghi logic la mot n v nao o cua thong tin co ngha oi vi ngi lap trnh. Trong trng hp n gian nhat, mot ban ghi logic co the la mot ma tran 10x10. Vi mot ng dung khac ban ghi co the la mot cau truc d lieu bao gom 5 thanh phan: hai chuoi ky t ten va ngi giam sat; hai so nguyen phong va c quan; mot chuoi 1-bit phai. Mot chuoi cac ban ghi logic c goi la mot tap tin. Cac ban ghi trong mot tap tin khong can co cung chieu dai, trong trng hp nay chung c goi la cac ban ghi chieu dai thay oi. Lenh vao ao c ban oc ban ghi ke t 1 tap tin a c xac nh va at ban ghi nay trong cac o nh lien tiep trong bo nh chnh mot a ch a c xac. e thc

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-118-

hien thao tac nay, lenh ao phai trc tiep hoac gian tiep xac nh (toi thieu) 2 thanh phan thong tin sau: 1. 2. Tap tin c oc a ch bo nh chnh o ban ghi c ghi vao

Khong co a ch nao trong tap tin c xac nh. Cac lenh READ tuan t lien tiep lay cac ban ghi logic lien tiep t tap tin. Tnh huong nay tng phan vi cac tap tin truy xuat ngau nhien trong phan ke tiep, trong o lenh ao cung c xac nh ban ghi logic nao c oc. Lenh ra ao c ban mot ban ghi logic t bo nh len mot tap tin. Cac lenh WRITE tuan t lien tiep tao ra cac ban ghi lien tiep tren tap tin. Cung co mot lenh ao REWIND nh lai v tr cua tap tin luc bat au sao cho ban ghi logic ke tiep c oc hoac c ghi se la ban au tien. Trnh t thong thng oi vi 1 chng trnh la trc tien tao ra mot tap tin bang cach ghi mot chuoi cac ban logic len tap tin. Sau o tap tin c quay tr lai va c oc lai tng ban ghi mot thi iem. Bang cachnay tap tin co the c dung e cha nhieu lng thong tin ln, rat ln so vi bo nh chnh. Hn na neu tap tin c lu tr tren tren bang t hoac a mem, tap tin co the c di chuyen en may tnh khac va c oc o. Nhieu he ieu hanh yeu cau mot tap tin phai c m trc khi c s dung, trong trng hp nay mot lenh OPEN c cung cap . Lenh OPEN kiem tra xem co phai ngi s dung c phep truy xuat tap tin hay khong, neu co se tm nap thong tin ve tap tin vao bo nh chnh, sau o tap tin c oc hoac ghi. Khi mot chng trnh c ket thuc vi mot tap tin, chng trnh phai ong tap tin, mot lenh na c cung cap cho thao tac nay. Nhieu tap tin co the c gan thng trc ti cac thiet b vao/ra cu the. Th du co mot tap tin goi la OUTPUT bao gom mot day cac chuoi 132-ky t va c ket hp vi may in. e in mot dong, chng trnh lp 3 ghi mot chuoi 132-ky t len tap tin OUTPUT va cach nay hay cach khac chuoi nay sau o xuat hien tren ngo ra c in. Cac chi tiet ve cac ieu o xay ra va cach may in lam viec khong lien quan en ngi lap trnh lp 3 mac du d nhien chung co lien quan rat nhieu en nhng ngi lap trnh lp 2, nhng ngi phai viet phan mem thc hien cac lenh ao (ngha la nhng ngi viet he ieu hanh). Mot th du khac, ta co 1 tap tin goi la INPUT cha cac chuoi 80-ky t. Moi khi thao tac oc t INPUT c thc hien, cac noi dung cua the ke tiep c sao chep vao bo nh. chng mc ma ngi lap trnh lp 3 co lien quan, moi mot lenh e oc t ngo vao lam cho the ke tiep trong hop the c oc. Toan bo hop the co the c oc cung mot luc va c lu trong a mem cho en khi can en, iem nay mot the c sao chep 1 thi iem vao vung em cua ngi s dung trong bo nh chnh.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

2. Cac tap tin truy xuat ngau nhien

-119-

Cac tap tin tuan t a ban tren ay khong c a ch hoa. Mot lenh ao READ n gian ch oc ban ghi logic ke tiep. Chng trnh khong can cung cap so cua ban ghi logic. Nhieu thiet b vao/ra nh cac au oc the chang han, co ban chat t nhien la tuan t. Cac co the lp 3 oc t tap tin c ket hp vi au oc the oc the ke tiep. Chng trnh khong the bao bay gi hay oc the th 427 tr khi a co 426 a c oc. Mot tap tin tuan t do vay la kieu mau thch hp vi mot loai thiet b nh vay. Vi mot so ng dung, chng trnh can truy xuat cac ban ghi cua mot tap tin theo mot th t khac vi th t ma cac ban ghi nay c ghi. Th du ta hay khao sat he thong gi cho may bay trong o danh sach hanh khach cho moi chuyen bay hnh thanh mot ban ghi logic va tat ca cac chuyen bay cho 1 ngay hnh thanh 1 tap tin. Mot ngi co the goi nhan vien phong ve va hoi tham ve viec mua mot ve tren chuyen bay en White Plains vao th t ti. Nhan vien phong ve a cau hoi vao thiet b au cuoi. Neu danh sach hanh khach cho chuyen bay o la ban ghi 26 cua mot tap tin nao o, chng trnh ch can ban ghi 26. Ro rang ta khong nen oc tuan t t au, t ban ghi 1 cho en khi co ban ghi 26. Chng trnh can co kha nang truy xuat mot ban ghi cu the t phan gia cua mot tap tin bang cach cho biet so cua ban ghi. Tng t oi khi ta can ghi lai mot ban ghi logic cu the tren mot tap tin ma khong phai ghi lai bat ky cac ban ghi nao trc va sau ban ghi can ghi. Trong th du trc, mot ngi muon danh cho chuyen bay ang hoi tham. e thc hien ieu nay, chng trnh phai ghi lai ban ghi logic cha danh sach danh cho, cong them ten cua ngi goi vao danh sach hanh khach. Ta khong can thiet hoac khong muon phai thay oi bat ky ban ghi nao khac. Hau het cac he ieu hanh cung cap mot lenh ao e oc ban ghi logic th n cua mot tap tin. Cac lenh ao nay phai cung cap (t nhat) ba thanh phan thong tin: 1. 2. 3. Tap tin can oc a ch bo nh chnh o ban ghi c at vao V tr cua ban ghi trong tap tin

Cac lenh WRITE tng ng cung phai cung cap cac thong tin nay. Dang khac cua to chc tap tin la dang trong o cac ban ghi logic c a ch hoa khong phai bang v tr cua chung trong tap tin ma bang cac noi dung cua mot trng nao o trong moi ban ghi logic, trng nay c goi la khoa. Th du mot tap tin cha d lieu ve nhan vien cua mot cong ty se co mot trng trong moi ban ghi cha ten nhan vien. Mot lenh ao co the c cung cap cho phep chng trnh lay ten cua mot nhan vien va co ban ghi cua anh ta c oc vao. Trach nhiem cua he ieu hanh la tm kiem tap tin cha ban ghi logic can en, ngi lap trnh

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-120-

khong can phai viet thu tuc tm kiem. Tnh huong nay tng t lenh nhan lp 2, ngi lap trnh khong can phai viet thu tuc nhan (bang cac vi lenh). Tren mot so may tnh, co s phan biet gia cac tap tin c a ch hoa bang so cua ban ghi hoac bang khoa vi cac tap tin ma ch co ban ghi ke tiep c oc. Cac tap tin trc c goi la cac tap tin truy xuat ngau nhien e phan biet vi cac tap tin sau c goi la cac tap tin tuan t. Tren cac may tnh khac, khong co s phan biet nh vay va ca 2 loai lenh ao (co va khong co nh a ch) eu c phep tren moi tap tin.

3. Hien thc cac lenh vao/ra ao

e hieu c cach cac lenh vao/ra ao c thc hien tren may lp 2, ta can phai xem xet cach cac tap tin c to chc va lu tr. Trong thao luan sau ay ta gia s rang a c dung e lu gi cac tap tin, tuy nhien cac khao sat tng t cung ap dung cho cac phng tien khac. Mot van e c ban phai c giai quyet cho cac he thong tap tin la viec cap phat vung lu tr. Mot a bao gom mot chuoi cac cylinder, moi mot cylinder co mot hay nhieu track, bang vi so be mat (ien hnh t 2 en 20). Cac track c chia thanh cac sector, moi mot sector cha mot so t nao o. Tren mot so a, kch thc cua sector co the ieu chnh. Th du ngi lap trnh co the chon e tao khuon dang cho mot track co 10 sector 600-byte, 12 sector 500-byte hoac 15 sector 400-byte. Tren cac a khac, kch thc cua sector co the co nh. Mot ac tnh c ban cua viec hien thc mot he thong tap tin la kch thc cua n v khong gian c cap phat. Mot a cng co 3 ng vien thch hp: sector, track va cylinder . Khong gian cap phat tnh bang n v 2.93 track la ieu ng ngan. S khac biet se c thay ro nhat trong trng hp mot tap tin ban au ch co 1 ky t. Neu sector la n v cap phat, ch co mot sector c danh cho trong tap tin va cac sector khac tren cung mot track se c s dung cho cac tap tin khac. Neu track la n v cap phat, toan bo 1 track se c danh cho cho tap tin con cac track khac tren cung mot cylinder se c s dung cho cac tap tin khac. Neu khong gian a c cap phat bang cylinder, toan bo cylinder se c danh cho cho 1 tap tin ch co 1 ky t. ac tnh c ban khac cua viec hien thc mot he thong tap tin la hoac tap tin c lu tr trong cac n v cap phat lien tiep hoac khong. Hnh 6.3 phat hoa 1 a n gian co mat cha 5 track 12 sector. Hnh 6.3 (a) trnh bay mot s o cap phat trong o sector la n v c ban cua viec cap phat khong gian a va tap tin bao gom cac sector lien tiep. Hnh 6.3(b) trnh bay mot s o cap phat trong o mot tap tin khong can chiem cac sector lien tiep.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-121-

Hnh 6.3: Cap phat khong gian a Neu track la n v cap phat, mot tap tin c cap phat lien tiep se chiem cac track lien tiep. Theo quy luat cac track tren mot cylinder se c cap phat trc khi mot cylinder ke c cap phat. Neu mot tap tin c cap phat bang n v track nhng khong lien tiep, cac track co the chon bat ky ni au tren a, khong quan tam en cac track khac. Co mot khac biet quan trong gia cach ma may lp 3 quan sat mot tap tin vi cach ma he ieu hanh quan sat. Cac chng trnh lp 3 xem tap tin nh mot chuoi tuyen tnh cac ban ghi logic, cac hnh anh cua the, cac dong tin va v.v He ieu hanh xem tap tin nh mot tap hp cac n v cap phat lien tiep va co trat t (mac du khong can thiet). Mot cach tong quat, kch thc cua ban ghi logic khac vi kch thc cua n v cap phat, co the nho hn va cung co the ln hn. Mot tap tin co the cha mot day cac chuoi 80-byte cha tren a vi khong gian c cap phat tnh bang n v track 16384-byte. Cac byte t 0 en 79 cua track 0 se cha ban ghi au tien, cac byte t 80 en 159 se cha trong ban ghi th hai va v.v Cac track c xem nh ke nhau ve mat logic cho du chung khong ke nhau ve mat vat ly va mot ban ghi logic co the chia thanh 2 track. ay la cong viec cua he ieu hanh nham lam cho kch thc n v cap phat vat ly trong suot oi vi chng trnh cap 3. Khi chng trnh cap 3 yeu cau ban ghi logic th n, he ieu hanh lay ban ghi n va khong quan tam en track nao hoac cac track ma ban ghi co the chiem. e he ieu hanh phan phoi ban ghi n cua mot tap tin nao o theo yeu cau, he ieu hanh phai co mot phng phap nh v ban ghi. Neu tap tin c cap phat lien tiep, he ieu hanh ch can biet v tr bat au cua tap tin va kch thc cua cac ban ghi vat ly va logic e tnh toan v tr cua ban ghi logic. Th du neu mot ban ghi logic co 8 t va 1 track co 100 sector 64-t, ban ghi logic 5000 se trong sector 25 cua track 6. T viec biet v tr cua track au tien,phan mem lp 2 co the tnh toan chnh xac a ch tren a cua sector ang can va phat mot lenh cho a e oc. Neu tap tin khong c cap phat lien tiep, khong the tnh v tr cua mot ban ghi logic tuy y t v tr bat au cua tap tin. e nh v mot ban ghi logic tuy y, ta can mot

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-122-

bang goi la bang ch so tap tin (file index) cho biet cac n v cap phat va cac a ch tren a thc s c can en cua chung. Bang ch so tap tin co the c to chc hoac theo cac ban ghi logic cho biet a ch tren a cua tng ban ghi hoac n gian nh la mot danh sach cac n v cap phat va cac a ch tren a cua chung. e minh hoa cach s dung bang ch so tap tin, ta hay khao sat mot a co n v cap phat la sector nh hnh 6.3(b) vi 512 byte cho mot sector. Tap tin co cac ban ghi logic 132-byte (cac dong in) vi cac byte t 0 en 131 tao thanh ban ghi logic 0, cac byte t 132 en 263 tao thanh ban ghi logic 1 va v.v Ban ghi logic 21 chiem cac byte t 2772 en 2903 sector 5. Bang cach s dung ban ch so tap tin, he ieu hanh co the tm kiem a ch cua sector c yeu cau. Mot phng phap khac e nh v cac n v cap phat cua mot tap tin la to chc tap tin nh mot danh sach lien ket (linked list). Moi n v cap phat cha a ch cua n v ke sau. ieu nay co the thc hien mot cach co hieu qua nhat neu phan cng cung cap them mot t cho moi n v cap phat e lu tr a ch nay. Phng phap nay tng ng vi s phan tan bang ch so tap tin tren toan bo tap tin. Tren mot a ma n v cap phat la sector, moi sector cha a ch cua sector ke sau. Mot tap tin tren a nh vay ch co the c oc tuan t, khong the truy xuat ngau nhien c. Cho en ay ca 2 loai tap tin, tap tin c cap phat lien tiep va tap tin khong c cap phat lien tiep a c ban en nhng chung ta cha xac nh ro tai sao ca hai loai nay eu c s dung. Ngi s dung tao ra mot tap tin oi khi biet c kch thc toi a ma tap tin se at ti sau nay nhng oi khi lai khong biet. Hay khao sat he thong thanh toan c may tnh hoa cua Ecology Manufacturing Company va thong bao san pham mi nhat cua cong ty nay, ban chai anh rang. Cac may tnh cua cong ty co 1tap tin ghi danh sach ten va a ch cua tat ca cac khach hang nhng thi iem ban chai sng c ban, cac may tnh khong biet cuoi cung chung co bao nhieu khach hang nen chung khong biet tap tin khach hang cuoi cung se ln bao nhieu. Khi kch thc cc ai cua tap tin khong c biet trc, thng ta khong the s dung tap tin c cap phat lien tiep. Neu tap tin bat au track j va c phep ln dan trong cac track lien tiep, tap tin co the cham vao mot tap tin khac track k va khong co ca so e phat trien. Neu tap tin c cap phat khong lien tiep, tnh huong nay khong xay ra do cac track ke sau co the c at mot cylinder bat ky. Neu mot a cha nhieu tap tin ln dan, khong co tap tin nao co kch thc cuoi cung c biet, viec lu tr tng tap tin nay nh la mot tap tin c cap phat lien tiep khong the thc hien c. Viec di chuyen mot tap tin ang hien hu oi khi thc hien c nhng chi ph luon luon at. Neu kch thc cc ai cua tap tin c biet trc, mot vung cua a co the c cap phat khi tap tin c tao ra du rang d lieu cha co. Th du thi tiet hang ngay cua nam 1991 se yeu cau 365 ban ghi logic va co the c cap phat trc 31 thang 12 nam 1990 du rang khong co d lieu nao c biet thi iem tao ra tap tin. Cac tap tin c cap phat lien tiep t linh ong hn cac tap tin khong c cap phat lien tiep do

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-123-

bi kch thc cc ai cua chung phai c biet trc hay noi cach khac viec hien thc chung n gian hn do chung khong can bang ch so tap tin. Chu y la ca 2 loai tap tin, tap tin c cap phat lien tiep va tap tin khong c cap phat lien tiep, eu co the c s dung nh la cac tap tin truy xuat tuan t va cac tap tin truy xuat ngau nhien. e cap phat khong gian tren a cho mot tap tin, he ieu hanh phai theo doi cac n v cap phat nao c dung va cac n v cap phat nao a c dung cho cac tap tin k. Mot phng phap la duy tr mot danh sach tat ca cac lo trong, mot lo co mot so n v cap phat nao o. Danh sach nay c goi la danh sach trong (free list). Hnh 6.4(a) minh hoa danh sach trong cho a cua hnh 6.5 (b). Mot phng phap khac la duy tr ban o bit vi mot bit cho moi n v cap phat nh trnh bay trong hnh 6.5(b). Bit 1 ch ra rang n v cap phat a c chiem va bit 1 cho biet n v cap phat con co gia tr (cha b chiem). Phng phap au tien co li iem la de dang tm thay mot lo trong vi chieu dai co the nhng lai co iem bat li la danh sach co kch thc thay oi. Khi cac tap tin c tao ra va c huy i chieu dai cua danh sach se bien ong, mot ac iem khong mong muon. Ban o bit co li iem la co kch thc co nh. Hn na, viec thay oi tnh trang cua mot n v cap phat t co gia tr sang b chiem ch la van e thay oi 1 bit. Tuy nhien viec tm mot khoi co kch thc cho trc se kho khan. Ca 2 phng phap eu yeu cau khi co mot tap tin bat ky c cap phat hoac tra ve, danh sach va ban o phai c cap nhat.

Hnh 6.5 : Theo doi track cua cac sector

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-124-

Trc khi ket thuc chu e hien thc he thong tap tin, ta cung nen ghi chu ve kch thc cua n v cap phat. Vai tap tin se chiem chnh xac mot so nguyen cua so n v cap phat, tuy nhien mot khong gian nao o se b bo trong trong n v cap phat cuoi cung oi vi hau het cac tap tin. Neu tap tin ln hn nhieu so vi n v cap phat, khong gian trung bnh b bo ph se la n v cap phat. n v cap phat cang ln, cang co nhieu khong gian trong bo ph hn. Neu kch thc mot tap tin c ky vong la ngan, se khong co hieu qua khi cap phat khong gian a bang cac n v cap phat ln. Th du neu hau het nhng ngi s dung mot he thong tap tin la cac sinh vien vi cac chng trnh ngan trung bnh khoang 3000 ky t, va mot track cua a cha 100 sector 640 ky t, se rat dai dot neu cap phat khong gian a bang cac n v cap phat la track hoac te hn, n v cap phat la cylinder. Mot bat li cua viec cap phat khong gian bang cac chunk nho la bang ch so tap tin va ban o bit se ln. Hn na, neu tap tin c cap phat khong lien tiep, trong trng hp tong quat, ta se phai tm kiem tren tng n v cap phat nen viec tm kiem tren a se cham. Viec phai tm kiem tng 640 ky t se t c mong muon hn viec tm kiem tng 64000 ky t.

4. Cac lenh quan ly th muc

Trc ay vao nhng ngay au cua may tnh, ngi ta gi cac chng trnh va d lieu tren cac the uc lo trong cac van phong. Khi cac chng trnh va d lieu tang kch thc va so lng, tnh huong nay ngay cang t c mong muon. ieu nay cuoi cung dan en y tng s dung bo nh phu cua may tnh (nh la a t) nh la mot vung lu tr cho cac chng trnh va d lieu. Thong tin co the c truy xuat trc tiep bi may tnh ma khong can en s can thiep cua con ngi c goi la thong tin trc tuyen ( off-line) can co s can thiep cua con ngi ( oc mot hop the) trc khi may tnh co the truy xuat. Thong tin trc tuyen c lu tr di dang co tap tin, cac chng trnh truy xuat thong tin qua cac lenh xuat / nhap tap tin. Tuy nhien van can co them nhieu lenh na e theo doi thong tin trc tuyen c lu tr, tap hp chung thanh cac n v thch hp va bao ve chung khoi nhng s dung khong c phep. Cach thong thng cho he ieu hanh e to chc cac tap tin trc tuyen la nhom chung vao trong cac th muc (directory) Co nhieu s o bao ve khac nhau ang c s dung. S o n gian nhat la moi tap tin co mot mat khau (secret password) rieng. Khi co mot thao tac truy xuat tap tin, mot chng trnh phai cung cap mat khau va he ieu hanh se kiem tra xem co ung mat khau hay khong trc khi cho phep truy xuat. Mot phng phap bao ve khac la cung cap cho tap tin mot danh sach ro rang nhng ngi ma cac chng trnh cua ho co the truy xuat tap tin nay.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-125-

Hau het cac he ieu hanh cho phep nhng ngi s dung duy tr nhieu hn mot th muc. Ban than moi th muc la mot tap tin va nh vay co the c liet ke trong mot th muc khac va phat trien dan thanh cay th muc (directory tree). Cac a th muc thng ac biet hu ch oi vi nhng ngi lap trnh lam viec tren mot so e an. Ho co the nhom tat ca cac tap tin co lien quan vi nhau trong mot e an vam mot th muc. Trong khi ang lam viec trong th muc o, ho se khong b roi tr bi cac tap tin khong lien quan. Cac th muc cung la mot phng phap thch hp e dung chung cac tap tin vi cac thanh vien khac cua mot nhom.

III. CAC LENH AO DUNG TRONG X LY SONG SONG

Mot so tnh toan co the c lap trnh mot cach thch hp nhat cho hai hay nhieu qua trnh (process) cung hoat ong song song (ong thi tren cac bo x ly khac nhau), khong phai cho mot qua trnh n. Cac tnh toan khac co the c chia thanh nhieu mang, sau o cac mang nay c thc hien song song e giam thi gian troi qua can co cho toan bo tnh toan. e cho vai qua trnh cung lam viec song song, them nhieu lenh ao can dung. Cac lenh nay c thao luan trong cac phan sau. Cac nh luat ve vat ly cha cung cap mot ly do nao khac oi vi li ch hien nay trong x ly song song. Theo thuyet tng oi cua Einstein, ta khong the truyen cac tn hieu ien vi van toc nhanh hn van toc cua anh sang, gan 1 ft/ngiay. Gii han nay co lien quan mat thiet en viec to chc mot may tnh. Th du neu mot CPU can d lieu t bo nh chnh cach xa 1 ft, ta phai mat t nhat 1 ngiay cho yeu cau gi en bo nh va 1 ngiay khac cho tra li en CPU. Hau qua la cac may tnh co thi gian di nanogiay se co kch thc cc ky nho. Mot phng phap khac e tang toc o cac may tnh la xay dng may co nhieu CPU. Mot may tnh vi 1000 CPU 1 ngiay co cung cong suat tnh toan vi 1 CPU co thi gian 1 chu ky la 1/1000 ngiay, nhng may au de thiet ke va re hn nhieu so vi may sau. Tren mot may tnh co nhieu hn mot bo x ly vat ly, moi mot trong nhieu qua trnh cung lam viec co the c gan cho mot bo x ly rieng, cho phep cac qua trnh c tien hanh ong thi. Neu ch s dung mot bo x ly vat ly, viec x ly song song co the c mo phong bang cach cho bo x ly chay lan lt tng qua trnh trong cac khoang thi gian ngan. Noi cach khac bo x ly co the c dung chung gia nhieu qua trnh vi nhau. Hnh 6.6 trnh bay s khac nhau gia x ly song song thc s vi nhieu hn mot bo x ly vat ly va x ly song song c mo phong ch co mot bo x ly vay ly. Ngay ca khi mot x ly song song c mo phong, ngi ta thng xem moi qua trnh nh the co mot bo x ly ao rieng. Cac van e truyen thong tng t nay sinh khi co x ly song song thc s cung nay sinh trong trng hp c mo phong.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly

Can Truc May Tnh

-126-

Hnh 6.6: X ly song song Khi mot chng trnh c thc thi, chng trnh phai chay nh la mot phan cua qua trnh nao o. Qua trnh nay, giong nh moi qua trnh khac, c ac trng bi mot trang thai va mot khong gian a ch qua o chng trnh va d lieu c truy xuat. Trang thai bao gom bo em chng trnh va co the mot t trang thai chng trnh, mot con tro va cac thanh ghi tong quat. Cac he ieu hanh n gian thng ho tr mot so qua trnh co nh, tat ca qua trnh c tao ra khi may tnh c khi ong va mat i khi mat tnh ngng hoat ong. Tren nhieu may tnh mot chng trnh phai ch trong hang i ngo vao cho en khi mot qua trnh tr thanh co gia tr trc khi qua trnh c nap vao khong gian a ch cua qua trnh va c thc thi. Nhieu he ieu hanh phc tap hn cho phep cac qua trnh c tao ra va ket thuc ma khong phai ngng may tnh. Mot may tnh co loai he ieu hanh nay co the ho tr mot so thay oi may lp 3, moi qua trnh tng ng vi mot may ao. e co c ay u thuan li cua qua trnh song song , mot chng trnh lp 3 can co mot lenh ao e tao cac qua trnh mi co the giao pho cong viec. Mot so he ieu hanh cung cap mot lenh lp 3 e tao mot qua trnh mi, cho phep qua trnh tao (creating process) xac nh trang thai ban au cua qua trnh mi bao gom chng trnh , d lieu va a ch bat au. Vi mot so he thong lap trnh cua IBM 370, mot thu tuc co the goi mot thu tuc khac theo cach rieng sao cho co thu tuc goi va thu tuc b goi chay song song nh la cac qua trnh rieng le. Trong mot so trng hp, qua trnh tao (cha) duy tr toan bo ieu khien tren qua trnh c tao (con). Cac lenh ao ton tai e qua trnh cha dng, khi ong, khao sat va ket thuc qua trnh con. Trong cac trng hp khac, qua trnh cha t ieu khien cac qua trnh con; mot khi mot qua trnh a c tao ra , khong co cach nao qua trnh cha ep buoc qua trnh con dng, khi ong , khao sat va ket thuc. Hai qua trnh sau o chay oc lap vi mot qua trnh khac.

Nguyen Hu Loc

Khoa Vat Ly