Archaeological Finds in Israel of the Ninth Century B.C.

Introduction In order to better understand the books of 1 and 2 Kings, every Bible student needs to understand the historical backgrounds of both books. Four of the most important

archaeological finds in ancient Israel that impact Biblical studies comes from the ninth century B.C. These four inscriptions help shed more light on the historical background of an otherwise dark period in Israel s history, the so-called divided kingdom. The purpose of this research paper is to show how these four monuments impact our knowledge of the land of Israel during the early part of the divided kingdom (9th century). Archaeology is able to assist in Biblical interpretation of the Hebrew Bible by placing the Old Testament books in a contemporary setting and context. Thus archaeology enables scholars to do the necessary background work of placing the Old and New Testament in a necessary context-historical, cultural, linguistic, and religious.
1

One cannot study the book of First and Second Kings

without a sound knowledge of the backgrounds in order to establish the proper context.

The four inscriptions we want to examine in this research paper are: First, the Moabite Stone. Second, we will take a look at the Tel Dan inscription which mentions the house of David. Third, we will notice the significance of the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser. Fourth, we will conclude with the Monolith of Kurkh.

H. Darrell Lance, The Old Testament and the Archaeologist. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989), 3. An axiom drilled into my brain some years back is this: any text without a context is a pretext.

The Moabite Stone

The Moabite Stone (also known as the Mesha Stele) is an inscription about Mesha, King of Moab, who rules his country in the 9th century B.C. This inscription is not only one of the earliest archaeological finds relevant to Old Testament studies, but also gives us a much fuller understanding of Omri s reign and involvement on the world stage.2 A French

Anglican missionary, by the name of F.A. Klein, discovers the stele in Dhiban, Jordan, in 1868.3 The country of Moab is located on the eastern side of the Dead Sea (in modern day Jordan) in between the Wadi Arnon (to the North) and the Wadi Zered (to the South). The Biblical country of Moab is a buffer zone between Ammon (to the North) and Edom (to the South). Mesha is a contemporary with the King of Judah, Jehosaphat (870-848 B.C.), and the King of Israel, Joram (852-841 B.C.).

What we know about Mesah from scripture is very little. In 2 Kings 3:4ff, we read where this ruler revolts from Israel and declares his own independence (from paying tribute). 4 In fact, from the time the children of Israel take possession of the promise land, the country of Moab goes back and forth between various hands who control her: the Moabites (Judges 11:13, 32-33), Israel (Judges 3:30), the Ammonites (Judges 11:32-33), and finally back again into Israel s hands (Judges 11:32-33). Then in the middle part of the ninth century, King

Alfred J. Horeth, Archaeology & The Old Testament. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006), 308.

Bryant G. Wood, Mesha, King of Moab, Bible and Spade. Spring 1996. www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2006/09/27/Bible-Personages-in-Archaeology-Mesah-King-of-Moab.aspx.
4

Ibid.

Mesha is able to unyoke his oppressor, Israel, and falls again under the authority and autonomy of Moab (i.e., 2 Kings 3:5; Mesha Inscription).5

The Mesha Stele is unique in several respects. First, not only does this monument inform us as to how Mesha comes under the control of Israel, but we also find vital information concerning other historical events, building operations, and the geography of his kingdom. This inscription also tells us about the cities of ancient Dibon and Hesbon,

since excavations at these two sites reveal only scanty remains from the time of Mesha and his descendants.6 Second, some ninety years after the original discovery of the

Moabite Stone, a fragment of an additional inscription of King Mesha is uncovered at Kerak (site of ancient Qir Moab). From this new document we learn that the name of Mesha s father is Kemoshyat. When we combine these two monuments from the ninth century B.C., we discover that both are written in the Moabite language but use the Hebrew script.7 The Moabite Stone is written in the Moabite dialects (which is akin to Biblical Hebrew), but does differ in some respects from the language of the Hebrew inscriptions.
8

This

Ibid.

Amihai Mazar, Archaeology of The Land of The Bible, 10,000-586 B.C.E. The Anchor Bible Reference Library. (New York: Doubleday, 1990), 542.
7

Hershel Shanks, Ed. Recent Archaeology In The Land Of Israel. (Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Socie (Records of the Past, 2nd Series, vol II XI n.d.) (Davies 1994)ty, 1981, Repr. 1985). Inscriptions of the Biblical Period, by Joseph Naveh, Trans. by Dr. Avigdor Hurowitz, 64. Avraham Negev, Ed. The Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, 3rd Ed. Introduction by Dr. Neil Asher Silberman. (New York: Prentice Hall Press, 1990), S.v. Inscriptions, 183.
8

script is similar to the Hebrew script of the ninth century. This shows that the Moabites were under Israelite influence so much that they adopted the Hebrew script.
9

Understanding the Moabit Stone in Light of Historical Situation in the A.N.E. In order for one to properly understand the significance of the Moabite Stone, we need to know some of the historical background leading up to the Moabite King s revolt from Israel. Ashurnasirpal II (in 876 B.C.) marches towards the west on a military campaign from Assyria. On his first stop, he receives tribute from the New-Hittite controlled Carchemish. As Ashurnasirpal II continues on his westward trek, he brings in more tribute from the various towns and city-states in his path. While the military campaigns of Ashurnasirpal marching into Syria and Phoenicia does not expand Assyrian territory, yet he does put the Ancient Near Eastern world on notice that he is a force to be reckoned with. From the ninth to the seventh century B.C., the Assyrians refer to the land of Israel as mat-Omri ( land of Omri ) or bit-Omri (house of Omri).10 Omri is much more than some insignificant king of some back water country.

Text of the Moabite Inscription.

(1) I, Mesha son of CHEMOSH-melech King of Moab The Di(2) bonite. My father reigned over MOAB thirty years and I reig(3) ned after my father. I made this monument to CHEMOSH at KORKHAN. A monument of Sal-

Ibid. Horeth, 307-08.

10

(4) vation, for he saved me from all invaders, and let me see my desire upon all my enemies. Omr(5) i [was] King of ISRAEL, and he oppressed MOAB many days, for CHEMOSH was angry with his (6) land. His son followed him, and he also said I shall oppress MOAB. In my days CHEMOSH said. (7) I will see my desire on him and his house. And ISRAEL surely perished forever. Omri took the land of (8) MEDEBA, and [ISRAEL] dwelt in it during his days and half of the days of his son, altogether forty years. But there dwelt in it (9) CHEMOSH in my days. I built BAAL-MEON and made therein the ditches: I built (10) KIRJATHAIN: the men of GAD dwelled in the land of ATAROTH from of old, and built there the King of (11) ISRAEL ATAROTH; and I made war against the town and seized it. And I slew all the [people of] (12) The town, for the pleasure of CHEMOSH and MOAB: I captured from there Arel of DODA and tore (13) Him before CHEMOSH in KERIOTH. And I placed therein the man of SRN and the men (14) of MKHRTH. And CHEMOSH said to me, Go seize NEBO upon Israel; and (15) I went in the night and fought against it from the break of dawn till noon; and I took (16) it, and slew, 7000 men, [boys?], women, [girl s?], (17) and female slaves, for ASHTAR-CHEMOSH I devoted them. And I took from it the Arels of JAHVEH and tore them before CHEMOSH. And the King of ISRAEL built (18) JAHAZ, and dwelt in it, whilst he waged war against me; CHEMOSH drove him out before me. And (19) I took from MOAB 200 men, all chiefs, and transported them to JAHAZ, which I took (20) to add to it DIBON. I built KORKHAH, the wall of the forests and the wall (21) of the citadel: I built its gates and I built its towers. And (22) I built the house of MOLOCH, and I made sluices of the water ditches in the middle (23) of the town. And there was no cistern in the middle of the town of KORKHAH, and I said to all the people, make for (24) yourselves every man a cistern in his house. And I dug the canals for KORKHAH by means of the prisoners (25) of ISRAEL. I built AROER and I made the road in [the provinces of] the ARNON. [And] (26) I built BETH-BAMOTH, for it was destroyed. I built BEZER, for in ruins (27) [it was. And all the chiefs] of DIBON were 50, for all DIBON is subject; and I placed (28) one hundred [chiefs] in the towns which I added to the land: I built (29) BETH-MEDEBA and BETH-DIBLATHAN and BETH-BAAL-MEON and transported thereto the [shepherds (?) (30) and the pastors] of the flock of the land. And at HORONAIM dwelt there (31) and CHEMOSH said to me, Go down, make war upon HORONAIM. I went down [and made war] (32) And CHEMOSH dwelt in it during my days. I went up from thence
5

(33)

And I ?11

Why The Moabite Stone Is So Important To Biblical Studies: First, this inscription helps clear up century old questions scholars are asking about this period in Israelite history. The Biblical narrative claims that David conquered Moab, that Solomon held Moab, and that Moab broke free at the outset of the divided kingdom. Yet the next time we run across

Moab (in the Kings narrative), the text states in 2 Kings 3:4 that Mesha, who is a sheep breeder, is paying tribute of 100,000 lambs and 100,000 rams to Israel. The Bible does not tell us how or when Moab was reclaimed for Ahab to be receiving such tribute. The

Moabite inscription gives us a bit of information and tells us of Omri s conquest from the Moabite point of view.
12

The inspired writers do not seem to be particularly interested in

the material accomplishments of evil kings, but archaeology reveals that Omri was a more important figure than we would have otherwise known.
13

Second, we learn from this

monument the importance the Canaanite deities play in the religion of Syria-Palestine. The Bible mentions numerous deities which the nations around Israel worship. One particular god is the Moabite deity, Chemosh. He is mentioned eight times in the Old Testament

(see Numbers 21:29; Judges 11:24; 1 Kings 11:7, 33; 2 Kings 23:13; Jeremiah 48:7, 13, 46)

11

Records of the Past, 2nd Series, vol_II XI_sacred-texts.com\ Horeth, 309-10. Ibid, 310.

12

13

and always (with the exception of Judges 11:24) as the national god of the Moabites.

14

The Moabite inscription verifies that Chemosh is indeed the god of the Moabites and that his word is as authoritative (to them) as Yahweh s is to Israel (notice the references in line 6 and line 10 to the phrase, Chemosh commands Mesha ). Third, we are able to take the

Biblical and Moabite accounts and work out some chronological issues. There is a problem (but not an insurmountable one) when we try to line up the chronological events in these two accounts. In 2 Kings 3:5, the text simply says that after the death of Ahab, Mesha rebels. Joram s father, Ahab, dies cir. 853 B.C., so Mesha s revolution takes place sometime after 853 B.C. The problem with the Moabite Stone is that in lines 7-9 ( Omri had taken possession of the land of Medeba. And he dwelt in his days and a half, the days of his son 40 years, but Chemosh restored it in my days. ), the king of Moab mentions only Moab s king, Mesha, and Israel s king, Omri, one of the most powerful kings Israel would ever have (see 1 Kings 16: 21-28), who reigned from cir. 885-873 B.C. The Bible states that Omri s dynasty endures until the grandson, Joram, is killed by Jehu in 841 B.C. The word son in the Mesha inscription must refer to descendant (as we find in the Bible and throughout the rest of the Ancient Near East). When we add Omri s years (12, according to 1 Kings 16:23) with the years of his son Ahab (22, according to 1 Kings 16:29), along with the years of Azariah, Ahab s son (2, according to 1 Kings 22:52), and finally half the years of Joram, Azariah s brother (6, according to 2 Kings 3:1), then we come up with 42 years. Wood says the reigns of these kings could be common years, making the true span 40 years, or perhaps Mesha is simply rounding the number off to 40. Thiele gives the absolute years

14

Wood.

from the beginning of Omri s reign to Joram s 6th year (885-846 B.C.) as 40 years. Thus one could argue that Mesha actually revolts cir 846 B.C. The Bible shows that Joram s attack (2 Kings 3:5-7) takes place immediately upon Mesha s revolt, or in 846 B.C. This date fits right into the time period in which Joram and Jehoshaphat reign simultaneously (848-841 B.C.). Fourth, we also find out that in the phrase, the Arels or altar hearths of Yahewh, in line 17 may be the earliest reference to God s Divine Name outside the Bible.
15

While

the Moabite Stone is not a new inscription, the information we gain from the text (including the discovery in modern times to the phrase house of David on the Moabite Stone) is still useful to modern Biblical studies.

The Tel Dan Stele A second great discover that impacts our study of 9th century Israel and Judah comes to light in the summer of 1993 and again in 1994. During those two summers, excavations at Tel Dan uncover fragments of a basalt monument written in the Aramaic language. The large fragment is a little over twelve inches high. The two smaller fragments are connected together with the larger one later on after their discovery. The eighth line mentions the two kings that the author claims to kill, Ahaz and Jehoram. The ninth line of

15

Ibid.

this stele contains the phrase, house of David, and is the first known extra-biblical reference to Israel s King David.16

King Hazael of Syria, perhaps after his attacking Israel during the reign of King Jehu (see 2 Kings 10:32-33), writes to commemorate this event on the stele. Some propose that the stele is subsequently smashed by Jehoash of Israel.
17

Initially, scholars draw the

conclusion that the thirteen-line section of the largest fragment of the Tel Dan Stele is set up by none other than Ben-Hadad, King of Syria, to commemorate his attack on northern Israel (1 Kings 15:20), but then the smaller fragments make reference to King Hazael. Thus, scholars are inclined to correct their view. Not all scholars, however, accept the view that the phrase BYTDWD refers to the house of David. One such dissenting scholar, Philip Davies, challenges the house of David reading on the Tel Dan inscription.18 Davies argues that the phrase BYTDWD does not mean house of David, but rather refers to either: (1) a place name (like Beth Lehem, House of Bread), or (2) should be properly read and translated as Bet Lachmu (House of the God Lachmu), or (3) that the word DWD (instead of being translated David) should be understood to mean beloved, or uncle in Hebrew.19 After the discovery of this stele at Tel Dan, two more conservative scholars (Anson Rainey and Andre LeMaire) compare this new inscription with the Moabite Stone (line 31) and find

16

Horeth, 326. Ibid. Ibid.

17

18

Philip R. Davies, House of David Built on Sand: The Sins of the Biblical Maximizers. Biblical Archaeology Review. 20/4 (1994). (Willis n.d.)

19

an interesting reference to the house of David in King Mesha s Stela that goes unnoticed by most of the scholarly world. 20

Why the Tel Dan Stele is So Important: First of all, the Dan stele is important because this Aramean king claims to be the one who kills the king of Israel (Joram) and the king of Judah (Ahazaih) during his southern military campaigns. Second, this inscription parallels the Biblical account of the murders of both Ahaziah and Joram in 2 Kings 9, except for one major difference: the Hebrew Bible says Jehu kills these two kings.21 Third, despite the glaring differences between the two accounts (and I hold to the Biblical account), the Dan Stele does state that someone from the royal lineage of David is still sitting upon his throne in Jerusalem. This is a difficult pill to swallow for those who do not hold to a high view of scripture. Fourth, the stele is important because this is one of the oldest (if not the oldest) reference to the house of David outside of the Bible. The Dan Stele, some argue, even predates the Moabite Stone by a few years.22

Connecting the Moabite Stone with the Dan Stele: About the time the Tel Dan inscription comes to light over the house of David reference, a French scholar (Andre Lemaire) argues that a full two years before the discovery of this monument at Dan, he

20

Horeth, 310, footnote 18. teldan.wordpress.com/house-of-david-inscription/

21

Ibid. John T. Willis, The Newly Discovered Fragmentary Aramaic Inscription from Tel Dan. Restoration Quarterly vol 37/no 4 (1995). http://www.acu.edu/sponsored/restoration_quarterly/archives/1990s/vol_37_no_4_contents/willis/html.

22

10

finds the exact same phrase, house of David, on line 31 of the Moabite Stone. 23 The revised translation of this line should read, And the house [of Da]vid dwelt in Horanaim. Lemaire identifies a previously indistinguishable letter as a d in the phrase House of David.
24

This means that there are actually two inscriptions from about the same time

period (both outside the Bible) that uses a phrase that must be widely used for the inscription, one might say, takes for granted that the reader understands who he is talking about. Granted, the phrase house of David may refer to the actual dynasty rather than to the person, David, but this is still tremendous evidence for there being a historical David, an actual Judah, and a literal city of Jerusalem.

Aramaic Text of the Tell Dan Stele:

1.[ ] 2.[ ] . 3. 4. [

] [. ] ] ] . . . ] .[ . ] . . [ . .[ ] . ] .[ . --- ] . . . . . . . . . ] ---] . ] .] ]
king of Israel and I killed Achazhihu, son of Yehoram, king

.[ . . ] .[ . . . [ . [ . ] . .[

[ ]. [

5. [ . . 6. . 7. . [.

8. .

Bryant G. Wood, Bible Personages in Archaeology: Jaban, King of Hazar. Bible and Spade, Summer (1995): 91-92. Bryant G. Wood, What does the Moabite Stone reveal about the Biblical Revolt of Mesha? www.ChristianAnswers.Net.

23

11

. 10. 11. . 12.

. . .

. ] ]

[.

. ] of the house of David

[ . .

...[ . ... . ]25 [ . .

.]

13. [ .

English Translation of Tel Dan Stele:

1'. [.....................].......[...................................] and cut [.........................] 2'. [.........] my father went up [against him when] he fought at[....] 3'. And my father lay down, he went to his [fathers]. And the king of I[s-] 4'. rael entered previously in my father's land. [And] Hadad made me king. 5'. And Hadad went in front of me, [and] I departed from [the] seven[.....] 6'. of my kingdom, and I slew [seve]nty kin[gs], who harnessed thou[sands of cha-] 7'. riots and thousands of horsemen (or: horses). [I killed Jeho]ram son of [Ahab] 8'. king of Israel, and I killed [Ahaz]iahu son of [Jehoram kin]g 9'. of the House of David. And I set [their towns into ruins and turned] 10'. their land into [desolation........................] 11'. other ...[......................................................................... and Jehu ru-]

25

By Avraham Biran and Joseph Naveh, An Aramaic Stele Fragment from Tel Dan. Israel Exploration Journal 43 (1993): 81-98; The Tell Dan Inscription: A New Fragment, Israel Exploration Journal 45 (1995): 1-18. Tel Dan Inscriptions.mht. tel dan inscription-GoogleSearch.mht.

12

12'. led over Is[rael......................................................................and I laid] 13'. siege upon [............................................................]26

Although my Aramaic is not perfect, I am able to distinguish between the script on lines 8 of the Dan Steal (where Biblical the kings Ahaz and Jehoram are mentioned) as well as on line 9 where the phrase reads, of the house of David. One would need to work extremely hard not to be able to see the name of David written in stone for the whole world to view. The Tel Dan inscription may be the greatest textual find in Biblical studies since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls back in 1947.

The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser

Perhaps the third greatest inscription from the ninth century B.C. is the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser. Thanks to the numerous Akkadian and Egyptian inscriptions dating to the period of the ninth century B.C. in Israel (Iron Age II), these monuments provide numerous details which supplement the information in the Bible.
27

One such Akkadian inscription is

that of Shalmaneser III, the son of Assurnasirpal II, who succeeds his father in 859 B.C. This

26

Ibid. Negev, Inscriptions, 182.

27

13

monument gives good historical information about Israel s standing (her growing weakness) and Assyria s resurgence as a super power in the Ancient Near Eastern world.28

Background Information to the Black Obelisk: Assyria becomes a major threat against Israel during the reign of Ahab. The Assyrian Empire builds up a mighty military machine as early as the ninth century B.C. They begin to branch out in the ninth century and within two centuries they would dominate the Middle East as far West as Egypt. The threat is so severe that the kings of Syria-Palestine band together to halt this westward movement (Ahab taking the lead). This newly formed federation, made up primarily of city-states, help stem the tide of Sahlmaneser III at the battle of Qarqar in 853 B.C. Shortly after this battle, however, Ahab is killed in battle against the Arameans in Ramoth-Gilead (see 1 Kings 22:2940).29

During the eighteenth year of Shalmaneser s reign (841 B.C.), he attacks a league that is made up of Syria, Israel, Damascus, and the city-states of the coastal region. King Jehu, rather than fight against the Assyrians army, pays tribute to Shalmaneser III. This leaves Hazael to face the brunt of the battle alone. 30 On the panels of this monument, the relief depicts, graphically and literally, the submission of Jehu, son of Omri.
31

The depiction of

Jehu presents the first pictures of Israelites of which we know (or at least of Israelite
28

William W. Hallo and William Kelly Simpson, The Ancient Near East, A History. (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971), 125-26.
29

Mazar, 404. R.K. Harrison, Old Testament Times. (London: Inter-Varsity Press, 1970), 221. Mazar, 404.

30

31

14

rulers). The inscription depicts him kissing the ground before Shalmaneser (standing behind him are Israelites bearing a variety of tribute), thus symbolizing Jehu as being the servant or vassal of Shalmaneser.32

Text of the Black Obelisk and Jehu Relief: The relief that contains the name of Jehu reads as follows:

I have received tribute of Jehu, the son of Omri: silver, gold, bowls of gold, chalices of gold, cups of gold, pails of gold, lead, scepters for the hand of the king, (and) spear heads. 33

There are five relief panels in all that detail the various rulers that pay tribute to Shalmaneser III. Relief I, Susa of the country of GUZAN; Relief III, MUTSRI; Relief IV, Merodach-abil-utsur of the country of the SHUHITES; Relief V, Garparunda of the country of the PATINIANS.34 The text on this monument may indicate that many of the surrounding kingdoms (who once are fighting against Assyria) are simply weary of fighting Shalmaneser (or unable to fight him off any longer) and so pay tribute instead to save themselves (as Jehu of Israel does).

32

G. Ernest Wright, Biblical Archaeology. (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1957), (Wright 1957), (Lewis 1981)156.
33

Records of the Past, 2 Series, Vol. IV, ed. By A.H. Sayce, [1890], at sacred-texts.com. Ibid.

nd

34

15

The Monolith of Kurkh

The fourth great inscription dating to the ninth century B.C. is the Monolith of Kurkh. This particular stele is discovered in 1861 at Kurkh (ancient Tushkha) on the Tigris River in modern day Turkey. This inscription records the first six military campaigns of

Shalmaneser III,35 but for the purpose of this study we focus upon the record of his great battle against the allied forces of Ahab and Hadadezer of Damascus (along with several other city-states.36

During the reign of King Ahab, the international relationships are intermittent war between Israel and the Aramean state of Damascus.

maked by

A momentary

truce may take place between these two enemies in 854-853 B.C., for King Ahab joins in a strong coalition with Damascus and numerous other city-states against Shalmaneser III. The Assyrian empire is making their first major attempt to subjugate Syria-Palestine. The great battle between the multiple coalition forces from Palestine and the Assyrian army takes plat at the battle of Qarqar in 853 B.C. (on the Orantes River, North of Damascus).37 This is our first direct knowledge of conflict between Assyria and Israel.38

35

Roger M. Young, Evidence For Inerrancy From An Unexpected Source: OT Chronology. Spring (2008).
36

Bible and Spade,

Jack P. Lewis, Archaeological Backgrounds of Biblical People, Foreward by Charles F. Pfeiffer. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1981, 4th Printint), 96.
37

Wright, 155. Lewis, 96.

38

16

THE MONOLITH INSCRIPTION OF SHALMANESER

COLUMN I 1. ASSUR the great lord, the king of all the great gods; ANU the king of the IGIGI and ANUNNAKI, 1 the master of the world; BEL the father of the gods, who determines destiny, 2. who institutes the laws [of heaven and earth]; EA, the wise, the king of the Abyss, the discoverer of cunning arts; SIN the illuminator of heaven (and) earth, the illustrious god; SHAMASH 3. the judge of the (four) zones, the director of mankind; ISHTAR the lady of battles and combats, whose delight (is) conflict; the great gods who love my royalty, 4. my empire, my power, and my government have they magnified; a famous name, an illustrious renown, above all the sovereigns (of the world) have they bestowed on me in abundance! 5. Shalmaneser, the king of the multitudes of men, the sovereign pontiff of ASSUR, the powerful king, the king of ASSYRIA, the king of all the four zones, the Sun-god of the multitudes of men, 6. who governs all the world; the king who fears the gods, the favourite of BEL, the appointed vicar of ASSUR, the august prince, who has traversed
p. 56

7. easy paths and difficult roads, who has trodden the summits of the mountains (and) all (their) ranges, who has received tribute and presents 8. from all regions, who has opened the mountains above and below; before the onset of whose mighty battle the regions (of the world) have yielded, 9. the world has trembled to its foundations before his warlike fury; the male hero who has marched under the protection of ASSUR (and) SHAMASH,the gods his allies; 10. who has no rival among the kings of the four zones (of the world); the royal despot of the world, who has traversed difficult roads, (and) has advanced over mountains and seas; 11. the son of Assur-natsir-pal, the vicegerent of BEL, the priest of ASSUR, whose priesthood has been pleasing to the gods, and who has subjected to his feet all lands; the illustrious descendant of Tukulti-Adar
17

12. who subjugated all his foes, and swept them like the tempest, when ASSUR the great lord in the determination of his [heart] had turned upon me his illustrious eyes, and 13. had called me to the government of ASSYRIA; had given me to hold the mighty weapon which overthrows the rebellious; had [invested] me with the [sacred] crown; the lordship over all lands 14. had granted me; had strongly urged me to conquer and subjugate: in those days at the beginning of my reign, in the first of my (regnal) years, 15. (when) I had seated myself in state on the throne of royalty, I summoned my chariots (and) armies; into the defiles of the country of SIMESI I entered; to ARIDU the fortified city 16. of Ninni I approached. The city I besieged, I captured; its numerous soldiers I slew; its spoil I
p. 57

carried away. I erected a pyramid of heads at the entrance of his city. 17. Their youths and maidens I delivered to the flames. 1 While I remained in ARIDU the tribute of the people of KHARGA, KHARMASA, 18. SIMESI, SIMERA, SIRISHA, (and) ULMANIA, horses trained to the yoke, oxen, sheep, (and) wine I received. From ARIDU 19. I departed; difficult paths (and) inaccessible mountains whose peaks rose to the sky like the point of an iron sword I cut with axes of bronze (and) copper. The chariots 20. (and) troops I caused to cross (them). To the city of KHUPUSHKIA I approached. KHUPUSHKIA with 100 towns which (were) dependent on it I burned with fire. Kakia 21. a king of the country of NAIRI and the rest of his troops trembled before the splendour of my arms, and occupied the strong mountains. After them I ascended the mountains, 22. I fought a hard battle in the midst of the mountains (and) utterly destroyed them. I brought back from the mountains chariots, troops, (and) horses trained to the yoke. The terror of the glory 23. of ASSUR my lord overwhelmed them; they descended (and) took my feet. Taxes and tribute I imposed upon them. From the city of KHUPUSHKIA I departed. 24. To SUGUNIA the stronghold of Arame of ARARAT I approached. The city I besieged, I captured; their numerous soldiers I slew.

18

25. Its spoil I carried away. I erected a pyramid of heads at the entrance of his city; 14 towns which (were) dependent on it I burned with fire. From SUGUNIA
p. 58

26. I departed; to the sea of the country of NAIRI I descended. I purified my weapons in the sea; I sacrificed victims to my gods. In those days an image of my person 27. I made; I inscribed upon it the glory of ASSUR the great lord, my lord, and the mightiness of my empire; I erected (it) overlooking the sea. On my return 28. from the sea I received the tribute of As of the land of GUZAN in abundance, horses, oxen, sheep, wine, (and) two camels with two humps; 29. to my city of ASSUR I brought (them).In the month Iyyar, on the 13th day, I departed from NINEVEH. I crossed the TIGRIS. I passed through the mountains Of KHASAMU and DIKHNUNU. 30. To LALATE a city of Akhuni the son of Adini I approached. The terror of the glory of ASSUR my lord overwhelmed [them, to the mountains ] 31. they ascended. The city I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire. From LALATE I departed. [To KI QA the stronghold] 32. of Akhuni the son of Adini I approached. Akhuni the son of Adini to the multitude [of his troops trusted, and to make] combat and battle [came against] me. Under the protection of ASSUR 33. and the great gods, my lords, I fought with him; I utterly defeated him. I shut him up in his city. From the city of KI QA I departed; 34. to BUR-MARNA 5 a city of Akhuni the son of Adini [I approached. The city] I besieged, I captured. I destroyed with my weapons 300 of his fighting-men. A pyramid of heads 35. I erected [at the entrance to his city]. The tribute of
p. 59 [paragraph continues]

KHAPINI of TIL-ABNA, of Gauni of SA[LLU], of Giri-Dadda

36. [of ASSU], silver, gold, oxen, sheep, (and) wine I received. From the city of BURMARNA I departed; in boats of seal-skin the EUPHRATES 37. I crossed. The tribute of Qata-zilu of KUMMUKH, silver, gold, oxen, sheep, (and) wine I received. To the city of PAQARRUKHBUNI

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38. (and) the cities of Akhuni the son of Adini on the farther bank of the EUPHRATES I approached. I utterly destroyed the country. Its cities to ruins 39. I reduced. I filled the broad plain with the corpses of his warriors; 1300 of his fightingmen I slew with weapons. 40. From the city PAQARRUKHBUNI I departed; to the cities of Mutalli of the city of the GAMGUMIANS I approached. The tribute 41. of Mutalli of the city of the GAMGUMIANS, silver, gold, oxen, sheep, wine, (and) his daughter with a large dowry I received. From the city of GAMGUM 42. I departed; LUTIBU the stronghold of Khnu of the country of the SAMALIANS I approached. Khnu of the country of the SAMALIANS, Sapalulme 43. of the country of the PATINIANS, Akhuni the son of Adini, Sangara of the country of the CARCHEMISHIANS, trusted to their mutual alliance and prepared for 44. battle; they came against me to fight. By the supreme
p. 60

power of NERGAL who marches before me, with the forceful weapons 45. which ASSUR the lord has granted (me) I fought with them, I utterly defeated them. Their combatants 46. I slew with weapons; like HADAD I poured the deluge upon them, I heaped them up in the ditches; with the bodies 47. of their warriors I filled the broad plain; with their blood I dyed the mountains like wool. (His) many chariots [and troops], (and) horses 48. trained for the yoke I took from him. I erected a pyramid of heads at the entrance to his city. His cities I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire. 49. In those days I celebrated the greatness of the great gods; I proclaimed for ever the valour of ASSUR and SHAMASH. A great image of my royalty 50. I made; I inscribed upon it the exploits of my valour (and) the deeds of my glory. At the source of the river SALUARA 51. at the foot of mount AMANUS I erected (it). From mount AMANUS I departed; the ORONTES I crossed; to ALIMUSH 52. the stronghold of Sapalulme the PATINIAN I approached. Sapalulme the PATINIAN to save
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53. his life [called to his aid] Akhuni the son of Adini, Sangara the CARCHEMISHIAN, Khaynu the SAMALIAN, Kate-[zilu the KOMAGENIAN], 54. the QUAN, Pikhirim the CILICIAN, Bur-anate the YASBUKIAN, Ada the country of ASSYRIA COLUMN II 1. 2. I shattered [his forces]; the city I besieged, I captured. 3. his numerous chariots (and) horses trained to the yoke I carried away
p. 61

4. [His fighting-men] I slew [with] weapons. In the midst of this battle Bur-anate 5. my hands captured. The great cities of the PATINIAN I in[vested. The countries] 6. of the Upper [Sea] of SYRIA and of the sea of the setting sun I swept like a mound under a storm. 7. The tribute of the kings of the sea-coast I received. On the shores of the broad sea, straight before me, victoriously 8. I marched. An image of my majesty I made to perpetuate my name for ever, overlooking the sea I e[rected it]. 9. To the mountains of AMANUS I ascended. Logs of cedar and thuya I cut. To the mountains 10. of mount ATALUR where the image of Assur-irbi was set up I marched. I erected an image by the side of his image. From the sea I went [down]; 11. the cities of TAYA , KHAZAZU, NULIA (and) BUT-MU belonging to the PATINIAN I captured; 2800 fighting-men 12. I slew; 14,600 prisoners I carried away. The tribute of Arame the son of Gusi, silver, gold, oxen, 13. sheep, wine, (and) couches of gold and silver I received.In the year of my own eponymy, on the 13th day of the month Iyyar from [NINEVEH] 14. I departed; the TIGRIS I crossed, the mountains of KHASAMU and DIKHNUNU I traversed. To TIL-BURSIP the stronghold of Akhuni
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15. the son of Adini I approached. Akhuni the son of

p. 62 [paragraph continues]

Adini trusted to the multitude of his troops and came to meet me. I utterly defeated him. In [his city] 16. I shut him up. From TIL-BURSIP I departed; in boats of seal-skin the EUPHRATES at its flood I crossed. AL (?) G, TAGI 17. SRUNU, PARIPA, TIL-BASHER (and) DABIGU, six strongholds of Akhuni the son of Adini I [besieged], I captured. His numerous fighting-men 18. I slew: their spoil I carried away; 200 towns which (were) dependent on them I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire. [From] DABIGU I (departed); 19. to SAZAB the stronghold of Sangara the CARCHEMISHIAN I approached. The city I besieged, I captured. Their numerous fighting-men I slew; 20. their spoil I carried away. The towns which (were) dependent on him I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire. The kings of the country [of the HITTITES] all of them, 21. trembled before the splendour of my powerful weapons and my violent onset, and they took my feet. From shun the PATINIAN 22. 3 talents of gold, 100 talents of silver, 300 talents of copper, 300 talents of iron, i000 vases of copper, i000 vestments of embroidered stuff (and) linen, his daughter 23. with her abundant dowry, 20 talents of blue purple, 300 oxen, (and) 5000 sheep, I received. A talent of gold, 2 talents of blue purple, (and) 100 logs of cedar 24. I imposed upon him as tribute; each year I receive (it) in my city of ASSUR. From Khaynu the son

p. 63

of Gabbaru who (dwells) at the foot of mount AMANUS 10 talents of silver, 90 talents 25. of copper, 30 talents of iron, 300 vestments of embroidered stuff (and) linen, 300 oxen, 3000 sheep, 200 logs of cedar 2 homers of cedar-resin 26. (and) his daughter with her dowry I received. I laid upon him as tribute 10 manehs of silver, 200 logs of cedar, (and) a homer of cedar-resin; each year 27. I receive (it). From Aramu the son of Agsi 10 manehs of gold, 6 talents of silver, 500 oxen, (and) s000 sheep I received. From Sangara the CARCHEMISHIAN 2 talents
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28. of gold, 70 talents of silver, 30 talents of copper, 100 talents of iron, 20 talents of blue purple, 500 weapons, his daughter with a dowry, and 100 daughters of his nobles, 29. 500 oxen, (and) 5000 sheep, I received. I laid upon him as tribute a maneh of gold, a talent of silver, (and) 2 talents of blue purple; each year I receive (it). From Qata-zilu 30. the KOMAGENIAN I receive each year 20 manehs of silver (and) 300 logs of cedar.In the eponymy of Assur-bel-kain, on the 13th day of the month Tammuz, I departed from NINEVEH; 31. the TIGRIS I crossed; the mountains of KHASAMU and DIKHNUNU I traversed. At TILBARSIP the stronghold of Akhuni the son of Adini I arrived. Akhuni 32. the son of Adini, before the splendour of my powerful weapons and my violent onset, to save his life, crossed [to the western bank] of the EUPHRATES; 33. to other countries he passed over. By the command of ASSUR the great lord, my lord, the cities of TIL-BARSIP (and) ALIGU [I occupied. The city of] SHAGUQA as my royal city 34. I chose. I settled men of ASSYRIA within (it). I founded palaces within it for the habitation of my
p. 64

majesty. To TIL-BARSIP the name of KAR-SHALMANESER, 35. to NAPPIGU the name of LITA-ASSUR, to ALIGU the name of ATSBAT-LA-KUNU, 3 to RUGULITI the name of QIBIT-[ASSUR] I gave. In those days 36. the city of ANA-ASSUR-UTIR-ATSBAT which the HITTITES call PITRU, which (is) upon the river SAGURA on the farther side of the EUPHRATES, 37. and the city of MUTKNU which is upon the hither side of the EUPHRATES, which TiglathPileser, the royal forefather who went before me had [captured] (and which) in the time of Assur-Irbi (?), 38. the king of ASSYRIA, the king of the country of ARAM had taken away by force, these cities I restored to their (former) position, I settled men of ASSYRIA in them. 39. While I was staying in the city of KAR-SHALMANESER the tribute of the kings of the seacoast and of the kings of the banks of EUPHRATES, silver, gold, lead, copper, 40. vases of copper, oxen, sheep, (and) embroidered and linen vestments I received. From KAR-SHALMANESER I departed; mount SUMU I traversed.

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41. Into the country of BIT-ZAMNI I descended. From BIT-ZAMNI I departed; the mountains of NAMDANU (and) MERKHISU I traversed. Difficult paths (and) mountains 42. inaccessible whose peaks rose to the sky like the point
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of a sword I cut with axes of bronze. I caused chariots (and) troops to pass (them). Into the country of ENZITE in mount SHUA 43. I descended. My hand conquered the country of ENZITE throughout its extent. Their cities I threw down, dug up and burned with fire. Their spoil, their goods, their riches without number 44. I carried away. A great image of my majesty I made; I inscribed upon it the glory of ASSUR the great lord, my lord, and the power of my empire; I set (it) up (in) the city of SALURIA at the foot (?) of QIRQI. 45. From the country of ENZITE I departed; the river ARSANIA I crossed. To the country of SUKHME I approached. UASHTAL its stronghold I captured. The [land] of SUKHME throughout its extent 46. I overthrew, dug up (and) burned with fire. Sua their governor with my hand I captured. From the country of SUKHME I departed; into the country of DAYAENI I descended. The city of DAYAENI 47. with all its territory I conquered. Their cities I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire. Their spoil, their goods (and) abundant wealth I took. From the country of DAYAENI I departed; 48. to ARZASKU the royal city of Arrame of ARARAT I approached. Arramu of ARARAT before the splendour of my powerful weapons 49. and my violent onset trembled and abandoned his city; to the mountains of ADDURI he ascended.
p. 66 [paragraph continues]

After him I ascended the mountains. A hard battle in the mountains I fought;

3400 50. of his soldiers I slew with weapons. Like HADAD I poured a deluge upon them. (With) their blood I dyed (the mountains) like wool. His camp I took from him; 51. his chariots, his litters (?), his horses, his colts, (his) calves, his riches, his spoil, (and) his abundant goods I brought back from the mountains. ARRAMU, to save
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52. his life ascended the inaccessible mountains. In the energy of my manhood I trampled on his country like a wild bull; I reduced his cities to ruins. ARZASKU together with the towns 53. which (were) dependent on it I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire. I erected pyramids of heads at the entrance of his great gate. [Some of the survivors] alive within 54. [the pyramids I immured]; others I impaled on stakes round about the pyramids. From ARZASKU I departed; to the mountains 55. [of ERITIA I ascended]. A great image of my majesty I made. The glory of ASSUR my lord and the mighty deeds of my empire which I had wrought in the land of ARARAT upon it 56. [I inscribed. On the mountains of ERI]TIA I set (it) up. From mount ERITIA I departed; the city of ARAMALE I approached. Its towns I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire. 5 7. From ARAMALE I departed; to the city of ZANZIUNA [I approached], he trembled; he took my feet. 58. Horses trained to the yoke, oxen (and) sheep I received from him. I granted pardon to [him] [On] my [return?], to the sea
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59. of the country of NAIRI 1 I descended; I purified the forceful weapons of ASSUR in the sea. [I sacrificed] victims. [An image of my majesty] I made; the glory 60. of ASSUR the great lord, my lord, the exploits of my valour and the deeds of my renown I inscribed upon it. [From the sea] I departed; to the country of GUZAN 61. I approached. Asu the king of the country of GUZAN with his brothers (and) his sons came forth to meet me [and took the feet] of my majesty. Horses 62. trained to the yoke, oxen, sheep, wine (and) 7 camels with two humps I received from him. A great image of my majesty I made. The glory of ASSUR the great lord, my lord, 63. and the illustrious deeds of my empire which I had wrought in the land of NAIRI I inscribed upon it; in the middle of his city, in his temple, I set (it) up. From the country of GUZAN I departed; 64. to SHILAYA the stronghold of Kki the king of the city of KHUPUSHKIA I approached. The city I besieged, I captured. Their numerous fighting men I slew; 3000 of them as prisoners, their oxen, 65. their sheep, horses, colts, (and) calves to a countless number I carried away; to my city of ASSUR I brought (them). The defiles of the country of ENZITE I entered; by the defiles of the country of KIRRURI
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66. which commands 2 the city of ARBELA I came out.As for Akhuni the son of Adini, who with the permission of the kings my fathers had acquired power and strength, in the beginning of my reign, in the eponymy 67. of the year called after my own name I departed from NINEVEH, TIL-BARSIP his stronghold I besieged, I
p. 68

surrounded him with my soldiers, I fought a battle in the midst of it, 68. I cut down his plantations, I rained upon him arrows (and) javelins, before the splendour of my weapons (and) the glory of ASSUR he trembled and abandoned his city, 69. to save his life he crossed the EUPHRATES,(again) in the second year in the eponymy of Assur-bunya-utsur I pursued after him; SHITAMRAT, a mountain peak on the bank of the EUPHRATES, 70. which hangs from the sky like a cloud, he made his stronghold. By the command of Assur the great lord, my lord, and NERGAL who marches before me, I approached the mountain of SHITAMRAT, 71. within which none of the kings my fathers had penetrated. In three days a soldier scaled the mountain, a hero whose heart led (him) to the fray, (who) climbed up on his feet. The mountain 72. I stormed. Akhuni trusted to the multitude of his troops and came forth to meet me; he drew up (his) array. I launched among them the weapons of ASSUR my lord; I utterly 73. defeated them. I cut off the heads of his soldiers and dyed the mountains with the blood of his fighting-men. Many of his (people) flung themselves against the rocks of the mountains. A hard battle in the midst of his city 74. I fought. The terror of the glory of ASSUR my lord overwhelmed them; they descended (and) took my feet. Akhuni with his troops, chariots, his litters (?) and the many riches of his palace, 75. whose weight could not be estimated, I caused to be brought before me; I transported (them) across the TIGRIS; I carried (them) to my city of ASSUR. As men of my own country I counted the inhabitants.In this same year I marched against the country of MAZAMUA. Into the defiles
p. 69

76. of the country of BUNAIS (?) 1 I entered: the cities of Nikdime (and) Nigdera I approached. They trembled before the splendour of my powerful weapons and violent onset, and
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77. took refuge on the sea in coracles of willow. In boats of seal-skin I followed after them. A hard battle I fought in the middle of the sea (and) utterly defeated them. 78. The sea with their blood I dyed like wool.In the eponymy of Dayan-Assur, on the 14th day of the month Iyyar, I departed from NINEVEH; the TIGRIS I crossed; to the cities 79. of Giammu on the river BALIKH I approached. (Before) the fear of my lordship (and) the splendour of my forceful weapons they trembled and with their own weapons Giammu their lord 80. they slew. Into the cities of KITLALA and TIL-SA-TURAKHI I entered. I introduced my gods into his palaces; I made a feast in his palaces. 81. I opened (his) treasury; I saw his stored-up wealth; his riches (and) his goods I carried away; to my city of ASSUR I brought (them). From KITLALA I departed; to the city of KARSHALMANESER 82. I approached. In boats of seal-skin for the second time I crossed the EUPHRATES at its flood. The tribute of the kings of the farther 7 bank of the EUPHRATES, of Sangar 83. of the city of CARCHEMISH, of Kundashpi of the city of KUMMUKH, of Arame the son of Gusi, of Lalli of the city of MELID, of Khayanu the son of Gabaru,
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84. of Girparuda of the country of the PATINIANS, (and) of Girparuda of the country of the GAMGUMIANS, silver, gold, lead, copper (and) vases of copper 85. in the city of ASSUR-UTIR-ATSBAT on the farther side of the EUPHRATES, which (is) upon the river SAGURI, which the HITTITES 86. call PITRU, I received. From the banks of the EUPHRATES I departed; to the city of KHALMAN I approached. They were afraid to fight (and) took my feet. 87. Silver (and) gold as their tribute I received. I offered sacrifices before DADDA the god of KHALMAN. From KHALMAN I departed. To the cities 88. of Irkhulni the HAMATHITE I approached. The cities of ADENNU, MASHG (and) ARGANA his royal city I captured. His spoil, his goods, 89. (and) the riches of his palaces I removed; his palaces I delivered to the flames. From the city of ARGANA I departed; to the city of QARQARA I approached. 90. QARQARA his royal city I threw down, dug up (and) burned with fire; 1200 chariots, 1200 litters (?) (and) 20,000 men from Dadda-idri
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91. of the [country] of DAMASCUS, 700 chariots, 700 litters (?) (and) 10,000 men from Irkhulni the HAMATHITE, woo chariots (and) 10,000 men from Ahab 92. the ISRAELITE; 5 500 men from the GUANS; 1000 men from the EGYPTIANS; 10 chariots (and) 10,000 men from the IRQANATIANS;
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93. 200 men from Matinu-baal the ARVADITE; 200 men from the USANATIANS; 1 30 chariots (and) 10,000 men 94. from Adunu-baal the SHIANIAN; 1000 camels from Gindibui the ARABIAN; (and) 00 men 95. from Baasha, the son of Rukhubi of the country of AMMON these 12 kings he took to his assistance; to [offer] 96. battle and combat they came against me. With the mighty forces which ASSUR the lord has given (me), with the powerful weapons which NERGAL who goes before me 97. has granted (me), I fought with them; from the city of QARQARA to the city of KIRZAU I utterly defeated them; 14,000 98. of their fighting-men I slew with weapons. Like HADAD I rained a deluge upon them (and) exterminated (?) them. 99. I filled the face of the plain with their wide-spread troops, with (my) weapons I covered with their blood the whole district; 100. (the soil) ceased to give food to its inhabitants; in the broad fields was no room for their graves; with (the bodies of) their men 101. as with a bridge I bound together (the banks of) the ORONTES. In this battle their chariots, their litters(?) 102. (and) their horses bound to the yoke I took from them.39

Importance of the Monolith of Kurkh: There are two main points we can learn from this inscription. First, Shalmaneser is still a force to be reckoned with. He is imposing

39

Records of the Past, 2 Series, Vol. IV., ed. By A.H. Sayce, [1890], pg. 57-71, at sacred-texts.com.

nd

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tribute and burning down cities (he adopts the scorch and burn policy) of those who do not submit to his authority. Second, while this battle is not mentioned in the Bible, yet the record of Shalmaneser speaks of the strength of the coalition forces during the time of Ahab. The three main kings (or forces) that make up Assyria s opposition are: (1) Hadadezer of Damascus with 1,200 chariots, 1,200 cavalry, and 20,000 infantry. (2) Irhulen of Hamath with 700 chariots, 700 cavalry, and 10,000 infantry. (3) Ahab, the Israelite, is the

strongest show of force among the coalition forces. He brings 2,000 chariots and 10,000 infantry (lines 91-92 of the Monolith). The use of horse and chariot as a war machine in Israel s arsenal can trace back to David and Solomon (see 2 Samuel 8:4; 1 Kings 10:26).40 Now Ahab takes possession of the chariots (and more than likely, when the nation divides in two, the chariot cities of Gezer, Megiddo, and Hazor go with Northern Israel). Solomon gathers 1,400 chariots and 12,000 horsemen; Ahab seems to build upon Solomon s mighty army.

No wonder the Assyrian records and the Mesha stele continually refer to Palestine as the land of Omri or the house of Omir. While Omri is dead and gone, yet

his impact lives on through King Ahab. The Biblical record concerning the wars between Israel and Syria is better understood when we realize that Israel is a mighty force for a short time. The accounts of Omri s and Ahab s success should not be viewed as myth any more than the exploits of Saul, David, Solomon, or any of the kings of Judah and Israel are legend. This is why these secular inscriptions are so important to Biblical studies.

40

Wright, 155.

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Conclusion

The ninth century era in Israel during the divided kingdom is well attested in the historical records of Assyria (which are vast) and other countries throughout the Ancient Near East. Four important monuments help put the narrative of First and Second Kings in proper context: The Moabite Stone, the Tel Dan Inscription, the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser, and the Monolith of Kurkh. Each of these particular monuments mentions by name specific Biblical characters (Omri, Ahab, David) that we read of in the books of Samuel and Kings. These monuments also tell why Ahab is so willing to fight against his Aramean enemy; because Ahab s army is vast and powerful. This explains why he is in the forefront of the coalition against Assyria. The records of Shalmaneser (and other Assyrian rulers) may help explain why the prophet Jonah does not want to go and preach to the inhabitants of Nineveh. He wants them to be punished by God, not forgiven, for all of the atrocities they heap upon Syria-Palestine.

This paper helps put the events behind the books of Kings in greater perspective as a student of the Bible. This paper helps the author find the original sources, from some unusual places, that talk about the events Dr. Cloud discusses in class. This historical information should shine more light on the events in the Old Testament and help clear up matters in the text that may not always be crystal clear to the reader. On a personal note, this background information helps strengthen the author s faith every time a Biblical event or character is spoken of in extra-Biblical records!
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Bibliography

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