11. This equation does not account for Hofmeister effects, an objection voiced by Bostrm.

Tafel equation constants appear in a transformation of this equation called the ButlerVolmer equation. In situations in which multiple ion species are present or in which ions are not in equilibrium on either side of a membrane, this equation is generalized as the (*) Goldman equation. This equation states that RT over nF time the natural log of the reaction quotient, subtracted from a reference value, gives the voltage of a cell. For 10 points, name this fundamental equation of electrochemistry. ANSWER: Nernst equation 16. Lene Hau has created substances of this type wherein the speed of light is zero, while a variety dominated by repulsive forces in one dimension is named for Tonks and Girardeau. Their Hamiltonians contain a term proportional to particle density, resulting in the nonlinear (*) Gross-Pitaevskii equation. The first example of one of these substances was produced using laser cooling on rubidium by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman. For 10 points, identify this state of matter in which particles collapse into the lowest quantum state on a macroscopic scale, named for an Indian and a German physicist. ANSWER: Bose-Einstein condensate TB2. Inability to synthesize this compound in the body may be due to loss of activity of the L-gulonolactone oxidase enzyme, and it can be produced industrially using the nickelcatalyzed Reichstein process. Like glucose, it is transported using the Glut1 membrane protein, and this compound is a cofactor for iron absorption. In humans, this compound is necessary for the synthesis of carnitine and collagen, and so a deficiency of this compound leads to spots on the skin, slow-healing wounds, and bleeding gums and is called scurvy. For 10 points each, name this antioxidant vitamin found in large quantities in citrus fruit. ANSWER: L-ascorbic acid [or vitamin C] 3. Regional shifts in concentration in these substances occur in a process called creaming, and the formation of stable aqueous ones is called peptization. The drop in electric potential between the slipping plane and a point in the bulk of these substances is called the zeta potential. These entities destabilize in a clumping process called (*) flocculation, and the scattering particularly of blue wavelengths within them is known as the Tyndall effect. Unlike suspensions, the particles in these substances do not spontaneously settle over time. For 10 points, name these substances that include sols and emulsions, examples of which include paint, milk, and smoke. ANSWER: colloids 7. One variety of this effect produces Kossel lines, and Kikuchi lines are a result of this effect in transmission electron microscopes. Theories of this phenomenon include RayleighSommerfield, and one device which makes use of it consists of concentric alternating black and white rings. One equation describing it equates order times wavelength with twice the distance between crystal planes times the (*) angle, a law named for Bragg, and when this phenomenon occurs through a circular aperture it produces elliptical zones named for Fresnel. When this effect occurs in the far-field limit, it is named for Fraunhofer. For 10 points, name this phenomenon, the bending of light around obstacles. ANSWER: diffraction

16. This structure's namesake valve contains the nodules of Arantius, while the sinus of Morgagni and sinus of Valsalva in this structure are weakened in Loeys-Dietz syndrome. Coarctation of this structure often occurs in Turner's syndrome patients, and it is said to be (*) overriding in patients exhibiting the tetralogy of Fallott. Marfan syndrome may result in an aneurysm of this structure, which divides into the common iliac arteries after descending through an opening behind the diaphragm. This vessel, whose first branches are the coronary arteries, sends blood from the left ventricle to the systemic circulation. For 10 points, name this largest artery in the human body. ANSWER: aorta 2. This chemical is a byproduct in a process to extract magnesium from serpentine mine tailings developed by the Magnola company. Caution must be employed when applying potassium permanganate stains to TLC plates that might contain this compound to avoid releasing toxic gas. This compound twice cleaves a carbon-zinc bond in the mechanism of the (*) Clemmensen reduction, and it is regenerated using pyrohydrolysis from its industrial use as a pickling agent for steel. This compound's limited propensity for redox chemistry leads it to be mixed with nitric acid to form aqua regia. Notably comprising stomach acid, for 10 points, name this strong acid with chemical formula HCl. ANSWER: hydrochloric acid [or aqueous hydrogen chloride; or muriatic acid; accept HCl before mention; prompt on spirits of salt] 6. The Cameron-Martin theorem describes how to account for drift in modeling this phenomenon, and a Feynman thought experiment considered a ratchet that appears to extract work from it. Displacement arising from this process is proportional to the square root of the time elapsed. Modeled one-dimensionally by Smoluchowski, this phenomenon was the subject of the first popularized (*) Langevin equation and is modeled by an almost surely continuous martingale called the Wiener process. Described using kinetic theory in a 1905 paper by Einstein, it was identified in pollen molecules floating in water by a namesake Scottish botanist. For 10 points, name this type of motion in which a small particle moves randomly. ANSWER: Brownian Motion [prompt on random walk until the end of ratchet named after this] 16. The effects of Alagille syndrome on this organ result in xanthomas, and this organ's blood flow is blocked in Budd-Chiari syndrome. Transplant of cells in this organ has been experimentally verified to treat Crigler-Najjar syndrome, and high levels of alanine and aspartate transaminases are key diagnostic markers pertaining to it. Bisected by the falciform ligament, it contains fat-storing (*) Ito cells in its spaces of Disse. Macrophages called Kupffer cells are also found in this organ, where sinusoids rather than capillaries conduct blood delivered from the portal vein. The urea cycle and gluconeogenesis both occur in it, and it is responsible for the production of bile. For 10 points, name this organ that can be afflicted by diseases such as hepatitis and cirrhosis. ANSWER: liver TB1. One analogue of this molecule is synthesized after nitric oxide oxidation, relaxes smooth muscle, and regulates apoptosis and glycogenolysis. This molecule works by dissociating the two regulatory from the two catalytic subunits of its target class of

proteins, a transformation itself effected by the cholera toxin and caffeine, which deregulates the phosphodiesterase that breaks this molecule down. This proteins namesake pathway, also known as the adenylyl cyclase pathway, is triggered by a G-protein coupled receptor and is used in cell communication. For 10 points, name this ATP derivative used in signal transduction as a second messenger. ANSWER: cyclic AMP [or 3-5- cyclic adenosine monophosphate]