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PRE-LAB 7: INTRODUCTION TO MAP INTERPRETATION: DEFORMATION STRUCTURES INTRODUCTION Geologic structure refers to the shapes attained by bodies of rock

which have been deformed by stresses within Earth's crust. Vertical forces may raise rocks from ocean basins to the crests of mountainous areas, or may cause broad plains to subside below the surface of the sea. Horizontal forces may compress and deform thick sedimentary rock sequences adjacent to continents into major mountain systems. Such events of crustal deformation play a major role in counter balancing the effects of erosion throughout geologic time. Evidence of ancient crustal deformation include tilted strata, folds, faults, joint systems, and unconformitites. Where such features are not obvious due to erosion, soil, and vegetative cover, they may be inferred from geologic maps and shown on cross-sectional reconstructions. Attitude of Structures A description of the attitude (orientation in space) of faults or tilted strata may be given concisely in terms of strike and dip; this information may be plotted as a small T-shaped symbol on a geologic map. Strike: The direction (compass bearing) of a line formed by the intersection of a rock layer and an imaginary horizontal plane (Figure 1). Dip: The vertical angle between an inclined rock layer and a horizontal plane. The dip angle in degrees is always measured perpendicular to strike (Figure1). Note that for any given strike, there are two possible dip directions that are 180 degrees apart.

Formation Contacts North Horizontal Surfac e Direction of Dip

Strike

Strike and Dip Symbol 15 North

Angle of Dip 20

Cross-Section View Figure 1: Strike and dip of strata Strike and dip symbols Notation: 60, 25 S Map Symbol:
25

Map View

Vertical Strata:

Horizontal Strata:

Overturned Strata:

25

FOLDS When compressional forces act upon rock layers, the rock layers may respond to this force by folding. Folding without breakage is possible because the layers slip over one another, like the pages of your lab manual if you bend them. Also, the weight of overlying rocks reduces the brittleness and increases the ability of a rock to be deformed plastically, especially in rocks like shale. Fold Nomenclature The axis, or hinge line, of a fold is the line along any given bedding plane marking the position of the sharpest bend (Figure 2). A fold, therefore, has as many axes as it does bedding planes.

The plane which includes all of the axes of a fold in called the axial plane. The axial plane divides the fold symmetrically.

Bedding Plane

Figure 2. Fold nomenclature. Types of Folds There are two fundamental types of folds, anticlines and synclines. An anticline is an arch-like "up" fold and a syncline is a trough-like "down" fold (figure 3). Note that with erosion that the oldest strata are exposed in the core of an anticline, and that the youngest strata are exposed in the core of the syncline.

Older Strata

Younger Strata

Antilcine Figure 3. Block diagrams of an anticline and syncline.

Syncline

Folds occur in a variety of orientations (Figure 4). The attitude of the axial plan and the axis are used to describe fold orientations. Folds may be symmetrical, with limbs dipping at equal angles in opposite directions. The axial plain in a symmetrical fold is vertical. Asymmetrical folds have limbs that dip in opposite directions at unequal angles and the axial plain is not vertical. A fold is an overturned fold when both of the limbs of as asymmetrical fold dip in the same direction because one of the limbs has been tilted past vertical making some of the strata upside-down. A special type of overturned fold, called isoclinal, is recognized when both limbs of an overturned fold are equally dipping in the same direction.

Figure 4: Block diagrams of a symmetrical anticline (A), asymmetrical anticline (B), overturned anticline (C), and an isoclinal anticline

Figure 5. Plunging anticline When a fold axis is not vertical, the fold is said to plunge (Figure 5). The plunge of a fold axis has one direction. Therefore, a line on a map representing the fold axis may be drawn with an arrow at one end indicating the direction of plunge. Small arrows that are perpendicular to the fold axis may be drawn to represent the direction that the limbs of the fold are dipping within the plunging fold (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Block diagram showing the plunging folds and map symbols for a plunging anticline and a plunging syncline.

Outcrop Patterns of Folded Strata Horizontal Strata: Undeformed horizontal rock layers exhibit characteristic map patterns which will parallel topographic contour lines. Gentle slopes have wider outcrop belts; steeper slopes have narrower outcrop patterns (Figure 7)

Figure 7. Map and perspective view of horizontal strata.

Inclined Strata: Tilted layers of rock form roughly parallel outcrop bands in map view. Variations in outcrop width depend on the dip of the strata; gently dipping beds have wider outcrop patterns than steeply dipping beds of the same thickness. Unless overturned, the beds dip in the direction of the youngest rocks. When cut by streams, dipping beds form a "V" in the direction of dip (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Map and perspective view of inclined or asymmetrically folded strata.

Domes: Doubly-plunging anticlines form a circular outcrop pattern with the oldest rocks exposed in the center (Figure 9). Streams cuts form "Vs" in the direction of dip, a characteristic common to all types of tilted strata.

Figure 9. Map and perspective view of dome strata.

Basins: Structural basins ("circular" synclines) form bull's-eye outcrop patterns similar to domes. However, basins have the youngest rocks exposed in the center and stream-cut "Vs" point tooward the center of the structure (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Map and perspective view of a structural basin.

FAULTS AND FAULT NOMENCLATURE The brittle response of rock layers to deformational forces results in fractures or joints within the rocks. A fault is a fracture along which there has been movement parallel to the break. The description and classification of faults is complex, depending on such factors as fault dip, map pattern, the separation of strata seen in cross-section, and the direction of slip. The surface along which movement takes place is the fault plane. The mass of rock above the fault plane is the hanging wall, and the block below the fault plane is the footwall. Displacement refers to the amount of movement measured along the fault plane. Types of Faults http://www.dukelabs.com/Abstracts%20and%20Papers/1CManual0209_files/image004.jpg

Normal Fault - A fault in which the hanging wall has apparently moved downward relative to the footwall (based on separation of strata in a cross-section perpendicular to the fault strike.)

Figure 11 - Normal fault.

Reverse Fault- A fault in which the hanging wall has apparently moved upward relative to the footwall.

Figure 12. Reverse fault Thrust Fault - A relatively flat-dipping fault in which the hanging wall has moved upward over the footwall. Such movement commonly results in older rocks being placed above younger rock. Thrust faults have low dip angles and may have displacements measured in kilometers. Thrust fault- see http://earthsci.org/processes/struct/fault/thrust.gif

Strike slip Fault - A fault in which slip has been essentially horizontal. Such faults may be hundreds of kilometers long and have displacement measured in kilometers. The San

Andreas fault in California is and example of strike-slip faulting).

Figure 14. Strike slip fault.

Fault Symbols The different types of faults are represented on geologic mas by the following symbols: 1. Trace of a dip-slip fault; relative movement illustrated by "U" (up) and "D" (down). U D

2. Trace of inclined fault plane inclined at 30 to the southeast.

30

3.

Trace of strike-slip fault; arrows indicate relative motion.

4.

Trace of a thrust fault; teeth are on the hanging wall (upper block)

General Rules for Faults 1. The oldest rocks are exposed on the upthrown block of a fault. 2. Beds will show displacement in the direction in which they dip on the upthrown block. 3. Anticlines cut by faults will have wider outcrop patterns on the upthrown block 4. Synclines cut by faults will have narrower outcrop patterns on the upthrown blocks.

Due Date: June 12, 2011 11:59 PM


Instructions: Review map interpretation documents. These provide answers for questions in Labs 9-11. Please complete answer sheets and upload. be sure and save for future reference.

Lab 7 Geologic Maps

Go to the following page created by Gary J. Calderone (Glendale Community College), Michelle Hall-Wallace, and Robert F. Butler (University of Arizona) Answers in Part 5 are provided, but you should try to answer first, so you can complete subsequent labs http://www.gc.maricopa.edu/appliedscience/gjcnsf/index1.html
Visit part 1 1. List 3 geologic structures shown on geologic maps. REMEMBER THESE FOR FUTURE LABS. Another set of strucutures that can be identified from map patterns are basins and domes- see Lab7GeomapInterp document! 2. What is a geologic map? 3. Do geologic maps contain information that could make us safer? Explain and list some hazards 4. What is a geologic cross section? Visit part 5 1. Answer the questions on page

http://www.gc.maricopa.edu/appliedscience/gjcnsf/gmap/gmap3e.html 1. 2. 3.

2. Answer questions on page

http://www.gc.maricopa.edu/appliedscience/gjcnsf/gmap/gmap15a.html 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 3. Answer question on page http://www.gc.maricopa.edu/appliedscience/gjcnsf/gmap/gmap32.html 1. 2. 3. 4.


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