A

SEMINAR REPORT
On
SUMMER TRAINING
Undergone at
Pyrotech Electronics Pvt. Ltd., Udaipur
Submitted
By
Hussain Cementwala
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
GLOBAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ITS -1, IT Park, EPIP, SITAPURA, JAIPUR
I
DEPARTMENT
Of
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Hussain Cementwala of Electronics and Communication Dept. of
2008- 2012 batch presented her work in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in Electronics & Communication,
submitted in Rajasthan Technical University, Kota.
He has undergone 30 days of industrial training from 13-06-2011 to 13-07-2011 at
PYROTECH ELECTRONICS PVT. LTD., UDAIPUR which is part of curriculum as
prescribed by RTU.
He has shown the full report of her work in very efficient and attractive manner.
Date: / / 2011
Place: Jaipur

Mr. J.P. Agarwal Mr. Pranay Sharma
(HOD, ECE Dept.) (Asst. Professor)



II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The beatitude, bliss and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any task
would not be completed without the expression of simple virtues to the people who made it
possible.
I feel immense pleasure in carrying my heartiest thanks and gratitude to respected
Faculty Member Mr. J.P. Agarwal for their guidance, suggestion and encouragement.
The Acknowledgement would not complete if I fail to express my deep sense of Obligation
to almighty God and my family, without their help this work would not have been
completed.
Last but not least, I thank all the concerned ones who directly or indirectly helped me in this
work.
Signature
Hussain Cementwala
PAGE INDEX
III
Topic Page No.
ABSTRACT
1.
1.1 HEADING
1.2 HEADING
2. TITLE OF CHAPTER TWO
2.1 HEADING
2.2 HEADING
:
:
:
:
:
N-1
N. CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX A. POWER POINT SLIDES
IV
FIGURE INDEX
Figure Page No.
1.1 Figure 1 About
1.2 Figure 2 About
2.1 Figure 3 About
2.2 Figure 4 About
: :
: :
: :
N Figure N About
V
PYROTECH ELECTRONICS PVT. LTD.
About Pyrotech
Pyrotech a renowned company functioning in the field of Control room Equipments,
Electronics and Sensors has climbed up the value chain by collaborating with Global
Companies like Planar (Large Video Screen), Subklew (Mosaic Tile System), Karus &
Naimer (Switches), Weigel Meters (Meters) and others. Truly it can now be referred as a
CONTROL ROOM SOLUTIONS PROVIDER
History
Pyrotech was established by a dedicated team of four energetic technocrats in 1976. A
small house in the small city of Udaipur witnessed the battling wits and wisdom of four
visionaries, capitalizing their intellect to sketch out a fresh new concept.
The quantum of success can be measured from the fact that the Company has registered
an average growth rate of 55% since its inception. The reason behind the success is
strong emphasis on customer satisfaction in all respects. Over the past three decades the
organization has been registered as an ISO 9001, EMS 14001, OHSAS 18001.
Products
1. Turnkey Control Room Solutions
2. Mosaic Panels and Desks
3. Industrial and Office Furniture
4. Local Instrument Racks and Enclosures
5. Large Video Screen (LVS)
6. Explosion Proof and Purge Panels
7. Gas analyzer Panel/Shetter
8. Relay Panels
9. Electrical Panels
10. Mimic Panels
11. Marshalling Panels
12. PLC panels
13. LT Switching Panels
14. MCC Panels
15. Pneumatic Panels
16. Centralized control desks
17. Computer controls and CRT desks
18. Test bench
19. 19 Rack Enclosure
Pyrotech Pressure in India
Head Office:-
Pyrotech Electronics Pvt. Ltd. Unit-II
E-329, Road No. 12 MIA, Udaipur-313003, (Rajasthan) India
Tel no.: 0294-2492122/31/34
Fax No.: 0294-2492130,2414458
Mobile No.: 09352501210
Email: pyrotech@pyrotechindia.com
info@pyrotech-furniture.com
VI
Head Marketing Office:-
Pyrotech Marketing & Projects Pvt. Ltd.
917-920 International Trade Tower Nehru Place, Delhi- 110019
Mobile No.: 09312269440
Tel No.: 011-26464922,26419702,26423648
Fax.: 011-26464922, 26965932
Email: pmppl@pyrotechindia.com
Southern Regional Office:-
Mr. P.D. Raghuveer
Pyrotech Southern Region office
No.22, NHCS Layout, 13th Main Road Vijaynagar, Bangalore-560040
Mobile No.: 09342816887
Tel No.:080-23509680
Fax No.:080-23509680
Email: bangalore@pyrotechindia.com
Our Regional Offices:-
Baroda
Mr. Y.K. Shah
Email: baroda@pyrotechindia.com
Ahmedabad
Mr. K.G. Singh
Email: ahmedabad@pyrotechindia.com
Bhopal
Mr. Sanjiv Bisht
Email: bhopal@pyrotechindia.com
Mumbai
Mr. Sanjiv P. Nambiar
Email: hp@pyrotechindia.com
Hyderabad
Mr. Hridesh Porwal
Email: hyderabad@pyrotechindia.com
Kolkata
Mr. Prasantha Mulujee
Email: kolkata@pyrotechindia.com
VII
VIII
1. INTRODUCTION
Often signals we wish to process are in the time-domain, but in order to process them more
easily other information, such as frequency, is required. Mathematical transforms translate
the information of signals into different representations
Image processing
Why do we use image processing?
Image processing has been developed in response to three major problem concerned
with pictures
A.) Picture digitization & coding to facilitate transmission, printing and storage of
pictures
B.) Picture enhancement and restoration in order, for eg. ,to interpret more easily
pictures of the surface of other planets taken by various probes
C.) picture segmentation and description as an early stage to machine vision.
Image processing now a days refers mainly to the processing of digital images
What is an image ?
A panchromatic image is a 2 d light intensity function f(x,y) where x and y are spatial
co-ordinates and the value of F at(x,y) is propotional to the brightness of the sense at
that point. If we have a multi spectral image F(x,y) is a vector each component of which
indicate the brightness of the scene at point (x,y) at the corresponding spectral band
3.what is a digital image ?
IX
A digital image in an image f(x,y) that has been disceretised both in spatial coordinate
and in brightness .it is represented by 2 d integer array or a series of 2 d array. One for
each color band .the digitized brightness value in called gray level,each element of the
array is called pixel or pl,derived from the term picture element .
1.1 History of image processing:-
Many of the techniques of digital image processing, or digital picture processing as it often
was called, were developed in the 1960s at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Bell Laboratories, University of Maryland, and a few other
research facilities, with application to satellite imagery, wire-photo standards conversion,
medical imaging, videophone, character recognition, and photograph enhancement. The
cost of processing was fairly high, however, with the computing equipment of that era. That
changed in the 1970s, when digital image processing proliferated as cheaper computers and
dedicated hardware became available. Images then could be processed in real time, for
some dedicated problems such as television standards conversion. As general-purpose
computers became faster, they started to take over the role of dedicated hardware for all but
the most specialized and computer-intensive operations.
X
With the fast computers and signal processors available in the 2000s, digital image
processing has become the most common form of image processing and generally, is used
because it is not only the most versatile method, but also the cheapest.
Digital image processing technology for medical applications was inducted into the Space
Foundation Space Technology Hall of Fame in 1994.
1.2 Typical operations of image processing:-
Euclidean geometry transformations such as enlargement, reduction, and rotation
Color corrections such as brightness and contrast adjustments, color mapping, color
balancing, quantization, or color translation to a different color space
Digital compositing or optical compositing (combination of two or more images),
which is used in film-making to make a "matte"
Interpolation , demosaicing, and recovery of a full image from a raw image format
using a Bayer filter pattern
Image registration , the alignment of two or more images
Image differencing and morphing
Image recognition , for example, may extract the text from the image using optical
character recognition or checkbox and bubble values using optical mark recognition
Image segmentation
High dynamic range imaging by combining multiple images
Geometric hashing for 2-D object recognition with affine invariance

XI
2. IMAGE PROCESSING:
Image processing is a technique to enhance raw images received from
cameras/sensors placed on satellites, space probes and aircrafts or pictures taken in
normal day-to-day life in various applications.
Most image processing techniques involve treating the image as a two-dimensional
signal and applying standard signal processing techniques to it.
May remove noise.
Improve the contrast of the image.
Remove blurring caused by movement of the camera during image acquisition.
2.1 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING:-
A few decades ago, image processing was done largely in the analog domain,
chiefly by optical devices. Analog image processing refers to the alteration of image
through electrical means. These optical methods are still essential to applications
such as holography.
Due to the significant increase in computer speed, these techniques are increasingly
being replaced by digital image processing methods.
Digital processing image : problems and applications
The term digital image processing generally refered to processing of a two
dimensional picture by any two dimensional data. A Digital image is an array of real
or complex number represented by a finite number of bits. An image given in the
form of a transparency, slide. Photograph or chart is first digitized and stored as
matrix of binary digits in computer memory. this digitized image can then be
processed and displayed correctly on a high resolution TC monitor.
Digital image processing has a broad spectrum of application , such as remote
sensing via satellite and other space craft, image transmission and storage for
XII
business application, medical processing , radar . sonar, and robotics automated
inspection of industrial parts.
XIII
2.2 COMPONENT OF IMAGE PROCESSING SYSTEM
As recently as the mid 1980s numorous models of image processing system being
solid throughout the world were rather substantial peripheral device that attached to
equally substantial to host computer . late in 1980 and early in 1990 the market
shifted o image processing hardware in the form of single board designed to be
compatible with industry standard busses and to fit into the engineering work station
cabinets and personal computer.
Although large scale image processing system still are being sold for massive
imaging application , such as processing of satellite images ,the trend continous
toward miniaturizing and blending of genral purpose small computers with
specialzed image processing hardware.
XIV
With reference to sensing, to elements are required to acquire digital images. The
first is a physical device that is sensitive to the energy radiated by the object we wish
to image . the second, is called as a digitizer is a device for converting the output oh
the physical sensing into digital form .For instance in a digital video camera, the
sensor produces an electrical output proportional to light intensity the digitizer
converts these output to digital data.
Specialized image processing hardware usually consist of digitizer just mentionaed ,
plus hardware that performs other primitive operations, such as airtmatic logic unit
which performs arithmetic and logical operations. This type of hardware is called
front end subsystem, and has high speed.
The computer in an image processing system is designed to achieve required level of
performance. Almost any equipped pc type is suitable for image processing task.
XV
Software for image processing consist of specialized modules that perform specific
tasks. A well designed package also includes the capability for the user to write code
that, as a minimum, utilizes the specialized module.
Mass storage capability is a must in image processing application. An image of size
1024*1024 pixels is an 8 bit quantity that requires 1 Mb of storage if the image is
not compressed. Digital storage for image processing falls into three category
1 short term storage for use during image processing
2 on-line storage for relatively fast recall
3 archival storage
Image displace in use today are mainly coloured tv monitors. Monitors are driven by
the output of image and graphics display cards. In some cases it is necessary to have
stereo displace.
Hardcopy devices for recording images includes laser printers. inkjet printers , heat
sensitive devices and digital units, such as optical and CD ROM disk.for
presentation , image are displayed on film transparency or ina a digital medium. If
image projection equipment is used.
Networking is almost a default function in nay computer system in used today. The
key consideration in image transmission is bandwidth.in dedicated networks this
typiacally in not a problem but communication with remote site via the internet are
not always as efficient. This situation is improving quicly as a result of optical fibre
and other broadband technologies.
3. STEPS IN IMAGE PROCESSING
Image acquisition
Preprocessing
Segmentation
XVI
Representation and Description
Recognition
Interpretation
Knowledge base
3.1 IMAGE ACQUSIITION
Image data is, conceptually, a three-dimensional array of pixels. Each of the three arrays in
the example is called a band. The number of rows specifies the image height of a band, and
the number of columns specifies the image width of a band.
Monochrome images, such as a grayscale image, have only one band. Color images have
three or more bands, although a band does not necessarily have to represent color. For
example, satellite images of the earth may be acquired in several different spectral bands,
such as red, green, blue, and infrared.
In a color image, each band stores the red, green, and blue (RGB) components of an
additive image, or the cyan, magenta, and yellow (CMY) components of a three-color
subtractive image, or the cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK) components of a four-
color subtractive image. Each pixel of an image is composed of a set of samples. For an
RGB pixel, there are three samples; one each for red, green, and blue.
An image is sampled into a rectangular array of pixels. Each pixel has an (x,y) coordinate
that corresponds to its location within the image. The x coordinate is the pixel's horizontal
location; the coordinate is the pixel's vertical location. Within JAI, the pixel at location (0,0)
is in the upper left corner of the image, with the x coordinates increasing in value to the
right and y coordinates increasing in value downward. Sometimes the x coordinate is
referred to as the pixel number and the y coordinate as the line number.
XVII
3.2 SEGMENTATION
Segmentation refers to the process of partitioning a digital image into
multiple segments (sets of pixels, also known as super pixels). The goal of segmentation is
to simplify and/or change the representation of an image into something that is more
meaningful and easier to analyze. Image segmentation is typically used to locate objects and
boundaries (lines, curves, etc.) in images. More precisely, image segmentation is the
process of assigning a label to every pixel in an image such that pixels with the same label
share certain visual characteristics.
The result of image segmentation is a set of segments that collectively cover the entire
image, or a set of contours extracted from the image (see edge detection). Each of the pixels
in a region are similar with respect to some characteristic or computed property, such
as color, intensity, or texture.
3.3 REPRESENTATION AND DESCRIPTION
After segmentation, the image needs to be described and interpreted.
Representation: an object may be represented by its boundary.
Description: the object boundary may be described by its length, orientation, or number of
XVIII
Concavities.
4. SIGNAL PROCESSING TECHNIQUE
4.1 ONE DIMENSIONAL TECHNIQUE
Resolution.
Dynamic range.
Bandwidth.
Filtering.
Differential operators.
Edge detection.
Domain modulation
4.2 TWO- DIMENSIONAL TECHNIQUE:-
Image representation.
Image preprocessing.
Image enhancement.
Image restoration.
Image analysis.
Image reconstruction.
Image data compression.
XIX
5. IMAGING GEOMETRY
TRANSLATION
SCALING .
ROTATION
PERSPECTIVE TRANSFORMATION
5.1 TRANSLATION
Image translation is a term related to machine translation services for mobile devices
(mobile translation). Image translation refers to an additional service provided by mobile
translation applications where the user can take a photo of some printed text (menu list, road
sign, document etc.), apply optical character recognition (OCR) technology to it to extract
any text contained in the image, and then have this text translated into a language of their
choice.
5.2 MAGNIFICATION
XX
This is usually done to improve the scale of display for visual interpretation or
sometimes to match the scale of one image to other.
5.3 REDUCTION
Image reduction increases the incidence
5.4 SCALING
Scaling is the process of resizing a digital image. Scaling is a non-trivial process that
involves a trade-off between efficiency, smoothness and sharpness. As the size of an
image is increased, so the pixels which comprise the image become increasingly visible,
making the image appears "soft". Conversely, reducing an image will tend to enhance its
smoothness and
of high frequencies and causes several
Pixels to collapse into one.
The image is magnified vertically and reduced horizontally.
XXI
5.4 ROTATION
Image rotation is performed by computing the inverse
Transformation for every destination pixel.
One of the techniques of rotation is 3-pass shear rotation
5.5 IMAGE
ENHANCEMENT
Image enhancement is the
improvement of digital image
quality, without knowledge
about the source of
degradation To make an
image lighter or darker, or to
increase or decrease contrast,
pseudo coloring, noise
filtering, sharpening and
magnifying.
Programs -->image enhancements -->image editors.
The aim of image enhancement is to improve the interpretability or perception of
information in image
EXAMPLE:
XXII
1. NOISE SMOOTHING.
2. CONTRAST MANIPULATION.
6. IMAGE RECTIFICATION AND REGISTRATION
Geometric distortions manifest themselves as errors in the position of a
pixel relative to other pixels in the scene and with respect to their absolute
position within some defined map projection. If left uncorrected, these
geometric distortions render any data extracted from the image useless. This
is particularly so if the information is to be compared to other data sets, be it
XXIII
from another image or a GIS data set. Distortions occur for many reasons.
Screen Color Gun
Assignment
Blue Gun
Green Gun
Red Gun
Green
Infrared
Red
6.1 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
For instance distortions occur due to changes in platform attitude (roll, pitch and yaw),
altitude, earth rotation, earth curvature, panoramic distortion and detector delay. Most of
these distortions can be modeled mathematically and are removed before you buy an image.
Changes in attitude however can be Difficult to account for mathematically and so a
procedure called image Rectification is performed. Satellite systems are however
geometrically quite Stable and geometric rectification is a simple procedure based on a
mapping Transformation relating real ground coordinates, say in easting and northing, to
image line and pixel coordinates.
6.2 RECTIFICATION
Rectification is a process of geometrically correcting an image so that it can be represented
on a planar surface , conform to other images or conform to a map. That is, it is the process
by which geometry of an image is made plan metric. It is necessary when accurate area,
distance and direction Measurements are required to be made from the imagery. It is
achieved by Transforming the data from one grid system into another grid system using a
Geometric transformation. Rectification is not necessary if there is no distortion in the
image. For example, if an image file is produced by scanning or digitizing a paper map that
is in the desired projection system, then that image is already planar and
does not require rectification unless there is some skew or rotation of the image. Scanning
and digitizing produce images that are planar, but do not contain any map coordinate
information. These images need only to be geo-referenced, which is a much simpler process
XXIV
than rectification. In many cases, the image header can simply be updated with new map
coordinate information. This involves redefining the map coordinate of the upper left corner
of the image and the cell size (the area represented by each pixel). Ground Control Points
(GCP) are the specific pixels in the input image for which the output map coordinates are
known. By using more points than
necessary to solve the transformation equations a least squares solution may be found that
minimizes the sum of the squares of the errors. Care should be exercised when selecting
ground control points as their number, quality and distribution affect the result of the
rectification.
Once the mapping transformation has been determined a procedure called resampling is
employed. Resampling matches the coordinates of image pixels to their real world
coordinates and writes a new image on a pixel by pixel basis. the reference image, the pixels
are resample so that new data file values for the output file can be calculated.
7. IMAGE ENHANCEMENT TECHNIQUES
Image enhancement techniques improve the quality of an image as Perceived by a human.
These techniques are most useful because many satellite Images when examined on a color
display give inadequate information for image interpretation. There is no conscious effort to
improve the fidelity of the image with regard to some ideal form of the image. There exists
a wide variety of techniques for improving image quality. The contrast stretch, density
slicing, edge enhancement, and spatial filtering are the more commonly used techniques.
Image enhancement is attempted after the image is corrected for geometric and radiometric
distortions. Image enhancement methods are applied separately to each band of a
multispectral image. Digital techniques Image Rectification Input and reference image with
GCP locations, using polynomial equations the grids are fitted together, using resampling
method the output grid pixel values are assigned (source modified from ERDAS Field
guide) Digital Image Processing have been found to be most satisfactory than the
photographic technique for image enhancement, because of the precision and wide variety
of digital processes
7.1 CONTRAST
Contrast generally refers to the difference in luminance or grey level values in an image and
is an important characteristic. It can be defined as the ratio of the maximum intensity to the
minimum intensity over an image. Contrast ratio has a strong bearing on the resolving
XXV
power and detectability of an image. Larger this ratio, more easy it is to interpret the image.
Satellite images lack adequate contrast and require contrast improvement.
7.1.1 Contrast Enhancement
Contrast enhancement techniques expand the range of brightness values in an image so that
the image can be efficiently displayed in a manner desired by the analyst. The density
values in a scene are literally pulled farther apart, that is, expanded over a greater range.
The effect is to increase the visual contrast between two areas of different uniform densities.
This enables the analyst to discriminate easily between areas initially having a small
difference in density.
7.1.2 Linear Contrast Stretch
This is the simplest contrast stretch algorithm. The grey values in the original image and the
modified image follow a linear relation in this algorithm. A density number in the low range
of the original histogram is assigned to extremely black and a value at the high end is
assigned to extremely white. The remaining pixel values are distributed linearly between
these extremes. The features or details that were obscure on the original image will be clear
in the contrast stretched image. Linear contrast stretch operation can be represented
graphically. To provide optimal contrast and color variation in color composites the small
range of grey values in each band is stretched to the full brightness range of the output or
display unit.
7.1.3 Non-Linear Contrast Enhancement
In these methods, the input and output data values follow a non-linear transformation. The
general form of the non-linear contrast enhancement is Defined by y = f (x), where x is the
input data value and y is the output data value. The non-linear contrast enhancement
techniques have been found tobe useful for enhancing the color contrast between the nearly
classes and subclasses of a main class.
A type of non linear contrast stretch involves scaling the input data logarithmically. This
enhancement has greatest impact on the brightness values found in the darker part of
histogram. It could be reversed to enhance values in brighter part of histogram by scaling
the input data using an inverse .
XXVI
7.2 SPATIAL FILTERING
A characteristic of remotely sensed images is a parameter called spatial Frequency defined
as number of changes in Brightness Value per unit distance for any particular part of an
image. If there are very few changes in Brightness Value once a given area in an image, this
is referred to as low frequency area. Conversely, if the Brightness Value changes
dramatically over short distances, this is an area of high frequency. Spatial filtering is the
process of dividing the image into its constituent Spatial frequencies, and selectively
altering certain spatial frequencies to Emphasize some image features. This technique
increases the analysts ability to discriminate detail. The three types of spatial filters used in
remote sensor data processing are : Low pass filters, Band pass filters and High pass filters.
7.2.1 Low-Frequency Filtering in the Spatial Domain
Image enhancements that de-emphasize or block the high spatial frequency Detail is low-
frequency or low-pass filters. The simplest low-frequency filter Evaluates a particular input
pixel brightness value, BVin, and the pixels Surrounding the input pixel, and outputs a new
brightness value, BVout, that is the mean of this convolution. The size of the
neighbourhood convolution
Mask or kernel is usually 3x3, 5x5, 7x7, or 9x9. The simple smoothing operation will,
however, blur the image, especially at the edges of objects. Blurring becomes more severe
as the size of the kernelincreases. Using a 3x3 kernel can result in the low-pass image being
two lines and
two columns smaller than the original image. Techniques that can be applied to deal with
this problem include artificially extending the original image
beyond its border by repeating the original border pixel brightness values or replicating the
averaged brightness values near the borders, based on the image behavior within a view
pixels of the border. The most commonly used low pass filters are mean, median and mode
filters.
7.2.2 High-Frequency Filtering in the Spatial Domain
High-pass filtering is applied to imagery to remove the slowly varying components and
enhance the high-frequency local variations. Brightness values tend to be highly correlated
in a nine-element window. Thus, the high frequency filtered image will have a relatively
XXVII
narrow intensity histogram. This suggests that the output from most high-frequency filtered
images must be
contrast stretched prior to visual analysis.
7.2.3 Edge Enhancement in the Spatial Domain
For many remote sensing earth science applications, the most valuable information that may
be derived from an image is contained in the edges surrounding various objects of interest.
Edge enhancement delineates these edges and makes the shapes and details comprising the
image more conspicuous and perhaps easier to analyze. Generally, what the eyes see as
pictorial edges
are simply sharp changes in brightness value between two adjacent pixels. The edges may
be enhanced using either linear or nonlinear edge enhancement techniques.
7.2.4 Linear Edge Enhancement
A straightforward method of extracting edges in remotely sensed imagery is the application
of a directional first-difference algorithm and approximates the first derivative between two
adjacent pixels. The algorithm produces the first difference of the image input in the
horizontal, vertical, and diagonal directions. The Laplacian operator generally highlights
point, lines, and edges in the image and suppresses uniform and smoothly varying regions.
Human vision physiological research suggests that we see objects in much the same way.
Hence, the use of this operation has a more natural look than many of the other edge-
enhanced images.
7.2.5 Band rationing
Sometimes differences in brightness values from identical surface materials are caused by
topographic slope and aspect, shadows, or seasonal changes in 90 Digital Image Processing
sunlight illumination angle and intensity. These conditions may hamper the ability of an
interpreter or classification algorithm to identify correctly surface materials or land use in a
remotely sensed image. Fortunately, ratio transformations of the remotely sensed data can,
in certain instances, be applied to reduce the effects of such environmental conditions. In
addition to minimizing the effects of environmental factors, ratios may also provide unique
XXVIII
information not available in any single band that is useful for discriminating between soils
and vegetation.
8. IMAGE TRANSFORMATION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Two dimensional unitary transforms play an important role in image processing. The term
image transform refers to a class of unitary matrices used for representation of images.
In analogy with I-D signals that can be represented by an orthogonal series of basis
functions , we can similarly represent an image in terms of a discrete set of basis arrays
called basis images. These are generated by unitary matrices.
Alternatively an
( N N )
image can be represented as
2
1 ( N )
vector. An image
transform provides a set of coordinates or basis vectors for the vector space.
8.2 I-D-Transforms:
For a one dimensional sequence
{ } 0 1 1 u( n ), n , ......N
representing a vector
r
u
of size N , a unitary transform is :
r
v
= A
r
u

v(k) =
1
0

N
n
a( k,n )u( n )
, for 0 1 K N (1) (1)
where
1
A =
T
A
*
T *
(unitary)
This implies ,
r
u
=
T
A
*
r
v
XXIX
or, u(n) =
1
0

N
k
v( k )a * ( k , n )
, for 0n 1 N (2) Equation
(2) can be viewed as a series representation of sequence u(n) . The columns of
T
A
*
i.e the vectors
r
*
k
a

{
} 0 1
T
*
a ( k,n ) , n N are called the basis vectors of A
.
The series coefficients v(k) give a representation of original sequence u(n) and are useful in
compression , filtering , feature extraction and other analysis.
8.3 2-D ORTHOGONAL & UNITARY TRANSFORMS:
As applied to image processing, a general orthogonal series expansion for an N N image
is a pair of transformations of the form :
v(k,l) =
1
0
N
k ,l
m,n
u( m,n )a ( m,n )

, 0 1 k,l N (3)
u(m,n) =
1
0
N
*
k ,l
k ,l
v( k,l )a ( m,n )

, 0 1 m,n N (4)
where { }
k,l
a ( m,n )
is called an image transform.
It is a set of complete orthogonal discrete basis functions satisfying the properties:-
1) Orthonormality:
1
0
/ /
N
*
k,l
k ,l
m,n
a ( m,n )a ( m,n )

=
( k k ,l l )
2) Completeness :
1
0
N
k
k ,l
k ,l
k,l
a ( m,n )a ( m ,n )

=
( m m ,n n )
The elements v
( k,l )
are transform coefficients and V
{ } v( k,l )
is the transformed
image.
The orthonomality property assures that any truncated series expansion of the form
XXX
P,Q
U ( m,n )
1
0
P
k

1
0
Q
*
k,l
l
v( k,l )a ( m,n )

, for
P N
,
Q N
will minimize the sum of squares error
1
2
2
0

N
e P,Q
m,n
u( m,n ) U ( m,n )

1

]
where coefficients
v( k,l )
are given by (3).
The completeness property assures that this error will be zero for
P Q N
8.4 SEPARABLE UNITARY TRANSFORM
The number of multiplications and additions required to compute transform coefficients
v( k,l )
in equation(3) is
4
O( N )
. This is too large for practical size images.
If the transform is restricted to be separable,
i.e
k ,l k l
a ( m,n ) a ( m)b ( n )
a( k,m)b( l ,n )
where { } 0 1 1
k
a ( m),k ( )n
,
and { ) } 0 1 1
l
b ( n ),l ( N
are 1D complete orthogonal sets of basis vectors.
On imposition of completeness and orthonormality properties we can show that A

{ } a( k,m) ,
and B

{ } b( l ,n )
are unitary matrices.
XXXI
i.e
T
*
AA
=
I
=
T *
A A and
T
*
BB
=
I
=
T *
B B
Often one chooses B same as A

v( k,l )
=
1
0
N
m,n
a( k,m)u( m,n )a( l ,n )

V = A U
T
A
(5)
And
u( m,n )
=
1
0
N
* *
k ,l
a ( k,m)v( k,l )a ( l ,n )

U =
T
*
A
V
*
A
(6)
Eqn (5) can be written as
T
V
=
T
A( AU )

Eqn (5) can be performed by first transforming each column of U and then
transforming each row of the result to obtain rows of
V
Basis Images : Let
*
k
a
r
denote
th
k
column of
T
*
A
.Let us define the matrices
T
* * *
k l k ,l
A a a
r
and matrix inner product of two N N matrices F and G as

F,G
=
1
0
N
*
m,n
f ( m,n )g ( m,n )

Then equ (6) and (5) give a series representation.
U =
1
0
N
k,l
v( k,l )

*
k,l
A and
v( k,l )
=
*
k,l
u , A

Any image U can be expressed as linear combination of
2
N
matrices.
*
k,l
A called
basis images.
XXXII
Therefore any N N image can be expanded in a series using a complete set of
2
N
basis
images.
Example: Let A =
1 1
1
1 1
2
_

,
; U =
1 2
3 4
1
1
]
Transformed image V = A U
T
A
=
5 1
2 0
_

,

And Basis images are found as outer product of columns of
*
T
A
i.e

0 0
*
,
A =
1
1
(1 1)
1 2
_

,

0 1
*
,
A =
1
1
(1 1)
1 2
_

,
=
1 1
1
1 1 2
_

,
=
1 0
*
,
T
A

11
*
,
A =
1 1
1
1 1 2
_

,

1
(1 1)
1
_

,
The inverse transformation

* *
T
A V A
=
1 1
1
1 1 2
_

,
5 1
2 0
_

,
1 1
1 1
_

,
=
1 2
3 4
_

,
= U
8.5 DIMENSIONALITY OF IMAGE TRANSFORMS
The
3
2N
computations for V can also be reduced by restricting the choice of A to fast
transforms. This implies that A has a structure that allows factorization of the type
A =
1 2 ( ) ( ) ( )
.........
p
A A A
where
( ) i
A
, 1 i ,
p( p N ) <<
are matrices with just a few non zero entries say
r
where
r N <<
Therefore a multiplication of the type :
y
r
= Ax
r
is accomplished in
rpN
operations.
XXXIII
For several transforms like Fourier, Sine, Cosine, Hadamard etc,
2
p log N
, and
operations reduce to the order of
2
N log N
or
2
2
N log N (for N N images).
Depending on the transform, an operation is defined as 1 multiplication + 1 addition. Or, 1
addition or subtraction as in Hadamard Transform.
Kronecker products:
If A and B are
1 2
M M
and
1 2
N N
matrices we define Kronecker product as:
A B
}
{
a( m,n )B
Consider the transform, V = A
U
T
A
or,
v( k,l )
=
1
0
N
m,n
a( k,m)u( m,n )a( l ,n )

(7)
If
k
v
r
and
k
u
r
denote
th
k
and
th
m
row vectors of V and U then (1) becomes ,
T
k
v
r
=
m
a( k,m)
1
1
]
uuur
T
m
AU
=
[ ]
T
m
m
k,m
A A u
r
where
[ ]
k,m
is the
th
( k,m)
block of [ ]
A A
If U and V are row ordered into vectors v
r
and u
r
respectively, then V =
T
AUA

v
r
= ( A A ) u
r
The number of operations required for implementing equation(7) reduces from
4
O( N )

to
3
2 O( N )
.
8.6 PROPERTIES OF UNITARY TRANSFORMS
1) Energy conservation:
XXXIV
In the unitary transformation, v
r
= Au
r
,

2
v
r
=
2
u
r
Proof
2
v
r
2
1
0
N
k
v( k )

=
T
*
v v
r r
=
T
*
u
r
T
A
r
Au
=
2
u
r
.
unitary transformation preserves signal energy or equivalently the
length of vector u
r
in N dimensional vector space. That is , every unitary
transformation is simply a rotation of u

in N dimensional vector space. Alternatively

, a unitary transform is a rotation of basis coordinates and components of v
r
are
projections of u

on the new basis. Similarly , for 2D unitary transformations, it can be

proved that
2
1
0 ,
) , (

N
n m
n m u =
2
1
0 ,
) , (

N
l k
l k v
Example: Consider the vector x

=
1
]
1

1
0
x
x
and

A
=
1
]
1

cos sin
sin cos
(diagram)
This ,
0
y = x a
T

0
;
1
y

= x a
T

1
Transformation
y

=
x A

can be written as
XXXV
y

=
1
]
1

1
0
y
y
=
1
]
1

cos sin
sin cos
1
]
1

1
0
x
x
=

,
_

+
+


cos sin
sin cos
1 0
1 0
x x
x x
with new basis as
0
a

,
1
a

.
For 2D unitary transforms we have
2
) , (

m n
n m u
=
2
) , (

k l
l k v
.
2) Energy Compaction Property:
Most unitary transforms have a tendency to pack a large fraction of average energy of
an image into relatively few transform coefficients. Since total energy is preserved this
implies that many transform coefficients will contain very little energy. If
u

and
u
R
denote the mean and covariance of vector u

then corresponding quantities for v

are
v

[ ] v E

=
] [ u A E

=
u
A

And v
R
=
[ ]
T
u v
v v E
*
) ( ) (



= ] ) ( ) ( [
*
T
u u
A u A A u A E


= A ] ) ( ) ( [
*
T
u u
A u A A u A E


T
A
*
=
T
A R A
u
*
Variances of the transform coefficients are given by the diagonal elements of
v
R i.e
[ ]
k k v
R
,
= ) (
2
k
v

) (
2
k
v
=
[ ]
k k
kT
u
A R A
,
Since A is unitary , it implies:
2
1
0
) (

N
k
v
k =
v v
T


*
=
u
A A
T T


* *
=
2
1
0
) (

N
n
u
u
XXXVI
and
) (
1
0
2
k
N
k
v

=
1
]
1

T
A R A T
u r
*
= [ ]
u r
R T
=
) (
1
0
2
n
N
n
n

[ ]
2
1
) (k v E
N
k

=
[ ]

1
0
2
) (
N
n
n u E
The average energy ( )
2
) (k v E of transform coefficients
) (k v
tends to be unevenly
distributed, although it may be evenly distributed for input sequence
) (n u
.
For a 2D random field
) , ( n m u
, with mean
( ) n m
u
,
and covariance ( ) n m n m r , ; ,
, its transform coefficients
( ) l k v ,
satisfy the properties,
) , ( l k
v

=
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
0 ,
n m n l a m k a
N
n m
u

) , ( l k
v

=
( ) [ ]

1
0 ,
, ) , ( ) , (
N
n m
n m u E n l a m k a
and ) , (
2
l k
v
= ( ) ( ) { }
2
, , l k l k v E
u

=
( ) ( ) n l a m k a
m n m n
, ,

( ) ( ) ( ) n l a m k a n m n m r , , , ; ,
* *
If covariance of
( ) n m u ,
is separable i.e
( ) n m n m r , ; , = ( ) ( ) n n r m m r , ,
2 1
Then variances of transform coefficients can be written as a separable product
( ) l k
v
,
2
= ( ) ( ) k k
2
2
2
1


k k k k
T T
A R A A R A
,
*
2
,
*
1
1
]
1

1
]
1

where
1
R = ( ) { } m m r ,
1
; ( ) { } n n r R ,
2 2
XXXVII
3) Decorrelation : When input vector elements are highly correlated , the transform
coefficients tend to be uncorrelated. That is , the off-diagonal terms of covariance
matrix
v
R tend to be small compared to diagonal elements.
4) Other properties : (a) The determinant and eigenvalues of a unitary matrix have unity
magnitute.
(b) Entropy of a random vector is observed under unitary transformation average
information of the random vector is preserved.
Example:
Given the entropy of an 1 N Gaussian random vector u

with mean

and covariance
u
R , as :
( ) u H

= ( )
2 1
2
2 log
2
u
R e
N

To show
( ) u H

is invariant under any unitary transformation.
Let v

= u A

= v A

1
=
v A
T

*

( ) u A H

=
,
_

N
u
eR
N 1
2
2 log
2

Use the definition of
u
R
we have
( ) ( )
N
u u
T
A u A A u A E
1
*
1
]
1

=
N
T
u
A R A
1
*

= N
u
R
1
XXXVIII
Now N
v
R
1
= N
A
1
N
u
R
1
N
T
A
1
*
= 4
1
u
R

v
R =
T
A R A
u
*

Also
T
A A
*
=
*
A A
T
= I
A R A
v

=
A A R A A
T
u
*

=
( )
T
T
u
A A R
*
=
u
R

( ) u A H

=

,
_

N
v
A R A e
N
T
1
*
2 log
2

= ) 2 log(
2
1 1 1
N N
v
N
A R A ex
N


9. S-TRANSFORM
The S-transform is a time-frequency representation known for its local spectral phase
properties. A key feature of the S-transform is that it uniquely combines a frequency
dependent resolution of the time-frequency space and absolutely referenced local phase
information.This allows one to define the meaning of phase in a local spectrum setting, and
results in many desirable characteristics. One drawback to the S-transform is the redundant
representation of the time-frequency space and the consumption of computing resources this
requires
The cost of this redundancy is amplified in multidimensional applications such as image
analysis. A more efficient representation is introduced here as a orthogonal set of basis
XXXIX
functions that localizes the spectrum and retains the advantageous phase properties of the S-
transform.
this approach allows one to directly collapse the orthogonal local spectral representation
over time to the complex-valued Fourier transform spectrum. Because it maintains the
phase properties of the S-transform, one can perform localized cross spectral analysis to
measure phase shifts between each of multiple components of two time series as a function
of both time and frequency. In addition, one can define a generalized instantaneous
frequency (IF) applicable to broadband nonstationary signals.
One popular method is the short time Fourier transform and the related Gabor transform . A
closely related method is complex demodulation which produces a series of band pass
filtered voices and is also related to the filter bank theory of wavelets. Another family of
time-frequency representations is the Cohen class of generalized time-frequency
distributions (GTFD)
The S-transform
The continuous S-transform of a function h(t) is
A voice S(,f0) is defined as a one-dimensional function of time for a constant frequency f0,
which shows how the
amplitude and phase for this exact frequency changes over time.
In the discrete case, there are computational advantages to using the equivalent frequency
domain definition of the
Why use the S-transform approach?
What distinguishes the S-transform from the many time-frequency representations available
is that the S-transform uniquely combines progressive resolution with absolutely referenced
phase information. Daubechies has stated that progressive resolution gives a fundamentally
more sound time-frequency representation. Absolutely referenced phase means that the
XL
phase information given by the S-transform is always referenced to time t = 0, which is also
true for the phase given by the Fourier transform. This is true for each S-transform sample
of the time-frequency space.
This is in contrast to a wavelet approach, where the phase of the wavelet transform is
relative to the center (in time) of the analyzing wavelet. Thus as the wavelet translates, the
reference point of the phase translates. This is called locally referenced phase to
distinguish it from the phase properties of the S-transform.
From one point of view, local spectral analysis is a generalization of the global Fourier
spectrum. In fact, since no record of observations is infinite, all discrete spectral analysis
ever performed on measured data have been local (i.e., restricted to the time of observation).
Thus there must be a direct relationship between a local spectral representation and the
global Fourier spectrum. This philosophy can be stated as the fundamental principle of S-
transform analysis: The time average of the local spectral representation should result
identically in the complex-valued global Fourier
spectrum. This leads to phase values of the local spectrum that are obvious and
meaningful.While there can be several important
definitions of proper phase, a natural one would be as follows. Consider a signal h(t) =
Aexp(i2f0t + ). The Fourier transform spectrum of this signal at the frequency f0 would
return the amplitude of A and the phase constant .
In order to carry this understanding of phase into the realm of wavelet theory, time-
frequency representations and local spectra, it would require a transform that would return a
voice (function of time) for the frequency f0 that had a constant amplitude A and a constant
phase . Such is the case with the S-transform, and thus it can be described as a
generalization of the Fourier transform to the case of nonstationary signals. In summary the
S-transform has the following unique properties. It uniquely combines frequency dependent
resolution with absolutely reference phase, and therefore the time average of the S-
transform equals the Fourier spectrum.
It simultaneously estimates the local amplitude spectrum and the local phase spectrum,
whereas a wavelet approach is only capable of probing the local amplitude/power spectrum.
It independently probes the positive frequency spectrum and the negative frequency
spectrum, whereas many wavelet approaches are incapable of being applied to a complex
time series. It is sampled at the discrete Fourier transform frequencies unlike the CWT
where the sampling is arbitrary.
XLI
9.1 DOST
9.1.1 The basis functions of the discrete orthonormal S-transform (DOST)
There are several reasons to desire an orthonormal time-frequency version of the S-
transform. An orthonormal transformation takes an N-point time series to an N-point time-
frequency representation, thus achieving the maximum efficiency of representation. Also,
each point of the result is linearly independent from any other point. The transformation
matrix (taking the time series to the DOST representation) is orthogonal, meaning that the
inverse matrix is equal to the complex conjugate transpose. By being an orthonormal
transformation, the vector norm is preserved.
Thus a Parseval theorem applies, stating that the norm of the time series equals the norm of
the DOST. An orthonormal transform is referred to as an energy preserving transform.
The efficient representation of the S-transform can be defined as the inner products between
a time series h[kT ] and the basis functions defined as a function of [kT ], with the
parameters (a frequency variable indicative of the center of a frequency band and
analogous to the voice of the wavelet transform), (indicating the width of the frequency
band), and (a time variable indicating the time localization).
9.2 Derivation of the S-Transform from the Wavelet Transform
The Continuous Wavelet Transform can be defined as a series of correlations
of the time series with a function called a wavelet:

The S-Transform of a function h(t) can be defined as a CWT with a specific
mother wavelet multiplied by a phase factor

XLII
NOTE: in the original IEEE 1996 paper, the negative sign is omitted from the
phase facter. It should read as it appears above.
where the mother wavelet is defined as

The mother wavelet above does not satisfy the admissibility condition
of having a zero mean, and therefore it is not strictly a CWT. Writing
out the above explicitly gives the S-Transform:

9.3 Properties of the S-Transform
Inverse of the S-Transform is the Fourier Transform.
If the S-Transform is indeed a representation of the local spectrum, one
would expect that the simple operation of averaging the local spectra over
time would give the Fourier Transform spectrum. This is indeed the
case with the S-Transform:

where H(f) is the Fourier Transform of h(t). It follows that
h(t) is exactly recoverable from S( au,f)
XLIII
9.3.1 Linearity.
The S-Transform is a linear operation
on the time series h(t). This is important for the case of
additive noise in which one can model the data as data(t) = signal(t)
+ noise(t) and thus the operation of the S-Transform leads to
This is an advantage over the bilinear class of TFRs where
one finds
9.3.2 The S-Transform and Generalized Instantaneous Frequency.
It can be shown that the S-Transform provides an extension
of Instantaneous Frequency to broadband signals. A particular
voice of the S-Transform can be written as

And

and

XLIV
10. FIELDS OF IMAGE PROCESSING
Medicine
Astronomy
Microscopy
Seismology
Defense
Industrial quality control
Publication and entertainment industries Digital images are widely available from
the Internet, CD-ROMs, and inexpensive charge-coupled-device (CCD) cameras,
scanners, and frame grabbers. Software for manipulating images is also widely
available
10.1 Applications:
Photography and printing
Satellite image processing
Medical image processing
Face detection, feature detection, face identification
Microscope image processing
Car barrier detection
Morphological image processing
XLV
11. CONCLUSION
Improvements:
block artifact.
mosquito noise reduction.
adaptive contrast enhancement.
Benefits: Refined images can be obtained, faster report turnaround, easing of growing workload,
etc...
sharpness and texture enhancement.
selective color correction.

By embracing the new image processing technologies and further refinements in image processing
techniques, users are likely to find it more beneficial, not less, in future, while more refinements in
image processing techniques will be appreciated at a reduced cost
XLVI
References
1)www.google.com
2)Fundamentals of Image processing by Anil K Jain
3) www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~farid
4) IEEE site
XLVII