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The Term paper deals with the basic properties of the cellulose , carbon composite and aluminium alloys.

It also specifies some basic applications of the above mentioned materials.

Ravi Agarwal

09003017

Study of Composites of Cellulose and Carbon and Aluminum alloys

Cellulose Composites
Introduction:Composite materials, typically glass fibers or carbon fibers embedded into epoxy resin or unsaturated polyester, show excellent mechanical and thermal properties; thus, they are widely used in various applications ranging from aerospace to vehicles to sports utensils. However, these advantages cause environmental problems when disposing by incineration. Consequently, there are growing demands for environmentally friendly composites. Cellulose is a natural linear polysaccharide in which D-glucopyranose rings are connected to one another with -(1f4)glycosidic links. Cellulose is the most abundant biomass resource and possesses excellent mechanical and thermal properties.

Properties:Figure 1 shows the scanning electron micrograph and the X-ray fiber photograph of ramie fiber. The fiber surface was smooth, and an average diameter was around 30 microns. From the X-ray fiber photograph, the ramie fiber showed high crystallinity and a high degree of the crystallite orientation. Figure 2 shows the SEM micrograph of the cross section of the all-cellulose composite. The X-ray diffraction photograph at the corner was taken from the direction perpendicular to the fiber orientation. The SEM micrograph indicates that the ramie fibers were surrounded by the matrix cellulose, and lumen (hollow microtube inside the native plant fiber) was observed. This shows that cellulose fibers were totally impregnated, and an all-cellulose composite could be produced. The X-ray diffraction photograph of the composite clearly showed a specifically uniaxially oriented fiber pattern with high crystallinity. Figure 3 shows the equatorial diffraction profiles of ramie fiber, the all-cellulose composite, and the matrix cellulose. Ramie fiber belongs to cellulose I, which is typical for natural plant cellulose. This crystal modification was also sustained in the composite. There was no change in the crystallite size of ca. 6 nm for the 200 reflection before and after impregnation. These results reveal that the incorporated ramie fibers were not damaged in the composite. On the other hand, the matrix cellulose was converted into noncrystalline condition through dissolution and re-solidification. Figure 4 shows the stress-strain curve of the all cellulose composite together with those of typical single ramie fiber and the matrix cellulose. A single ramie fiber possesses a high Youngs modulus (average value ) 42 GPa; standard deviation ) 9 GPa) and high tensile strength (average max ) 730 MPa; standard deviation ) 190 MPa). Compared with them, Youngs modulus and tensile strength were lower for the all-cellulose composite. However, the average max of 480 MPa (standard deviation ) 50 MPa) for the all-cellulose composite was comparable or even higher than that of conventional glass-fiberreinforced composites. The matrix showed low modulus, low strength, and high longation at break. These will be due to noncrystalline feature of the matrix cellulose as shown in Figure 3. Figure 6 shows the linear thermal expansion behavior of the all-cellulose composite, together with that of the matrix cellulose. The cellulose matrix showed thermal expansion with increasing temperature, and its linear thermal expansion coefficient, R, is 1.4 _ 10-5 K-1. Figure 7 shows the equatorial diffraction profile of the all-cellulose composite with pretreated fibers, together with the Xray diffraction photograph. In this case, the pretreated fibers were in contact with cellulose solution for 24 h till immersing the fiber incorporated gel into methanol. The crystallite size for the 200 reflection of the incorporated fiber decreased to 5.4 nm (cf. 6 nm forthe as-received ramie fiber, Figure 3) through the processing of the composite. The X-ray diffraction photograph showed that the intensity of the noncrystalline scattering increased, but the high crystallite orientation of cellulose I was sustained in this composite. The apparent crystallinity of as-supplied ramie fiber was 82%; it decreased to 65% in this composite. This indicates that the noncrystalline region increased 17% for the all-cellulose composite with pretreated fibers. Therefore, the surface of the pretreated fibers were partially dissolved into the solvent, which contributes the interdiffusion of cellulose molecules across the fiber/ matrix interface; however, the crystal system of the remained core part of the fiber was maintained as cellulose I.

Figure 8 shows the stress-strain curves of the all cellulose composite with pretreated fibers in the direction (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular to the fiber direction. The impregnation periods till the fiber incorporated gel into methanol were chosen as 24 and 72 h, respectively. Compared with the result for the all cellulose composite with unpretreated fibers (broken line), the longer impregnation period (72 h) seems to bring the decrease of tensile strength and Youngs modulus for the composite. These will be due to the over dissolving of the fiber during the impregnation, which destroyed the mechanical high performance of the incorporated fibers.

Conclusion and discussion:All-cellulose composite was manufactured with the wet process by controlling the solubility of cellulose through pretreatment conditions. This composite is totally composed of sustainable cellulosic resources, so it can be biodegradable after service. The uniaxially reinforced composite, in other words, the cellulose selfreinforced composite, possessed excellent mechanical and thermal properties during use. This composite can be used as an alternative of the glass-fiberreinforced composite. By choosing the pretreatment condition to the fiber, the transverse mechanical properties of the composite was also enhanced through the molecular diffusion across the interface between the fiber and the matrix.

Carbon-Carbon Composites
Introduction:Over the past three decades, carbon fibres have proved to be the main reinforcement for advanced composites for a wide range of applications. The majority of products still belong to high technology space and aeronautics (Manocha 2001). Carbon fibres are a few micron thick, light weight, very strong and stiff black synthetic fibres with long aromatic molecular chains comprising mainly carbon. These fibres are capable of maintaining their structure and properties under extreme conditions of temperature and pressure, fluids etc. and therefore can be used with all types of matrices, polymer, ceramic and metal, employing different composite processing techniques. Interest in carbon fibres as reinforcement for composites for structural applications started with the demand from the aeronautical sector for light weight strong and stiff material. Subsequently its application extended to civilian sector, especially in sports goods and biomedical sectors (Edie 1998). Though major consumption of carbon fibres is for polymer matrix composites, these are the only choice materials for special application high temperature composites with specific high thermal and thermo-mechanical properties. Properties:-

Mechanical properties of carboncarbon composites:- The strength and fracture of


carbon/carbon composites are governed by the CookGorden theory for strengthening of brittle solids (Cook & Gorden 1964), which states that if the ratio of the adhesive strength of the interface to the cohesive strength of the solid is in the right range, a large increase in strength and toughness of otherwise brittle material is achieved. Extensive work has been done in achieving highest possible translation of fibre properties in carbon/carbon composites. Composites with strong fibre/matrix bonding fail catastrophically without fibre pull-out while those with controlled interface fail in mixed tensile cum shear mode exhibiting high strength (Manocha 1988, 1994). A generalised view of the effect of processing temperature, on fracture modes and strengths of different types of carbon/carbon composites is given in figure 6. Numerical values of the mechanical properties of the composites are dependent on the fibre architecture and the direction of measurement of the properties w.r.t. fibre orientationetc. as shown in figure 7.

Thermal properties of the composites:- Carbon/carbon composites being of heterogeneous


structure consisting of fibres, matrix and pores, with the first two having a variety of microstructures, estimation of their thermal transport properties becomes complex. A comparison of thermal conductivities of carbon/carbon composites with different fibre/matrix combinations is given in figure 8. Composites having highly oriented graphitic fibres or matrices or their combination, like vapour-grown carbon fibres and matrix or mesophase pitch-based carbon fibres and matrix, exhibit very high thermal conductivities of the order of 250350 W/MK in the fibre direction. Though these composites exhibit highly anisotropic character and low conductivities in transverse directions, there is always scope of improvement by varying the fibre architecture and their addition in different forms and ways. Coefficient of thermal expansion of the composites is dictated largely by the fibre orientation. It is 01 ppm= _C in the fibre direction and 68 ppm= _C in a direction perpendicular to the fibres.

Frictional properties of the composites:- Carboncarbon composites have widened the scope of
application of carbon-based materials in wear-related applications from bearing seals and electrical

brushes to brake pads for heavy duty vehicles such as military, supersonic and civilian aircrafts to trucks and railways. This has been due to basic tribological properties of carbon with additional high strength and thermal conductivity contribution from the reinforcing fibres.

Applications:Carbon/carbon composites, developed about three decades ago to meet the needs of the space programme, are nowadays considered high performance engineering materials with potential application in high temperature industries. Accordingly, steady growth also prevails in the civil market segment. In terms of mass consumption, the main application of carbon/carbon composites are still in high performance braking systems. New innovations still owe to requirements from space industries. In general engineering sectors these are used in engine components, as refractory materials, as hot-pressed dies and heating elements, as high temperature fasteners, liners and protection tubes, as guides in glass industries etc. Some of the applications are shown in figure 9. Carbon/carbon composites have great potential in energy sectors as polar plates for fuel cells, in storage batteries etc. As the technology becomes more economical a viable, more and more applications get evolved.

Conclusion and Discussion:With carbon fibre reinforcements in different forms and directions and thermosetting resins or thermoplastic pitches or hydrocarbon gases as matrix precursors, these composites can attain densities between 1_61_98 g/cm3. Reinforcing fibres are more anisotropic in structure and properties than the carbon matrix. Accordingly, the properties of carboncarbon composites are dependent on fibre volume content and fibre orientation. Unlike polymer matrices, carbon matrices contribute significantly to the ultimate properties of the composites, especially in case of pitch and CVD-derived carbon matrices. Carboncarbon composites are a family of materials with choice of variation in fibre and matrix architecture, structure, microstructure, mechanical, thermal and physical properties etc. Hence these provide high performance materials for application in a number of sectors.

Aluminium Alloys
Introduction:Pure aluminium is soft, ductile, corrosion resistant and has a high electrical conductivity, see Table 1. In consequence it is widely used for foil and conductor cables, but alloying with other elements is necessary to provide the higher strengths needed for other applications. Property Atomic number Atomic Weight Valency Crystal Structure Melting Point Boiling point Mean Specific Heat (0-100C) (cal/g.C) Thermal Conductivity (0-100C) (cal/cms. C) Co-Efficient of Linear Expansion (0-100C) (x106 /C) Electrical Resistivity at 20C (cm) Density (g/cm3) Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) Poissons Ratio Value 13 26.98 3 Face centred cubic 660.2 2480 0.219 0.57 23.5 2.69 2.6898 68.3 0.34

Designations for Wrought and Cast Aluminium Alloys:The main alloying elements are copper, zinc, magnesium, silicon, manganese and lithium. Small additions of chromium, titanium, zirconium, lead, bismuth and nickel are also made and iron is invariably present in small quantities. There are over 300 wrought alloys with 50 in common use. They are normally identified by a four figure system which originated in the USA and is now universally accepted. Table 2 describes the system for wrought alloys. Cast alloys have similar designations and use a five digit system (table 2). Table 3 lists the designations, characteristics, common uses and forms of some widely used alloys. Major Alloying element None (99%+ Aluminium) Copper Manganese Silicon Wrought 1XXX 2XXX 3XXX 4XXX Cast 1XXX0 2XXX0 4XXX0

Magnesium Magnesium + Silicon Zinc Lithium Unused

5XXX 6XXX 7XXX 8XXX 9XXX

5XXX0 6XXX0 7XXX0 9XXX0

Alloy 1050/1200

2014A

Characteristics Good formability, weldability and corrosion resistance Heat treatable, High strength, Non-weldable, Poor corrosion , reistance.

Common Uses Food and chemical industry. Airframes.

Form S,P

E,P

3103/3003

Non-heat treatable, Medium strength work hardening alloy, Good weldability, formability and corrosion resistance.

Vehicle panelling, structures exposed to marine atmospsheres, mine cages.

S,P,E

5251/5052

Non-heat treatable, Medium strength work hardening alloy, Good weldability, formability and corrosion resistance.

Vehicle panelling, structures exposed to marine atmospsheres, mine cages.

S,P

5454*

Non-heat treatable, Used at temperatures from 65-200C, Good weldability and corrosion resistance.

Pressure vessels and road tankers. Transport of ammonium nitrate, petroleum. Chemical plants.

S,P

5083*/5182

Non-heat treatable, Good weldability and corrosion resistance, Very resistant to sea water, industrial atmospheres, A superior alloy for cryogenic use

Pressure vessels and road transport applications below 65C. Ship building structure in general.

S,P,E

6063*

Heat treatable,Good weldability ,corrosion resistance, Used for intricate profiles.

Architectural extrusions (internal and external), window frames, irrigation pipes. Stressed structural members, bridges, cranes, roof trusses, beer barrels. Thin walled wide extrusions.

6061*/6082*

Heat treatable, Medium strength alloy, Good weldability and corrosion resistance.

S,P,E

6005A

Heat treatable, Properties very similar to 6082, Preferable as air quenchable, therefore has less distortion problems, Not notch sensitive.

7020

Heat treatable, Age hardens naturally therefore will recover properties in heat affected zone after welding, Susceptible to stress corrosion, Good ballistic deterrent properties.

Armoured vehicles, military bridges, motor cycle and bicycle frames.

P,E

7075

Heat treatable, Very high strength, Nonweldable, Poor corrosion resistance.

Airframes.

E,P

Where: * = most commonly used alloys, S = sheet, P = plate and E = extrusions

Designations for Wrought Alloys:These alloys fall into two distinct categories 1. Those which derive their properties from work hardening. 2. Those which depend upon solution heat treatment and age hardening.

Work Hardened Aluminum Alloys:The 1000, 3000 and 5000 series alloys have their properties adjusted by cold work, usually by cold rolling. The properties of these alloys depend upon the degree of cold work and whether any annealing or stabilizing thermal treatment follows the cold work. A standardized nomenclature is used to describe these conditions.

Solution Heat Treated and Age Hardened Aluminum Alloys:The 2000, 4000, 6000, 7000 and 8000 series alloys respond in this way. The wide choice of alloy compositions, solution heat treatment temperatures and times, quench rates from temperature, choice of artificial ageing treatment and degree to which the final product has been deformed permit a wide range of properties to be achieved. A system of standard designations is used, based upon the letter T followed a number after the alloy designation, to describe the various conditions.

Conclusion and Discussion: Aluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal. Global production of aluminium in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million tonnes). Forecast for 2012 is 4245 million tons, driven by rising Chinese output. Despite its natural abundance, aluminium has no known function in living cells and presents some toxic effects in elevated concentrations. Its toxicity can be traced to deposition in bone and the central nervous system, which is particularly increased in patients with reduced renal function. Because aluminium competes with calcium for absorption, increased amounts of dietary aluminium may contribute to the reduced skeletal mineralization (osteopenia) observed in preterm infants and infants with growth retardation. In very high doses, aluminium can cause neurotoxicity, and is associated with altered function of the blood-brain barrier.

Bibliography:-

All Cellulose Composites-Takashi Nishino,* Ikuyo Matsuda, and Koichi Hirao


High performance carboncarbon composites-Lalit Manocha www.google.com Aluminium and aluminium alloys

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