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TECH (4th Sem),ECE Analysis of CE amplifier

Common emitter Amplifier
Common-emitter transistor amplifiers are so-called because the input and output voltage points share the emitter lead of the transistor in common with each other, not considering any power supplies. Transistors are essentially DC devices: they cannot directly handle voltages or currents that reverse direction. In order to make them work for amplifying AC signals, the input signal must be offset with a DC voltage to keep the transistor in its active mode throughout the entire cycle of the wave. This is called biasing. If the output voltage is measured between emitter and collector on a common-emitter amplifier, it will be 180o out of phase with the input voltage waveform. For this reason, the common-emitter amplifier is called an inverting amplifier circuit. Common Emitter Configuration Analysis of a CE amplifier: transistor. Used in this way the transistor has the advantages of a medium input impedance, medium output impedance, high voltage gain and high current gain. Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit:

Here the emitter terminal is common to both the input and output signal. The arrangement is the same for a PNP

The CE amplifier circuit is often constructed using voltage divider method as shown in figure shown below. This voltage divider provides a negative feedback that can be used to stabilize both the DC operating point and the AC gain. The source has AC voltage Vs and resistance Rs. C1 and C2 are the coupling capacitors. C1 couples the signal into the

base and C2 couples the amplified output signal to the load resistor Rl. Ce is a bypass capacitor.

When there is no signal entering the circuit, the base current Ib, collector current Ic, base voltage Vb and collector voltage Vc are fixed as according to the Qpoint. When AC signal is applied to the base, it produces AC variations in the base voltage and the base current. The ac variations in the base current produce large variations in the collector current. Due to the ac current flowing through the collector resistor Rc, large AC vartiations are produced in the collector voltage. The analysis of a amplifier of a CE amplifier is divided into two parts 1.DC analysis 2. AC analysis DC equivalent circuit: In the case of dc equivalent circuit, all capacitor acts as short. Hence, the entire AC sources are reduced to zero. Also, all the capacitors are opened and then the circuit is analysed as dc equivalent circuit.Reducing ac source to zero is as good as replacing it by a short circuit. Opening all the capacitor means disconnecting them. The circuit, which remains after these changes, is the called dc equivalent circuit. The dc equivalent circuit is a circuit for calculating only dc currents and voltages.Initially, ac signal is removed. Then the generator, load resistor Rl and the emitter capacitor Ce are disconnected. The +Vcircuit is now transformed into dc equivalent circuit.
CC

AC ANALYSIS In this type of circuit, the capacitor acts as short to ac. hence, all the dc sources are reduced to zero and all capacitors are shorted.When the dc source Vcc is reduced to zero, the top of Rc and Rl get grounded. When the capacitor C1 is shorted, it connects the generator to the transistor base.When C2 is shorted, it connects Rl to the collector of the transistor and when CE is shorted, it shorts the emitter Re to the ground.

vi n R 1/ / R2

vc e

rC

rC = C/ / RL R

Transistor Amplifier Load Line The straight line is known as the DC load line

IC R1

RC

Its significance is that regardless of the behaviour of the transistor, the collector current IC and the collector-emitter voltage VCE must

R2

IE RE

always lie on the load line, depends ONLY on the VCC, RC and RE

(i.e. The dc load line is a graph that represents all the possible combinations of IC and

VCE for a given amplifier. For every possible value of IC, and amplifier will have a corresponding value of VCE.) The load line is much more useful in designing transistor circuits, since current and voltage can take wide ranges of values. The common emitter (CE) amplifier in Figure 2,from the first HandsOn Radio experiment is one youll use frequently, so well use it as an example.2 This circuit uses self bias and emitter degeneration to establish a stable Q point (the operating point with no input signal). The characteristic curves for a typical 2N3904 NPN transistor in the CE configuration are shown in Figure 3. Instead of just having a single characteristic curve as did the diode, a transistors ICVCE characteristic curve can change. As base current varies, the height of the curve changes on the graph. The set of curves show snapshots of the transistors characteristic curve, each at a different value of base current.

Because the load for the circuit is resistive (consisting of RC+RE), the operating point falls along the dc load line drawn on the characteristic curves. Well get to the ac load line later. As with the diode circuit, the intersection of the load line with the characteristic curve corresponding to the value of base current is the circuits operating point. If you imagine one of the constant base current lines moving up and down as an input signal varies the base current, you can see its intersection with the load line moving, too. When no signal is applied, the base current is fixed at the level of bias current chosen by the designer and that operating point is the circuits Q point. In the case of our CE amplifier, the values of R1, R2 and RE determine the location of the Q point by controlling the value of the base bias current. VCC and the values of RC and RE determine the orientation of the load line. The two end points of the load line correspond to transistor saturation [ICsat = VCC / (RC+RE) on the IC axis] and cutoff (VCC on the VCE axis). The slope of the load line is 1/(RC+RE), because the output current of the transistor flows through both the collector and emitter resistors. In order to experiment with the load line, here are a set of components that will result in a Q point of ICQ = 4 mA, VCEQ = 5 V and a voltage gain of 5 with VCC = +12 V: RE = 270 , R1 = 39 k, R2 = 6.8 k, and RC = 1.5 k. (10 F capacitors will be fine for CIN and COUT.) Download and print the sample 2N3904 characteristic curves from the Hands-On Radio Web site and draw the load line between cutoff and saturation in this circuit. (The Q point should be on the load line.) Build the circuit and verify that the values of ICQ and VCEQ are about right. Apply a 1 kHz, 0.5 VP-P sine wave at the input and verify that the output signal is about five times larger and inverted from the input. Increase the input voltage until the output waveform becomes clipped at either the

top or bottom and then reduce the input voltage by about half. Now move the Q point by changing the value of IBQ. To do this without changing the load line, adjust the ratio of R1 and R2 to change VB, keeping the sum of the resistors in the range of 20 k to 50 k. (You can substitute a 50 k potentiometer for R1 and R2, with the wiper connected to the transistor base.) Measure the new values of ICQ and VCEQ, locate the new Q point on the load line, and observe the effect on the output waveform. For example, doubling the value of R2 will raise the value of IBQ dramatically and probably cause the output waveform to be clipped at the bottom. This is because the higher bias current has moved the Q point farther along the load line toward saturation (left), making it easier for an input signal to drive VCE lower into the saturation region. Q-Point (Static Operation Point) When a transistor does not have an ac input, it will have specific dc values of IC and VCE.

When a circuit is designed to have a centered Q-point, the amplifier is said to be midpoint biased. Midpoint biasing allows optimum ac operation of the amplifier.

AC Load Lines

a c lo a d lin e IC Q - p o in t d c lo a d lin e

VC E

These values correspond to a specific point on the dc load line. This point is called the Q-point. The letter Q corresponds to the word (Latent) quiescent, meaning at rest. A quiescent amplifier is one that has no ac signal applied and therefore has constant dc values of IC and VCE. The intersection of the dc bias value of IB with the dc load line determines the Q-point. It is desirable to have the Q-point centered on the load line. Why?

Figure 2 shows an emitter bypass capacitor, CE, next to RE. When CE is connected across RE, the circuit has a different ac voltage gain AV = RC/re (re is the internal emitter resistance of a few ohms) than dc gain AV =RC/RE. For an ac signal, the circuit operates on a separate ac load line as shown in Fig-ure , because RE has been effectively short circuited for ac signals. Without RE, the slope of the ac load line is 1/RC, steeper than for the dc load line. The ac and dc load lines intersect at the circuits Q point because the circuits ac and dc operation is the same if the ac input signal is zero.

The input characteristics

In Fig. The abscissa is the base-to-emitter voltage Vbe, the ordinate is the base current IB the curves are given for various values of collector-to-emitter voltage VCE . we observe that, with collector shorted to the emitter and the emitter forward biased, the input characteristics is essentially that of a forward biased diode. If VBE becomes zero, then IB will be zero, since under these conditions both emitter and collector junctions will be short circuited. For any other value of VCe, the base current for VBE =o is not actually zero but it is too small to be observed Fig. In general, increasing the magnitude of VCE with constant VBE causes a decrease in base width W(the Early effect) and results in a decreasing recombination base current. These consideration accounts for the shape of input characteristics shown in Fig.

The output characteristics This family of curves may be divided in three regions. The first of these , the active region, cutoff region and the last one is saturation region. In the active region the collector junction is reversed biased and the emitter junction is forward biased. In the Fig. Shown the active region is the area of the right of the ordinate VCE =a few tenth of a volt above IB= 0. IN this region the transistor output current responds most sensitively to an input signal. If the transition is used as an amplifying device without appreciable distortion, it must be restricted to operate in this region. The common emitter characteristics in the active region are readily understood quqalitavely on the basis of our earlier of common base configuration. The base current is

IB = -(IC+ IE) Then from the equation ,IC = -IE +ICO,

Small-Signal Model of CE Amplifier * The small-signal model is evaluated at the bias point; we assume that the current

gain is Ao = 100 and the Early voltage is VAn = 25 V: gm = IC / Vth (at room temperature) r o/ gm = 10 k ro = VAn / Ic = 100 k * Substitute small-signal model for BJT; VCC and VBIAS are short-circuited for Small-signals

RE rather than the transistor's intrinsic and unpredictable characteristics. The distortion and stability characteristics of the circuit are thus improved at the expense of a reduction in gain. Ideal CE Amplifier

The CE voltage and current gains are high The voltage gain is negative, i.e. the output signal is inverted. The d.c. bias current sets the signal input impedance of the transistor through the dynamic resistance. IC = IB ; iC = iB.

Emitter Degeneration Common-emitter amplifiers can have a very high gain which can vary widely from one transistor to the next. The gain is a strong function of both temperature and bias current, and so the actual gain is somewhat unpredictable. Stability is another problem associated with such high gain circuits due to any unintentional positive feedback that may be present. Other problems associated with the circuit are the low input dynamic range imposed by the small-signal limit; there is high distortion if this limit is exceeded and the transistor ceases to behave like its smallsignal model. One common way of alleviating these issues is with the use of negative feedback, which is usually implemented with emitter degeneration. Emitter degeneration refers to the addition of a small resistor (or any impedance) between the emitter and the common signal source (e.g., the ground reference or a power supply rail). This impedance RE reduces the overall transconductance Gm = gm of the circuit by a factor of gmRE + 1, which makes the voltage gain So the voltage gain depends almost exclusively on the ratio of the resistors RC /

Bandwidth The bandwidth of the common-emitter amplifier tends to be low due to high capacitance resulting from the Miller effect. The parasitic base-collector capacitance appears like a larger parasitic capacitor (where is negative) from the base to ground[1]. This large capacitor greatly decreases the bandwidth of the amplifier as it makes the time constant of the parasitic input RC filter where is the output impedance of the signal source connected to the ideal base. The problem can be mitigated in several ways, including:

Reduction of the voltage gain magnitude (e.g., by using emitter degeneration). Reduction of the output impedance of the signal source connected to the base (e.g., by using an emitter follower or some other voltage follower).

Using a cascode configuration, which inserts a low input impedance current buffer (e.g. a common base amplifier) between the transistor's collector and the load. This configuration holds the transistor's collector voltage roughly constant, thus making the base to collector gain zero and hence (ideally) removing the Miller effect. Using a differential amplifier topology like an emitter follower driving a grounded-base amplifier; as long as the emitter follower is truly a common-collector amplifier, the Miller effect is removed.

this circuit can be prohibitively high. To alleviate this problem, RC is kept as low as possible and the amplifier is followed by a voltage buffer like an emitter follower. Radio Common-emitter amplifiers are also used in radio frequency circuits, for example to amplify faint signals received by an antenna. In this case it is common to replace the load resistor with a tuned circuit. This may be done to limit the bandwidth to a narrow band centered around the intended operating frequency. More importantly it also allows the circuit to operate at higher frequencies as the tuned circuit can be used to resonate any inter-electrode and stray capacitances, which normally limit the frequency response. Common emitters are also commonly used as low-noise amplifiers.

The Miller effect negatively affects the performance of the common-source amplifier in the same way (and has similar solutions). Applications

Summary In my term paper I have discussed about the CE amplifier, DC Load Line Analysis, AC Load Line Analysis, AC and DC biasing circuits, Q-Point and some of its applications. In this I have discussed about the small signal equivalent circuit. References 1. D. Kaya, On the solution of the unidirectional nonlinear wave equation by the decomposition method. 2. Y.Cherruault, Adomians method. Convergence of

Low frequency voltage amplifier A typical example of the use of a common-emitter amplifier is shown in Figure Single-ended npn common-emitter amplifier with emitter degeneration. The AC-coupled circuit acts as a level-shifter amplifier. Here, the baseemitter voltage drop is assumed to be 0.65 Volts. The input capacitor C removes any constant component of the input, and the resistors R1 and R2 bias the transistor so that it will remain in active mode for the entire range of the input. The output is an inverted copy of the AC-component of the input that has been amplified by the ratio RC/RE and shifted by an amount determined by all four resistors. Because RC is often large, the output impedance of

3. G. Adomian, Solving Frontier Problems of Physics: The decomposition method, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, 1994.

4. G. Adomian, A review decomposition method in mathematics, J. Math. Anal.

of the applied