What is PL/SQL?

PLSQL stands for "Procedural Language extensions to SQL", and can be

used in Oracle databases. PL SQL is closely integrated into the SQL
language, yet it adds programming constructs that are not native to
SQL. PL/SQL also implements basic exception handling. This tutorial
contains an introduction to beginning pl sql. This Oracle pl/sql tutorial
also provides a hands on experience for beginning plsql. It contains
many free plsql examples which can be reused in your code.

Pl/Sql is the procedural implementation of sql i.e. you can pass sql
statements in procedural format using pl/sql. Normal sql does not have
any procedural capabilities moreover you can only pass one statement
at a time to Oracle Engine. Hence, pl/sql have come up to avoid this
limitation. Hence, pl/sql is the structured programming language for
oracle. It's structure is similar to any other procedural language such
as C or C++

PL/SQL Tutorial

PL/SQL Tutorial

• Variables and Types

• Simple PL/SQL Programs
• Control Flow in PL/SQL
• Cursors
• Procedures
• Discovering Errors
• Printing Variables

Basic Structure of PL/SQL

PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language/SQL. PL/SQL extends SQL by

adding constructs found in procedural languages, resulting in a
structural language that is more powerful than SQL. The basic unit in
PL/SQL is a block. All PL/SQL programs are made up of blocks, which
can be nested within each other. Typically, each block performs a
logical action in he program. A block has the following structure:

DECLARE

/* Declarative section: variables, types, and local subprograms. */

BEGIN

/* Executable section: procedural and SQL statements go here. */

/* This is the only section of the block that is required. */

EXCEPTION

/* Exception handling section: error handling statements go here. */

END;

Only the executable section is required. The other sections are

optional. The only SQL statements allowed in a PL/SQL program are
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and several other data manipulation
statements plus some transaction control. However, the SELECT
statement has a special form in which a single tuple is placed in
variables; more on this later. Data definition statements like CREATE,
DROP, or ALTER are not allowed. The executable section also contains
constructs such as assignments, branches, loops, procedure calls, and
triggers, which are all described below (except triggers). PL/SQL is not
case sensitive. C style comments (/* ... */) may be used.

To execute a PL/SQL program, we must follow the program text itself by

* A line with a single dot ("."), and then

* A line with run;

As with Oracle SQL programs, we can invoke a PL/SQL program either

by typing in sqlplus.

Variables and Types

Information is transmitted between a PL/SQL program and the

database through variables. Every variable has a specific type
associated with it. That type can be

* One of the types used by SQL for database columns

* A generic type used in PL/SQL such as NUMBER
* Declared to be the same as the type of some database column

The most commonly used generic type is NUMBER. Variables of type

NUMBER can hold either an integer or a real number. The most
commonly used character string type is VARCHAR(n), where n is the
maximum length of the string in bytes. This length is required, and
there is no default. For example, we might declare:
DECLARE

price NUMBER;

myBeer VARCHAR(20);

Note that PL/SQL allows BOOLEAN variables, even though Oracle does
not support BOOLEAN as a type for database columns.

Types in PL/SQL can be tricky. In many cases, a PL/SQL variable will be

used to manipulate data stored in a existing relation. In this case, it is
essential that the variable have the same type as the relation column.
If there is any type mismatch, variable assignments and comparisons
may not work the way you expect. To be safe, instead of hard coding
the type of a variable, you should use the %TYPE operator. For
example:

DECLARE

myBeer Beers.name%TYPE;

gives PL/SQL variable myBeer whatever type was declared for the
name column in relation Beers.

A variable may also have a type that is a record with several fields. The
simplest way to declare such a variable is to use %ROWTYPE on a
relation name. The result is a record type in which the fields have the
same names and types as the attributes of the relation. For instance:

DECLARE

beerTuple Beers%ROWTYPE;

makes variable beerTuple be a record with fields name and

manufacture, assuming that the relation has the schema Beers(name,
manufacture).

The initial value of any variable, regardless of its type, is NULL. We can
assign values to variables, using the ":=" operator. The assignment can
occur either immediately after the type of the variable is declared, or
anywhere in the executable portion of the program. An example:

DECLARE

a NUMBER := 3;
BEGIN

a := a + 1;

END;

run;

This program has no effect when run, because there are no changes to
the database.

Simple Programs in PL/SQL

The simplest form of program has some declarations followed by an

executable section consisting of one or more of the SQL statements
with which we are familiar. The major nuance is that the form of the
SELECT statement is different from its SQL form. After the SELECT
clause, we must have an INTO clause listing variables, one for each
attribute in the SELECT clause, into which the components of the
retrieved tuple must be placed.

Notice we said "tuple" rather than "tuples", since the SELECT

statement in PL/SQL only works if the result of the query contains a
single tuple. The situation is essentially the same as that of the "single-
row select" discussed in Section 7.1.5 of the text, in connection with
embedded SQL. If the query returns more than one tuple, you need to
use a cursor. Here is an example:

CREATE TABLE T1(

e INTEGER,

f INTEGER

);

DELETE FROM T1;

INSERT INTO T1 VALUES(1, 3);

INSERT INTO T1 VALUES(2, 4);

/* Above is plain SQL; below is the PL/SQL program. */

DECLARE

a NUMBER;

b NUMBER;

BEGIN

SELECT e,f INTO a,b FROM T1 WHERE e>1;

INSERT INTO T1 VALUES(b,a);

END;

run;

Fortuitously, there is only one tuple of T1 that has first component

greater than 1, namely (2,4). The INSERT statement thus inserts (4,2)
into T1.

Control Flow in PL/SQL

PL/SQL allows you to branch and create loops in a fairly familiar way.

An IF statement looks like:

IF <condition> THEN <statement_list> ELSE <statement_list> END IF;

The ELSE part is optional. If you want a multiway branch, use:

IF <condition_1> THEN ...

ELSIF <condition_2> THEN ...

... ...

ELSIF <condition_n> THEN ...

ELSE ...

END IF;

The following is an example, slightly modified from the previous one,

where now we only do the insertion if the second component is 1. If
not, we first add 10 to each component and then insert:

DECLARE

a NUMBER;

b NUMBER;

BEGIN

SELECT e,f INTO a,b FROM T1 WHERE e>1;

IF b=1 THEN

INSERT INTO T1 VALUES(b,a);

ELSE

INSERT INTO T1 VALUES(b+10,a+10);

END IF;

END;

run;

Loops are created with the following:

LOOP

<loop_body> /* A list of statements. */

END LOOP;

At least one of the statements in <loop_body> should be an EXIT

statement of the form

EXIT WHEN <condition>;

The loop breaks if <condition> is true. For example, here is a way to

insert each of the pairs (1, 1) through (100, 100) into T1 of the above
two examples:

DECLARE
i NUMBER := 1;

BEGIN

LOOP

INSERT INTO T1 VALUES(i,i);

i := i+1;

EXIT WHEN i>100;

END LOOP;

END;

.run;

Some other useful loop-forming statements are:

* EXIT by itself is an unconditional loop break. Use it inside a

conditional if you like.
* A WHILE loop can be formed with

· WHILE <condition> LOOP

· <loop_body>

END LOOP;

* A simple FOR loop can be formed with:

· FOR <var> IN <start>..<finish> LOOP

· <loop_body>

END LOOP;

Here, <var> can be any variable; it is local to the for-loop and need not
be declared. Also, <start> and <finish> are constants.

Cursors

A cursor is a variable that runs through the tuples of some relation.

This relation can be a stored table, or it can be the answer to some
query. By fetching into the cursor each tuple of the relation, we can
write a program to read and process the value of each such tuple. If
the relation is stored, we can also update or delete the tuple at the
current cursor position.
The example below illustrates a cursor loop. It uses our example
relation T1(e,f) whose tuples are pairs of integers. The program will
delete every tuple whose first component is less than the second, and
insert the reverse tuple into T1.

1) DECLARE

/* Output variables to hold the result of the query: */

2) a T1.e%TYPE;

3) b T1.f%TYPE;

/* Cursor declaration: */

4) CURSOR T1Cursor IS

5) SELECT e, f

6) FROM T1

7) WHERE e < f

8) FOR UPDATE;

9) BEGIN

10) OPEN T1Cursor;

11) LOOP

/* Retrieve each row of the result of the above query

into PL/SQL variables: */

12) FETCH T1Cursor INTO a, b;

/* If there are no more rows to fetch, exit the loop: */

13) EXIT WHEN T1Cursor%NOTFOUND;

/* Delete the current tuple: */

14) DELETE FROM T1 WHERE CURRENT OF T1Cursor;

/* Insert the reverse tuple: */

15) INSERT INTO T1 VALUES(b, a);

16) END LOOP;

/* Free cursor used by the query. */

17) CLOSE T1Cursor;

18) END;

19) .

20) run;

Here are explanations for the various lines of this program:

* Line (1) introduces the declaration section.

* Lines (2) and (3) declare variables a and b to have types equal to the
types of attributes e and f of the relation T1. Although we know these
types are INTEGER, we wisely make sure that whatever types they may
have are copied to the PL/SQL variables (compare with the previous
example, where we were less careful and declared the corresponding
variables to be of type NUMBER).
* Lines (4) through (8) define the cursor T1Cursor. It ranges over a
relation defined by the SELECT-FROM-WHERE query. That query selects
those tuples of T1 whose first component is less than the second
component. Line (8) declares the cursor FOR UPDATE since we will
modify T1 using this cursor later on Line (14). In general, FOR UPDATE
is unnecessary if the cursor will not be used for modification.
* Line (9) begins the executable section of the program.
* Line (10) opens the cursor, an essential step.
* Lines (11) through (16) are a PL/SQL loop. Notice that such a loop is
bracketed by LOOP and END LOOP. Within the loop we find:
o On Line (12), a fetch through the cursor into the local variables. In
general, the FETCH statement must provide variables for each
component of the tuple retrieved. Since the query of Lines (5) through
(7) produces pairs, we have correctly provided two variables, and we
know they are of the correct type.
o On Line (13), a test for the loop-breaking condition. Its meaning
should be clear: %NOTFOUND after the name of a cursor is true exactly
when a fetch through that cursor has failed to find any more tuples.
o On Line (14), a SQL DELETE statement that deletes the current tuple
using the special WHERE condition CURRENT OF T1Cursor.
o On Line (15), a SQL INSERT statement that inserts the reverse tuple
into T1.
* Line (17) closes the cursor.
* Line (18) ends the PL/SQL program.
* Lines (19) and (20) cause the program to execute.

Procedures

PL/SQL procedures behave very much like procedures in other

programming language. Here is an example of a PL/SQL procedure
addtuple1 that, given an integer i, inserts the tuple (i, 'xxx') into the
following example relation:

CREATE TABLE T2 (

a INTEGER,

b CHAR(10)

);

CREATE PROCEDURE addtuple1(i IN NUMBER) AS

BEGIN

INSERT INTO T2 VALUES(i, 'xxx');

END addtuple1;

run;

A procedure is introduced by the keywords CREATE PROCEDURE

followed by the procedure name and its parameters. An option is to
follow CREATE by OR REPLACE. The advantage of doing so is that
should you have already made the definition, you will not get an error.
On the other hand, should the previous definition be a different
procedure of the same name, you will not be warned, and the old
procedure will be lost.

There can be any number of parameters, each followed by a mode and

a type. The possible modes are IN (read-only), OUT (write-only), and
INOUT (read and write). Note: Unlike the type specifier in a PL/SQL
variable declaration, the type specifier in a parameter declaration must
be unconstrained. For example, CHAR(10) and VARCHAR(20) are illegal;
CHAR or VARCHAR should be used instead. The actual length of a
parameter depends on the corresponding argument that is passed in
when the procedure is invoked.

Following the arguments is the keyword AS (IS is a synonym). Then

comes the body, which is essentially a PL/SQL block. We have repeated
the name of the procedure after the END, but this is optional. However,
the DECLARE section should not start with the keyword DECLARE.
Rather, following AS we have:

... AS

<local_var_declarations>

BEGIN

<procedure_body>

END;

run;

The run at the end runs the statement that creates the procedure; it
does not execute the procedure. To execute the procedure, use another
PL/SQL statement, in which the procedure is invoked as an executable
statement. For example:

BEGIN addtuple1(99); END;

run;

The following procedure also inserts a tuple into T2, but it takes both
components as arguments:

CREATE PROCEDURE addtuple2(

x T2.a%TYPE,

y T2.b%TYPE)
AS

BEGIN

INSERT INTO T2(a, b)

VALUES(x, y);

END addtuple2;

run;

Now, to add a tuple (10, 'abc') to T2:

BEGIN

addtuple2(10, 'abc');

END;

run;

The following illustrates the use of an OUT parameter:

CREATE TABLE T3 (

a INTEGER,

b INTEGER

);

CREATE PROCEDURE addtuple3(a NUMBER, b OUT NUMBER)

AS

BEGIN

b := 4;
INSERT INTO T3 VALUES(a, b);

END;

run;

DECLARE

v NUMBER;

BEGIN

addtuple3(10, v);

END;

run;

Note that assigning values to parameters declared as OUT or INOUT

causes the corresponding input arguments to be written. Because of
this, the input argument for an OUT or INOUT parameter should be
something with an "lvalue", such as a variable like v in the example
above. A constant or a literal argument should not be passed in for an
OUT/INOUT parameter.

We can also write functions instead of procedures. In a function

declaration, we follow the parameter list by RETURN and the type of
the return value:

CREATE FUNCTION <func_name>(<param_list>) RETURN

<return_type> AS ...

In the body of the function definition, "RETURN <expression>;" exits

from the function and returns the value of <expression>.

To find out what procedures and functions you have created, use the
following SQL query:

select object_type, object_name

from user_objects

where object_type = 'PROCEDURE'

or object_type = 'FUNCTION';

To drop a stored procedure/function:

drop procedure <procedure_name>;

drop function <function_name>;

Discovering Errors

PL/SQL does not always tell you about compilation errors. Instead, it
gives you a cryptic message such as "procedure created with
compilation errors". If you don't see what is wrong immediately, try
issuing the command

show errors procedure <procedure_name>;

Alternatively, you can type, SHO ERR (short for SHOW ERRORS) to see
the most recent compilation error.

Printing Variables

Sometimes we might want to print the value of a PL/SQL local variable.

A ``quick-and-dirty'' way is to store it as the sole tuple of some relation
and after the PL/SQL statement print the relation with a SELECT
statement. A more couth way is to define a bind variable, which is the
only kind that may be printed with a print command. Bind variables are
the kind that must be prefixed with a colon in PL/SQL statements.

The steps are as follows:

1. We declare a bind variable as follows:

VARIABLE <name> <type>

where the type can be only one of three things: NUMBER, CHAR, or
CHAR(n).

2. We may then assign to the variable in a following PL/SQL statement,

but we must prefix it with a colon.
3. Finally, we can execute a statement

PRINT :<name>;
outside the PL/SQL statement

Here is a trivial example, which prints the value 1.

VARIABLE x NUMBER

BEGIN

:x := 1;

END;

run;

PRINT :x;

PL/SQL BLOCK
The pl/sql block contains the following section:--

-----The DECLARE section.

-----The Master BEGIN and END section that contains the EXCEPTION
section.

The declare section contains declaration of memory variables,

constants, cursors etc. The begin section contains sql executable
statements and pl/sql executable statements. The exception section
contains code to handle errors that may arise during the execution of
the code block. The end declares the end of pl/sql block.

A bit about it's working. When you typed out the pl/sql block for
execution. It is sent to the pl/sql engine, where procedural statements
are executed; and sql statements are sent to the sql executor in the
oracle engine. Since pl/sql engine resides in the oracle engine, the
codes executes smoothly and efficiently.

PL/SQL DATA-TYPE

This is easy since it includes almost all the data types which u have
used in sql such as date, varchar, number, char etc etc... Some of the
attributes such as %TYPE is also used. This attribute automatically
takes in the default data type of the sql table from which u have
passed the query. We will discuss this later.

Remember in pl/sql a variable name must begin with a character and

can be followed by maximum of 29 other characters. Reserved words
can't be used unless enclosed within double quotes. Variables must be
separated from each other by at least one space or by a punctuation
mark. You can assign values of operator using := operator. I won't
discuss about logical comparisons operators such as <, > , >=, NOT,
TRUE, AND, OR, NULL etc since they r quite easy to understand.

HOW TO DISPLAY MESSAGES ON SCREEN ---

DBMS_OUTPUT : is a package that includes a number of procedure and

functions that accumulate information in a buffer so that it can be
retrieved later. These functions can also be used to display messages
to the user.
PUT_LINE : Put a piece of information in the package buffer followed by
an end-of-line marker. It can also be used to display message to the
user. Put_line expects a single parameter of character data type. If
used to display a message, it is the message 'string'.
EG: dbms_output.put_line(x);

REMEMBER: To display messages to the user the SERVEROUTPUT

should be set to ON. SERVEROUTPUT is a sql*plus environment
parameter that displays the information pased as a parameter to the
PUT_LINE function.
EG: SET SERVEROUTPUT ON

A bit about comments. A comment can have 2 forms i.e.

-- The comment line begins with a double hyphen (--). The entire line
will be treated as a comment.
-- The C style comment such as /* i am a comment */

CONDITIONAL CONTROL AND ITERATIVE CONTROL AND SEQUENTIAL

CONTROL

IF and else.....
IF --Condition THEN
--Action
ELSEIF --Condition THEN
--Action
ELSE
--Action
END IF;
SIMPLE LOOP
loop
-- Sequence of statements;
end loop;

the loop ends when u use EXIT WHEN statement --condition

WHILE LOOP
While --condition
loop
--sequence of statements
end loop;

FOR LOOP
FOR i in 1..10
loop
--sequence of statements
end loop;

GOTO (sequential control)

GOTO X;
<< X >>

EXAMPLES

--ADDITION
declare
a number;
b number;
c number;
begin
a:=&a;
b:=&b;
c:=a+b;
dbms_output.put_line('Sum of ' || a || ' and ' || b || ' is ' || c);

Here & is used to take user input at runtime.....

--SUM OF 100 NUMBERS

Declare
a number;
s1 number default 0;
Begin
a:=1;
loop
s1:=s1+a;
exit when (a=100);
a:=a+1;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('Sum between 1 to 100 is '||s1);
End;

--SUM OF odd NUMBERS USING USER INPUT...for loop

declare
n number;
sum1 number default 0;
endvalue number;
begin
endvalue:=&endvalue;
n:=1;
for n in 1.. endvalue
loop
if mod(n,2)=1
then
sum1:=sum1+n;
end if
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('sum = ' || sum1);
end;

--SUM OF 100 ODD NUMBER .. WHILE LOOP

declare
n number;
endvalue number;
sum1 number default 0;
begin
endvalue:=&endvalue;
n:=1;
while (n < endvalue)
loop
sum1:=sum1+n;
n:=n+2;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('Sum of odd numbers between 1 and ' ||
endvalue || ' is ' || sum1);
end;

--CALCULATION OF NET SALARY

declare
ename varchar2(15);
basic number;
da number;
hra number;
pf number;
netsalary number;
begin
ename:=&ename;
basic:=&basic;

da:=basic * (41/100);
hra:=basic * (15/100);

if (basic < 3000)

then
pf:=basic * (5/100);
elsif (basic >= 3000 and basic <= 5000)
then
pf:=basic * (7/100);
elsif (basic >= 5000 and basic <= 8000)
then
pf:=basic * (8/100);
else
pf:=basic * (10/100);
end if;
netsalary:=basic + da + hra -pf;
dbms_output.put_line('Employee name : ' || ename);
dbms_output.put_line('Providend Fund : ' || pf);
dbms_output.put_line('Net salary : ' || netsalary);
end;

--MAXIMUM OF 3 NUMBERS

Declare
a number;
b number;
c number;
d number;
Begin
dbms_output.put_line('Enter a:');
a:=&a;
dbms_output.put_line('Enter b:');
b:=&b;
dbms_output.put_line('Enter c:');
c:=&b;
if (a>b) and (a>c) then
dbms_output.putline('A is Maximum');
elsif (b>a) and (b>c) then
dbms_output.putline('B is Maximum');
else
dbms_output.putline('C is Maximum');
end if;
End;

--QUERY EXAMPLE--IS SMITH EARNING ENOUGH

declare
s1 emp.sal %type;
begin
select sal into s1 from emp
where ename = 'SMITH';
if(no_data_found)
then
raise_application_error
(20001,'smith is not present');
end if;

if(s1 > 10000)

then
raise_application_error
(20002,'smith is earning enough');
end if;

update emp set sal=sal + 500

where ename='SMITH';
end;

--PRIME NO OR NOT

DECLARE
no NUMBER (3) := &no;
a NUMBER (4);
b NUMBER (2);
BEGIN
FOR i IN 2..no - 1
LOOP
a := no MOD i;
IF a = 0
THEN
GOTO out;
END IF;
END LOOP;
<>
IF a = 1
THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (no || ' is a prime number');
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (no || ' is not a prime number');
END IF;
END;

--SIMPLE EXAMPLE OF LOOP STATEMENT I.E. EXIT WHEN

Declare
a number:= 100;
begin
loop
a := a+25;
exit when a=250;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line (to_Char(a));
end;

--EXAMPLE OF WHILE LOOP

Declare
i number:=0;
j number:= 0;
begin
while i <=100 loop
j := j+1;
i := i +2;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line(to_char(i));
end;

--EXAMPLE OF FOR LOOP

Declare
begin
for i in 1..10
loop
dbms_output.put_line(to_char(i));
end loop;
end;

--SEQUENTIAL CONTROL GOTO

declare
--takes the default datatype of the column of the table price
cost price.minprice%type;
begin
select stdprice into cost from price where prodial in (Select prodid from
product where prodese = "shampoo");
if cost > 7000 then
goto Upd;
end if;
<< Upd >>
Update price set minprice = 6999 where prodid=111;
end;

--CALCULATE THE AREA OF A CIRCLE FOR A VALUE OF RADIUS VARYING

FROM 3 TO 7. STORE THE RADIUS AND THE CORRESPONDING VALUES
OF CALCULATED AREA IN A TABLE AREAS.

Declare
pi constant number(4,2) := 3.14;
radius number(5);
area number(14,2);

Begin
radius := 3;
While radius <=7
Loop
area := pi* power(radius,2);
Insert into areas values (radius, area);
radius:= radius+1;
end loop;
end;

--REVERSING A NUMBER 5639 TO 9365

Declare
given_number varchar(5) := '5639';
str_length number(2);
inverted_number varchar(5);

Begin
str_length := length(given_number);
For cntr in reverse 1..str_length
loop
inverted_number := inverted_number || substr(given_number, cntr, 1);
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('The Given no is ' || given_number);
dbms_output.put_line('The inverted number is ' || inverted_number);
end;

EXCEPTION HANDLING IN PLSQL

Errors in pl/sql block can be handled...error handling refers to the way

we handle the errors in pl/sql block so that no crashing stuff of code
takes place...This is exactly the same as we do in C++ or java..right!!
There are two type:
===> predefined exceptions
===> user defined exceptions
The above 2 terms are self explanatory

predefined exceptions:

No-data-found == when no rows are returned

Cursor-already-open == when a cursor is opened in advance
Dup-val-On-index == for duplicate entry of index..
Storage-error == if memory is damaged
Program-error == internal problem in pl/sql
Zero-divide == divide by zero
invalid-cursor == if a cursor is not open and u r trying to close it
Login-denied == invalid user name or password
Invalid-number == if u r inserting a string datatype for a number
datatype which is already declared
Too-many-rows == if more rows r returned by select statement

SYNTAX

begin
sequence of statements;
exception
when --exception name then
sequence of statements;
end;

EXAMPLES

--When there is no data returned by row

declare
price item.actualprice%type;
begin
Select actual price into price from item where qty=888;
when no-data-found then
dbms_output.put_line('item missing');
end;

--EXAMPLE OF USER DEFINED EXCEPTION

DECLARE
e_rec emp%ROWTYPE;
e1 EXCEPTION;
sal1 emp.sal%TYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT sal INTO sal1 FROM emp WHERE deptno = 30 AND ename =
'John';
IF sal1 < 5000 THEN
RAISE e1;
sal1 := 8500;
UPDATE emp SET sal = sal1 WHERE deptno = 30 AND ename = 'John';
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN no_data_found THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR (-20001, 'John is not there.');
WHEN e1 THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR (-20002, 'Less Salary.');
END;

--EXAMPLE OF RAISE-APPLICATION-ERROR... THIS IS YOUR OWN

ERROR STATEMENT...YOU RAISE YOUR OWN ERROR

Declare
s1 emp.sal %type;
begin
select sal into s1 from emp where ename='SOMDUTT';
if(no-data-found) then
raise_application_error(20001, 'somdutt is not there');
end if;
if(s1 > 10000) then
raise_application_error(20002, 'somdutt is earing a lot');
end if;
update emp set sal=sal+500 where ename='SOMDUTT';
end;

--INTERESTING EG OF USER DEFINED EXCEPTIONS

Declare
zero-price exception;
price number(8);
begin
select actualprice into price from item where ordid =400;
if price=0 or price is null then
raise zero-price;
end if;
exception
when zero-price then
dbms_output.put_line('raised xero-price exception');
end;

CURSORS

Cursor is a work area in pl/sql which is used by sql server used to store
the result of a query. Each column value is pointed using pointer. You
can independently manipulate cursor values. A bit about it's
working..... suppose you ask for a query stored in the server ... at first
a cursor consisting of query result is created in server...now the cursor
is transferred to the client where again cursor is created and hence the
result is displayed......

Cursors are of 2 types: implicit and explicit.......implicit cursors are

created by oracle engine itself while explicit cursors are created by the
users......cursors are generally used in such a case when a query
returns more than one rows....normal pl/sql returning more than one
rows givens error but using cursor this limitation can be avoided....so
cursors are used....

Cursor attributes

%ISOPEN == returns true if ursor is open, false otherwise

%FOUND == returns true if recod was fetched successfully, false
otherwise
%NOTFOUND == returns true if record was not fetched successfully,
false otherwise
%ROWCOUNT == returns number of records processed from the
cursor.

Very important: Cursor can be controlled using following 3 control

statements. They are Open, Fetch, Close.....open statement identifies
the active set...i.e. query returned by select statement...close
statement closes the cursor...and fetch statement fetches rows into the
variables...Cursors can be made into use using cursor for loop and
fetch statement...we will see the corresponding examples...

EXAMPLES

--EXAMPLE OF SQL%FOUND (IMPLICIT CURSORS)

begin
update employee set salary=salary *0.15
where emp_code = &emp_code;
if sql%found then
dbms_output.put_line('employee record modified successfully');
else
dbms_output.put_line('employee no does not exist');
end if;
end;

--EXAMPLE FOR SQL%NOTFOUND (IMPLICIT CURSORS)

begin
update employee set salary = salary*0.15 where emp_code =
&emp_code;
if sql%notfound then
dbms_output.put_line('employee no . does not exist');
else
dbms_output.put_line('employee record modified successfully');
end if;
end;

--EXAMPLE FOR SQL%ROWCOUNT (IMPLICIT CURSORS)

declare
rows_affected char(4);
begin
update employee set salary = salary*0.15 where job='programmers';
rows_affected := to_char(sql%rowcount);
if sql%rowcount > 0 then
dbms_output.put_line(rows_affected || 'employee records modified
successfully');
else
dbms_output.put_line('There are no employees working as
programmers');
end if;
end;

Syntax of explicit cursor: Cursor cursorname is sql select statement;

Syntax of fetch : fetch cursorname into variable1, variable2...;
Syntax of close; close cursorname;
Syntax of open cursor; open cursorname;

--EXPLICIT CURSOR EG
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 is SELECT * FROM emp;
str_empno emp.empno%type;
str_ename emp.ename%type;
str_job emp.job%type;
str_mgr emp.mgr%type;
str_hiredate emp.hiredate%type;
str_sal emp.sal%type;
str_comm emp.comm%type;
str_deptno emp.deptno%type;
rno number;
BEGIN
rno := &rno;
FOR e_rec IN c1
LOOP
IF c1%rowcount = rno THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (str_empno || ' ' || str_ename || ' ' || str_job || '
' || str_mgr || ' ' || str_hiredate || ' ' || str_sal || ' ' || str_comm || ' ' ||
str_deptno);
END IF;
END LOOP;
END;

--ANOTHER EG DISPLAYING VALUE OF A TABLE

DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT * FROM emp;
e_rec emp%rowtype;
BEGIN
OPEN c1;
LOOP
FETCH c1 INTO e_rec;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Number: ' || ' ' || e_rec.empno);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Name : ' || ' ' || e_rec.ename);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Salary: ' || ' ' || e_rec.sal);
EXIT WHEN c1%NOTFOUND;
END LOOP;
CLOSE c1;
END;

-- Display details of Highest 10 salary paid employee

DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT * FROM emp ORDER BY sal DESC;
e_rec emp%rowtype;
BEGIN
FOR e_rec IN c1
LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Number: ' || ' ' || e_rec.empno);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Name : ' || ' ' || e_rec.ename);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Salary: ' || ' ' || e_rec.sal);
EXIT WHEN c1%ROWCOUNT >= 10;
END LOOP;
END;

-- EXAMPLE OF CURSOR FOR LOOP

declare cursor c1 is select * from somdutt;

begin
for outvariable in c1
loop
exit when c1%notfound;
if outvariable.age < 21 then
dbms_output.put_line(outvariable.age || ' ' || outvariable.name);
end if;
end loop;
end;

--ref STRONG CURSORS

DECLARE
TYPE ecursor IS REF CURSOR RETURN emp%ROWTYPE;
ecur ecursor;
e_rec emp%ROWTYPE;
dn NUMBER;
BEGIN
dn := &deptno;
OPEN ecur FOR SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno = dn;
FOR e_rec IN ecur
LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Employee No : ' || e_rec.empno);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Employee Salary: ' || e_rec.salary);
END LOOP;
END;

--REF WEAK CURSORS

DECLARE
TYPE tcursor IS REF CURSOR;
tcur tcursor;
e1 emp%ROWTYPE;
d1 dept%ROWTYPE;
tname VARCHAR2(20);
BEGIN
tname := &tablename;
IF tname = 'emp' THEN
OPEN tcur FOR SELECT * FORM emp;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Emp table opened.');
close tcur;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Emp table closed.');
ELSE IF tname = 'dept' THEN
OPEN tcur FOR SELECT * FROM dept;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Dept table opened.');
close tcur;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Emp table closed.');
ELSE
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR (-20004, 'Table name is wrong');
END IF;
END;

--CURSOR FOR LOOP WITH PARAMETERS

Declare
Cursor c1(Dno number) is select * from emp where deptno = dno;
begin
for empree in c1(10) loop;
dbms_output.put_line(empree.ename);
end loop;
end;

TRIGGERS

Trigger is a stored procedure which is called implicitly by oracle

engine whenever a insert, update or delete statement is fired.

Advantages of database triggers:

---> Data is generated on it's own
---> Replicate table can be maintained
---> To enforce complex integrity contraints
---> To edit data modifications
---> To autoincrement a field
etc..

Syntax: Create or replace trigger --triggername-- [before/after]

[insert/pdate/delete] on --tablename-- [for each satement/ for each
row] [when --condition--] plus..begin.and exception
Triggers are of following type: before or after trigger ....and for each
row and for each statement trigger... before trigger is fired before
insert/update/delete statement while after trigger is fired after
insert/update/delete statement...for each row and for each statements
triggers are self explainatory..

EXAMPLE

-- A database trigger that allows changes to employee table only

during the business hours(i.e. from 8 a.m to 5.00 p.m.) from monday to
saturday. There is no restriction on viewing data from the table
-CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER Time_Check BEFORE INSERT OR
UPDATE OR DELETE ON EMP BEGIN IF
TO_NUMBER(TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'hh24')) < 10 OR
TO_NUMBER(TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'hh24')) >= 17 OR
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DAY') = 'SAT' OR TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DAY') = 'SAT'
THEN RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR (-20004,'YOU CAN ACCESS ONLY
BETWEEN 10 AM TO 5 PM ON MONDAY TO FRIDAY ONLY.'); END IF; END;
--YOU HAVE 2 TABLES WITH THE SAME STRUCTURE. IF U DELETE A
RECORD FROM ONE TABLE , IT WILL BE INSERTED IN 2ND TABLE ED
TRIGGERNAME Create or replace trigger backup after delete on emp fro
each row begin insert into emp/values (:old.ename,:old.job,:old.sal);
end; save the file.. and then sql> @ triggername --To STICK IN SAL
FIELD BY TRIGGER MEANS WHEN U ENTER GREATER THAN 5000, THEN
THIS TRIGGER IS EXECUTED Create or replace trigger check before
insert on emp for each row when (New.sal > 5000); begin
raise_application_error(-20000, 'your no is greater than 5000'); end; --
NO CHANGES CAN BE DONE ON A PARTICULAR TABLE ON SUNDAY AND
SATURDAY Create or replace trigger change before on emp for each
row when (to_char(sysdate,'dy') in ('SAT','SUN')) begin
raise_application_error(-200001, 'u cannot enter data in saturnday and
sunday'); end; --IF U ENTER IN EMP TABLE ENAME FIELD'S DATA IN ANY
CASE IT WILL BE INSERTED IN CAPITAL LETTERS'S ONLY Create or
replace trigger cap before insert on emp for each row begin
:New.ename = upper(:New.ename); end; --A TRIGGER WHICH WILL NOT
ALLOW U TO ENTER DUPLICATE VALUES IN FIELD EMPNO IN EMP TABLE
Create or replace trigger dubb before insert on emp for each row
Declare cursor c1 is select * from emp; x emp%rowtype; begin open
c1; loop fetch c1 into x; if :New.empno = x.empno then
dbms_output.put_line('you entered duplicated no'); elseif :New.empno
is null then dbms_output.put_line('you empno is null'); end if; exit when
c1%notfound; end loop; close c1; end;

Remember trigger can be dropped using Drop Trigger triggername ;

statement...
PROCEDURES AND FUNCTIONS

procedure is a subprogram...which consists of a set of sql statement.

Procedures are not very different from functions. A procedure or
function is a logically grouped set of SQL and PL/SQL statements that
perform a specific task. A stored procedure or function is a named
pl/sql code block that have been compiled and stored in one of the
oracle engines's system tables.

To make a procedure or function dynamic either of them can be passed

parameters before execution. A procedure or function can then change
the way it works depending upon the parameters passed prior to its
execution.

Procedures and function are made up of a declarative part, an

executable part and an optional exception-handling part

A declaration part consists of declarations of variables. A executable

part consists of the logic i.e. sql statements....and exception handling
part handles any error during run-time

The oracle engine performs the following steps to execute a procedure

or function....Verifies user access, Verifies procedure or function validity
and executes the procedure or function. Some of the advantages of
using procedures and functions are: security, performance, memory
allocation, productivity, integrity.

Most important the difference between procedures and functions: A

function must return a value back to the caller. A function can return
only one value to the calling pl/sql block. By defining multiple out
parameters in a procedure, multiple values can be passed to the caller.
The out variable being global by nature, its value is accessible by any
pl/sql code block including the calling pl/sql block.

Syntax for stored procedure:

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE [schema] procedure name
(argument { IN, OUT, IN OUT} data type, ..) {IS, AS}
variable declarations; constant declarations; BEGIN
pl/sql subprogram body;
EXCEPTION
exception pl/sql block;
END;

Syntax for stored function:

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION [schema] functionname(argument IN
data type, ..) RETURN data type {IS, AS}
variable declarations; constant declarations; BEGIN
pl/sql subprogram body;
EXCEPTION
exception pl/sql block;
END;

The above syntax i think is self explanatory...but i will give you some
details...IN : specifies that a value for the argument must be specified
when calling the procedure or function. argument : is the name of an
argument to the procedure or function. parentheses can be omitted if
no arguments are present. OUT : specifies that the procedure passes a
value for this argument back to its calling environment after execution.
IN OUT : specifies that a value for the argument must be specified
when calling the procedure and that the procedure passes a value for
this argument back to its calling environment after execution. By
default it takes IN. Data type : is the data type of an argument.

EXAMPLES

--PROCEDURE USING NO ARGUMENT..AND USING CURSOR

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P2 IS
cursor cur1 is select * from emp;
begin
for erec in cur1
loop
dbms_output.put_line(erec.ename);
end loop;
end;

--PROCEDURE USING ARGUMENT

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE ME( X IN NUMBER) IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line(x*x);
end;

sql> exec me(3);

--FUNCTION using argument

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION RMT(X IN NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER
IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line(x*x);
--return (x*x);
end;
(make a block like this to run it.....)
begin
dbms_output.put_line(rmt(3));
end;

--CREATE A PROCEDURE THAT DELETE ROWS FROM ENQUIRY

--WHICH ARE 1 YRS BEFORE

Create or replace procedure myprocedure is begin

delete from enquiry where enquirydate <= sysdate - 1;
end;

--CREATE A PROCEDURE THAT TAKES ARGUMENT STUDENT NAME,

--AND FIND OUT FEES PAID BY THAT STUDENT

CREATE or REPLACE procedure me (namee in varchar) is

cursor c1 is select a.feespaiddate from feespaid a, enrollment b,
enquiry c
where
c.enquiryno = b.enquiryno and
a.rollno = b.rollno and
c.fname = namee;
begin
for erec in c1
loop
dbms_output.put_line(erec.feespaiddate);
end loop;
end;

--SUM OF 2 Numbers

CREATE or replace procedure p1 is

Declare
a number;
b number;
c number;
Begin
a:=50;
b:=89;
c:=a+b;
dbms_output.put_line('Sum of '||a||' and '||b||' is '||c);
End;

--DELETION PROCEDURE
create or replace procedure myproc is
begin
delete from enquiry where fname='somdutt';
end;

--IN and OUT procedure example

Create or replace procedure lest ( a number, b out number) is

identify number;
begin
select ordid into identity from item where
itemid = a;
if identity < 1000 then
b := 100;
end if;
end l

--in out parameter

Create or replace procedure sample ( a in number, b in out number) is

identity number;
begin
select ordid, prodid into identity, b from item where itemid=a;
if b<600 then
b := b + 100;
end if;
end;

now procedure is called by passing parameter

declare
a number;
b number;
begin
sample(3000, b)
dbms_output.put_line(1th value of b is 11 b);
end ;

--SIMILAR EXAMPLE AS BEFORE

create or replace procedure getsal( sal1 in out number) is

begin
select sal into sal1 from emp
where empno = sal1;
end ;
now use the above in plsql block

declare
sal1 number := 7999;
begin
getsal(sal1);
dbms_output.put_line('The employee salary is' || sal1);
end ;

You can make a procedure and functions similarly.....also if u wanna

drop a function then use drop function functionname and for procedure
use drop procedure procedurename

PACKAGES

A package is an oracle object, which holds other objects within it.

Objects commonly held within a package are procedures, functions,
variables, constants, cursors and exceptions. Packages in plsql is very
much similar to those packages which we use in JAVA......yeah!! java
packages holds numerous classes..right!!!...

A package has 2 parts..... package specification and package body

A package specification part consists of all sort of declaration of

functions and procedures while package body consists of codings and
logic of declared functions and procedures...

EXAMPLE

--SIMPLEST EG

--specification
create or replace package pack2 is
function rmt(x in number) return number;
procedure rmt1(x in number);
end;

--body
create or replace package body pack2 is
function rmt(x in number) return number is
begin
return (x*x);
end;

procedure rmt1(x in number) is

begin
dbms_output.put_line(x*x);
end;
end;

(how to run.....)
exec packagename.procedurename
i.e.
exec pack2.rmt1(3);

As shown above u can put in complicated procedures and functions

inside the package...I have just shown a simple example...you can
easily modify the above code to fit your requirement......Just try out
packages which includes cursors, procedures and
functions..etc..Remeber pl/sql supports overloading...i.e. you can use
the same function or procedure name in your application but with
different no or type of arguments.