The Dynamits and Thermodynamics of COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW

By ASCHER H. SHAPIRO
Professor of Mecha 'cU.'lEngineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology

IN

Two

VOLUMES

VOLUME I

THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY 1 NEW YORK

CONTENTS
VOLUME I Part I. Background
CHAPTER 1 FOUNDATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS PAGE

Properties of the Continuum. Systems and Control Volumes. Conservation of Mass. Momentum Theorem. Theorem of Moment of Momentum. Units and Dimensions. 2
FOUNDATIONS OF THERMODYNAMICS

23

The First Law of Thermodynamics. The Second Law of Thermodynamics. Thermodynamic Properties of the Continuum. The First Law for a Control Volume. The Second Law for a Control Volume. The Perfect Gas. 3
INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

45

The Velocity of Sound. Physical Differentes Between Incompressible, Subsonic, and Supersonic Flows. The Mach Number and Mach Angle. Similarity Parameters. Domain of the Continuum. Classification of Compressible Flows. Optical Methods of Investigation.

Part II. One-Dimensional Flow

4
ISENTROPIC FLOW

73

General Features of Isentropic Flow. Adiabatic Flow of a Perfect Gas. Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas. Working Charts and Tables for Isentropic Flow. Choking in Isentropic Flow. Operation of Nozzles Under Varying Pressure Ratios. Special Relations for Low Mach Numbers. Deviations from Perfect Gas Laws. Performance of Real Nozzles. Some Applications of Isentropic Flow. 5
NORMAL

&Well WAVES

112

Governing Relations of the Normal Shock. Normal Shock in a Perfect Gas. Working Formulas, Curves, and Tables. Weak Shock Waves. Formation of Shock Waves. Thickness of Shock Waves. Normal Shocks in Ducts. Moving Shock Waves. Operating Characteristics of Converging-Diverging Nozzle. One-Dimensional Supersonic Diffusers. Supersonic Pitot Tube. ix

CONTENTS x CHAFTER 6 FLOW IN CONSTANT-AREA DUCTS WITH FRICTION

PAGE

159

Adiabatic, Constant-Area Flow of a Perfect Gas. Performance of Long Ducts at Various Pressure Ratios. Isothermal Flow in Long Ducts. Experimental Friction Coefficients. 7 FLOW IN DUCTS WITH HEATING OR COOLING Simple-Heating Relations for a Perfect Gas. Choking Effects in Simple To-Change. Shock Waves with Changes in Stagnation Temperature. The Recovery Factor. The Coefficient of Heat Transfer. 8 GENERALIZED ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONTINUOUS FLOW Physical Equations and Definitions. Working Equations and Tables of Influence Coefficients. Flow with Constant Specific Heat and Molecular Weight. General Features of Flow Patterns. General Method of Solution. Simple Types of Flow. Example of Combined Friction and Area Change. Examples of Combined Friction and Heat Transfer. Special Conditions at the Sonic Point. 190

219

Part III. Introduction to Flow in Two and Three Dimensions

9 THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR STEADY, IRROTATIONAL FLOW 265 The Physical Significance of Irrotational Motion. Euler's Equations of Motion. Kelvin's Theorem. The Connection Between the Rotation and the Thermodynamic Properties of the Flow. The Equation of Continuity. The Laws of Thermodynamics. Differential Equations in Terms of the Velocity Potential. Differential Equations in Terms of the Stream Function. Relations Between the Velocity Potential and the Stream Function.

Part I

Subsonic Flow
303

10 TWO-DIMENSIONAL, SUBSONIC FLOW WITH SMALL PERTURBATIONS

Linearization of the Potential Equation. Linearization of the Pressure Coefficient. Flow Past a Wave-Shaped Wall. Gothert's Rule. The Prandtl-Glauert Rule. Experimental Results for Thin Profiles. Wind Tunnel Corrections. Flow Inside Two-Dimensional Passages.
11 HODOGRAPH METHOD FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL, STIBSONIC FLOW

336

Derivation of the Hodograph Equations. The Tangent-Gas Approximation. The Karman-Tsien Pressure Correction Formula. Calculation of Profile Shape Correction. Extension of KarmanTsien Method. Miscellaneous Examples.

CONTENTS xi CHAPTER PAGE 12 MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND RESULTS FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL, SUBSONIC FLOW 364

The Rayleigh-Janzen Method of Expansion in Series of the Mach Number. The Prandtl-Glauert Method of Expansion in Series of a Shape Parameter. Relaxation Method. Some Measured Effects of Compressibility in Subsonic Flow. The Streamline Curvature Method.
13 THREE-DIMENSIONAL, SUBSONIC FLOW

393

Gothert's Rule for Uniform Flow with Small Perturbations. Flow Past Ellipsoids. Bodies of Revolution. Spheres. Wings of Finite Span. Sweptback Wings. Sweptback Wings of Finite Span.

Part V. Supersonic Flow 14 TWO-DIMENSIONAL, STJPERSONIC FLOW WITII SMALL PERTURBATIONS 427

Linearization of the Equations. The General Solution for Linearized Supersonic Flow. Geometrical Interpretation of the General Solution. Flow Past a Wave-Shaped Wall. Supersonic Airfoils. Refiection and Interseetion of Waves.
15 METHOD OF CHARACTERISTICS FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL, SUPERSONIC FLOW

462

Flow with Waves of One Family by Extension of Linear Theory. Flow with Waves of Both Families by Extension of Linear Theory. Application of Theory of Characteristics. Simple Waves by Theory of Characteristics. Field Method Versus Lattice-Point Method. Unit Processes. Graphical Versus Numerical Method. Some Special Features of Supersonic Flow. Applications of Method of Characteristics. Design of Supersonic Wind Tunnel Nozzles. Adiabatic, Nonviscous Flow with Rotation.
16 OBLIQUE SHOCKS

529

Oblique Shock Equations. Shock Geometry. Shock Polars. Some Special Aspects of Oblique Shocks. Very Weak Shocks. Refiection and Interaction of Shocks. Curved Shocks. Explicit Solutions by Series Expansions. Examples of Two-Dimensional Flows Containing Shocks. Two-Dimensional Profiles. Interaction of Shock Waves with Boundary Layer.

Appendix A THEORY OF CHARACTERISTICS

The Characteristic Curves. Method of Constructing Characteristic Curves. Simple Waves.

595

B TABLES OF COMPRESSIBLE-FLOW FUNCTIONS

INDEX

610 635

VOLUME II Part V. Supersonic Flow (Continued)

CHAFTER 17 AXIALLY SYMMETRIC SUPERSONIC FLOW

Exact Solution for Flow Past a Cone. Linear Theory for Slender Bodies of Revolution. Method of Characteristics. Miscellaneous Experimental Results. 18 SUPERSONIC FLOW PAST WINGS OF FINITE SPAN Preliminary Considerations of Finite Wings. Sweptback Wings. Similarity Rule for Supersonic Wings. The Method of Supersonic Source and Doublet Distributions. The Method of Conical Fields. Typical Theoretical Results for Finite Wings. Comparison of Theory with Experiment. 19 HYPERSONIC FLOW Similarity Laws for Hypersonic Flow. Oblique Shock Relations for Hypersonic Flow. Simple-Wave Expansion Relations for Hypersonic Flow. Hypersonic Performance of Two-Dimensional Profiles. Hypersonic Performance of Bodies of Revolution. Experimental Results.

Part VI. Mixed Flow

20 THE HODOGRAPH METHOD FOR MIXED SUBSONIC-SUPERSONIC
FLOW

Equations of the Hodograph Method. Source-Vortex Flow. Compressible Flow with 180 Turn. The Limit Line. Solution of Hodograph Equations by Hypergeometric Functions. 21 TRANSONIC FLOW The Transonic Similarity Law. Applications of the Transonic Similarity Law. Flow in Throat of Converging-Diverging Nozzle. Relaxation Method. Transonic Flow Past a Wavy Wall. Flow at Mach Number Unity. Slopes of Force Coefficients at M. = 1. Transonic Flow Past Wedge Nose. 22 DRAG AND LIFT AT TRANSONIC SPEEDS Experimental Validity of Transonic Similarity Law. Characteristics of Wing Profiles. Characteristics of Wings. Transonic Drag of Bodies of Revolution. Detached Shocks. Theoretical Consideration of Transonic Flow Without Shocks. Interaction Between Boundary Layer and Shock Wave. xii

CONTENTS

xiii

Part VII. Unsteady Motion in One Dimension

CHAPTER 23 UNSTEADY WAVE MOTION OF SMALL AMPLITUDE

Equations of Motion. Waves of Small Amplitude. Simplified Physical Analysis of Pressure Pulse. Characteristic Curves. Application of Theory. Development of Wave Form. Effects of Gradual Changes in Area.
24 UNSTEADY, ONE-DIMENSIONAL, CONTINUOUS FLOW

Extension of Linearized Theory. Method of Characteristics. Simple Waves. Waves of Both Families. Unit Operations and Boundary Conditions. Unsteady, One-Dimensional Flow. Remarks on Details of Working Out the Method of Characteristics. Some Examples.
2 UNSTEADY, ONE-DIMENSIONAL SHOCK WAVES

Analysis in Terms of Stationary Shock Formulas. Analysis of Moving Shocks. The Shock TubeRiemann's Problem. Weak Shock Waves. Modified Calculation Procedure for Weak Shocks. End Conditions and Interaction Effects for Strong Shocks. Comparison Between Experimental and Theoretical Results.

Part VIII. Flow of Real Gases with Viscosity and Heat Conductivity
26 THE LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

Differential Equations of the Laminar Boundary Layer. Flow With Prandtl Number Unity. Flow With Arbitrary Prandtl Number. Integral Equations of the Laminar Boundary Layer. Laminar Boundary Layer for Axi-Symmetric Flow. Experimental Results for Laminar Boundary Layers. Stability of the Laminar Boundary Layer.
27 THE TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER

Differential Equations of the Turbulent Boundary Layer. Integral Equations of the Turbulent Boundary Layer. Analyses of Recovery Factor, Skin Friction, and Heat Transfer for Turbulent Flow Fast a Flat Plate with Turbulent Prandtl Number of Unity. Theoretical and Experimental Results for Skin Friction on Flat Plates. Recovery Factor for Turbulent Flow. Turbulent Boundary Layer on Bodies of Revolution.
28 BOUNDARY LAYERS IN TUBES AND IN THE PRESENCE OF SHOCK

WAVES

Flow in Tubes. Shock-Boundary Layer Interactions in Supersonic Flow. Shock-Boundary Layer Interactions in Transonic Flow. Normal Shocks in Ducts. Boundary-Layer Separation Produced by Shock Waves.
INDEX FOR VOLUMES I AND II