Fluid Mechanics - Lecture Notes

1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
2 Fluids and their Properties ............................................................................................................................ 5
3 Newtons Law of Viscosity.............................................................................................................................. 7
4 Physical properties............................................................................................................................................ 7
4.1 Density ......................................................................................................................................................... 8
4.2 Specific weight .......................................................................................................................................... 8
4.3 Specific Volume ........................................................................................................................................ 8
4.4 Specific Gravity ......................................................................................................................................... 8
4.5 Viscosity ...................................................................................................................................................... 8
4.6 Kinematic viscosity ................................................................................................................................. 9
4.7 Vapor Pressure ......................................................................................................................................... 9
4.8 Compressibility and the Bulk modulus: ......................................................................................... 9
4.9 Surface Tension ..................................................................................................................................... 10
4.9.1 Capillarity ...................................................................................................................................... 12
4.10 Buoyancy .................................................................................................................................................. 16
4.10.1 The buoyant force ...................................................................................................................... 16
4.10.2 Archimedes' Principle: ............................................................................................................. 16
5 Types of fluids .................................................................................................................................................. 18
5.1 Newtonian and non-Newtonian Fluids ....................................................................................... 18
5.1.1 Newtonian fluids ........................................................................................................................ 18
5.1.2 Non-Newtonian fluids: ............................................................................................................. 19
5.1.3 Rheology ........................................................................................................................................ 21
5.2 Compressible and incompressible fluids .................................................................................... 21
5.2.1 Compressible fluid ..................................................................................................................... 21
5.2.2 Incompressible fluid ................................................................................................................. 21
6 Fluid statics ....................................................................................................................................................... 22
6.1 Pascal's law for pressure at a point .............................................................................................. 22
6.2 Variation of pressure with elevation: .......................................................................................... 24
6.3 Barometric equation ........................................................................................................................... 27
6.3.1 Variation of pressure in an incompressible fluid (liquid) ......................................... 27
6.3.2 Variation of pressure in a compressible fluid (gas) ..................................................... 28
6.4 Gravity decanting ................................................................................................................................. 28
7 Pressure scales ................................................................................................................................................. 30
8 Pressure measurement ................................................................................................................................ 31
8.1 Barometers.............................................................................................................................................. 31
8.2 Piezometer .............................................................................................................................................. 33
8.3 Manometers ............................................................................................................................................ 33
8.4 Pressure Gauges .................................................................................................................................... 38
9 Units and dimensions .................................................................................................................................... 38
9.1 Systems of Units .................................................................................................................................... 39
9.2 Dimensions ............................................................................................................................................. 40
9.3 Dimensional Analysis: ........................................................................................................................ 42
9.4 Dimensional Homogeneity ............................................................................................................... 42
9.5 Buckinghams t ............................................................................................................. 44
9.5.1 1
st
t theorem: .............................................................................................................................. 44
9.5.2 2
nd
t theorem ............................................................................................................................... 45
9.5.3 Choice of repeating variables ................................................................................................ 45
9.6 An example .............................................................................................................................................. 45
9.7 Wrong choice of physical properties. ........................................................................................... 48
9.8 Manipulation of the t groups .......................................................................................................... 49
9.9 Similitude ................................................................................................................................................. 50
9.9.1 Geometric similarity ................................................................................................................. 51
9.9.2 Kinematic similarity ................................................................................................................. 51
9.9.3 Dynamic similarity .................................................................................................................... 52
9.10 Models ....................................................................................................................................................... 52
UNIT IV
1 Flow around solids ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.1 Dilute particle concentration .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.1.1 Type I settling ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.1.2 Type II settling ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Coagulation/Flocculation ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Concentrated Particle Concentration ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Type III settling ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Type IV settling ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Settling Velocity ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Example of buoyancy ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Flow through immersed bodies ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Packed beds .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Principal requirements of a tower packing are ..................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Flow through packed bed ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Pressure drop across a Fixed Bed ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Velocity Error! Bookmark not defined.
Diameter Error! Bookmark not defined.
Laminar flow ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Turbulent flow .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Intermediate Flow ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Fixed Bed Friction Factor ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Sphericity .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Fluidization ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Response to Superficial Flow ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Ergun equation for fluidized bed. ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Minimum Fluidization ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Void Fraction at Min. Fluidization ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Uses of Fluidization ................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Example ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Comparison of Contacting Methods ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Fluid Mechanics
INTRODUCTION
Fluid Mechanics is that section of applied mechanics, concerned with the statics and dynamics
of liquids and gases. Thorough understanding of fluid properties, fundamental laws of
mechanics and thermodynamics, develops it. Knowledge of fluid mechanics is essential for
the chemical engineer, because the majority of chemical processing operations are conducted
either partially or totally in the fluid phase. Engineering applications include Blood in
capillaries, Oil in pipelines, Groundwater movement, Runoff in parking lots, Pumps, filters,
rivers, etc.
The handling of liquids is much simpler, much cheaper, and much less troublesome than
handling solids. Even in many operations a solid is handled in a finely divided state so that it
stays in suspension in a fluid.
Fluid Statics: Which treats fluids in the equilibrium state of no shear stress
Fluid Mechanics: Which treats when portions of fluid are in motion relative to other parts.
Fluids are essential to life. Human body 95% water. Earths surface is 2/3 water. Atmosphere
extends 17km above the earths surface. Fluids are omnipresent
Weather & climate
Vehicles: trains, planes, and automobiles? (and ships)
Environment
Physiology and medicine
Sports & recreation
Many other examples!

Significance of fluid mechanics in modern world is great.
FLUIDS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
Fluids:
In everyday life, we recognize three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. Although different
in many respects, liquids and gases have a common characteristic in which they differ from
solids: they are fluids, lacking the ability of solids to offer a permanent resistance to a
deforming force.
Fluid defined:
A fluid is a substance, which deforms continuously under the action of shearing forces,
however small they may be.
A fluid is a substance that can resist shear only when moving
Conversely, it follows that: If a fluid is at rest, there can be no shearing forces acting on
it and, therefore, all forces in the fluid must be perpendicular to the planes upon
which they act.
Shear force is a force component tangent to a surface. The shear force per unit area is called
shear stress. Shear stresses are developed when the fluid is in motion, if the particles of the
fluid move relative to each other so that they have different velocities, causing the original
shape of the fluid to become distorted. If the velocity of the fluid is same at every point, no
shear stresses will be produced, since the fluid particles are at rest relative to each other.
Differences between solids and fluids:
The differences between the behaviors of solids and fluids under an applied force are as
follows:
i. For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, providing that the elastic limit
is not exceeded. For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied stress.
ii. The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is applied and, if
the elastic limit is not exceeded, the deformation disappears when the force is
removed. A fluid continues to flow as long as the force is applied and will not recover
its original form when the force is removed.
Differences between liquids and gases:
i. A liquid is difficult to compress and, for many purposes, may be regarded as
incompressible. A gas is comparatively easy to compress. Changes of volume with
pressure are large, cannot normally be neglected and are related to changes of
temperature
ii. A given mass of liquid occupies a fixed volume, irrespective of the size or shape of its
container, and a free surface is formed if the volume of the container is greater than
that of the liquid. A given mass of gas has no fixed volume and will expand
continuously unless restrained by a containing vessel. It will completely fill any vessel
in which it is placed and, therefore, does not form a free surface.
Liquids: Close packed, strong cohesive forces, retains volume, has free surface
Gasses: Widely spaced, weak cohesive forces, free to expand

Continuum hypothesis

All substances are composed of an extremely large number of molecules, Molecules
interact with each other via collision and intermolecular forces,
Ignore the molecular nature of matter and assume that the matter is continuous














NEWTONS LAW OF VISCOSITY
Consider a 3d rectangular element of fluid, like that in the figure below.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
DENSITY
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Density of a fluid of definite volume oV whose
mass is om is given by
V
m
Lim
V
o
o

o 0
=
It has the units kg/m
3

SPECIFIC WEIGHT
Specific weight: weight of the fluid per unit volume.
g = .
In SI units will be expressed in N/m
2

SPECIFIC VOLUME
Volume per unit mass
v = 1/
units m
3
/kg
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
It is the ratio of the fluid density to the density of a reference substance
For liquid it is water, and for air it is hydrogen or air.
Relationship Between Specific Weight, and Density
w = mg - - - - 1.
w = V - - - - 2.
m = V - - - - 3.
= g - - - - 4.VISCOSITY
The viscosity () of a fluid measures its resistance to flow under an applied shear
stress.
Representative units for viscosity are kgm
-1
s
-1
, gcm
-1
s
-1
(also known as poise
designated by P).
The centipoise (cP), one hundredth of poise, is a convenient unit, since the viscosity of
water at room temperature is approximately 1 centipoise.
Viscosity is also defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain

t
=
F
H
I
K
dv
dy

Causes of viscosity in a fluid are attributed to
o Cohesive force between the molecules
o Molecular momentum exchange
For liquids viscosity decreases with temperature (decrease in cohesion)
The viscosities () of liquids generally vary approximately with absolute temperature
T according to: ln = a - b ln T
For gases viscosity increases with temperature The viscosity () of many gases is
approximated by the formula: = o(T/To)
n
in which T is the absolute temperature, o
is the viscosity at an absolute reference temperature To, and n is an empirical
exponent that best fits the experimental data.
For both liquids and gases except for very special cases viscosity does not vary
significantly with pressure.
Viscosities of liquids are generally two orders of magnitude greater than gases at atmospheric
pressure. For example, at 25
o
C, water = 1 cP and air = 1 x 10
-2
cP.
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
The kinematic viscosity is defined as a matter of computational convenience since the ratio of
dynamic viscosity to fluid density frequently occurs in fluid mechanics calculations. Kinematic
viscosity v is defined as /, and will be found to be important in cases in which significant
viscous and gravitational forces exist.
VAPOR PRESSURE
The pressure over boiling liquid is called its vapor pressure. This pressure is a function of
temperature (vapor pressure increases with temperature). In this context we usually think
about the temperature at which boiling occurs. For example, water boils at 100
o
C at sea-level
atmospheric pressure (1 atm abs). That is at 100
o
C the vapor pressure is equal to the
atmospheric pressure (1 atm abs). It is easy to visualize that boiling can also occur in water at
temperatures much below 100
o
C if the pressure over water is reduced to its vapor pressure at
that temperature. For example, the vapor pressure of water at 10
o
C is 0.01 atm. Such boiling if
occur on the suction side of a pump vapor bubbles start growing in local regions of very low
pressure and then collapse in regions of high downstream pressure. This phenomenon is
called as cavitation
COMPRESSIBILITY AND THE BULK MODULUS:
Compressibility(elasticity) of a fluid refers to the change in volume, AV, of the fluid when
subjected to a change in pressure, Ap . A relative measure of this effect is bulk modulus, E.
All materials, whether solids, liquids or gases, are compressible, i.e. the volume V of a given
mass will be reduced to V - oV when a force is exerted uniformly all over its surface. If the
force per unit area of surface increases from p to p + op, the relationship between change of
pressure and change of volume depends on the bulk modulus of the material.
Bulk modulus (K) = (change in pressure) / (volumetric strain)
Volumetric strain is the change in volume divided by the original volume. Therefore,
K = -V dp/dV 1
Negative sign indicates the volume decreases as pressure increases.
Considering unit mass of substance, V = 1/ 2
Differentiating, Vd + dV = 0
dV = - (V/)d 3
Putting the value of dV from equn.3 to equn.1,
K = - V dp / (-(V/)o) i.e. K = dp/d or 1/v dp/d
The concept of the bulk modulus is mainly applied to liquids, since for gases the
compressibility is so great that the value of K is not a constant. The relationship between
pressure and mass density is more conveniently found from the characteristic equation of
gas.
For liquids, the changes in pressure occurring in many fluid mechanics problems are not
sufficiently great to cause appreciable changes in density. It is therefore usual to ignore such
changes and consider liquids as incompressible. Gases may also be treated as incompressible
if the pressure changes are very small, but usually compressibility cannot be ignored. In
general, compressibility becomes important when the velocity of the fluid exceeds about one-
fifth of the velocity of a pressure wave (velocity of sound) in the fluid.
Typical values of Bulk Modulus:
K = 2.05 x 10
9
N/m
2
for water, K = 1.62 x 10
9

N/m
2
for oil.
SURFACE TENSION
Two non-mixing fluids (e.g., a liquid and a
gas) will form an interface. The molecules
below the interface act on each other with forces equal in all directions, whereas the
molecules near the surface act on each other with increased forces due to the absence of
neighbors. That is, the interface acts like a stretched membrane, e.g.
A molecule I in the interior of a liquid is under attractive forces in all directions and the vector
sum of these forces is zero.
But there is a net inward cohesive force that is perpendicular to the surface acts on a molecule
S at the surface of a liquid. Hence it requires work to move molecules to the surface against
this opposing force, and surface molecules have more energy than interior ones.
The surface tension (o sigma) of a liquid is the work that must be done to bring enough
molecules from inside the liquid to the surface to form one new unit area of that surface (J/m
2

= N/m). Historically surface tensions have been reported in handbooks in dynes per
centimeter (1 dyne/cm = 0.001 N/m).
Surface tension is the tendency of the surface of a liquid to behave like a stretched elastic
membrane. There is a natural tendency for liquids to minimize their surface area. For this
reason, drops of liquid tend to take a spherical shape in order to minimize surface area. For
such a small droplet, surface tension will cause an increase of internal pressure p in order to
balance the surface force.
We will find the amount Ap (p - poutside) by which the pressure inside a liquid droplet
of radius r, exceeds the pressure of the surrounding vapor/air by making force
balances on a hemispherical drop. Observe that the internal pressure p is trying to blow apart
the two hemispheres, whereas the surface tension o is trying to pull them together.
Therefore, Ap tr
2
= 2tro
i.e. Ap = 2o/r


Similar force balances can be made for cylindrical liquid jet.
Ap 2r= 2o
i.e. Ap = o/r
Similar treatment can be made for a soap bubble, which is having two free surfaces.
Ap tr
2
= 2 x 2tro
i.e. Ap = 4o/r
Surface tension generally appears only in situations involving either free surfaces (liquid/gas
or liquid/solid boundaries) or interfaces (liquid/liquid boundaries); in the latter case, it is
usually called the interfacial tension.
Representative values for the surface tensions of liquids at 20oC, in contact either with air or
their vapor (there is usually little difference between the two), are given in Table.
Liquid
Surface Tension
o dyne/cm
Liquid
Surface Tension
o dyne/cm
Benzene 23.70 Mercury 435.50
Benzene 28.85 Methanol 22.61
Ethanol 22.75 n-Octane 21.78
Glycerol 63.40 Water 72.75

CAPILLARITY
Rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and depends on the
relative magnitude of cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the
containing vessel.
Liquids rise in tubes if they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes that do not wet
(cohesion > adhesion).
Wetting and contact angle
Fluids wet some solids and do not others.

The figure shows some of the possible wetting behaviors of a drop of liquid placed on a
horizontal, solid surface (the remainder of the surface is covered with air, so two fluids are
present).
Fig.(a) represents the case of a liquid which wets a solid surface well, e.g. water on a very
clean copper. The angle u shown is the angle between the edge of the liquid surface and the
solid surface, measured inside the liquid. This angle is called the contact angle and is a
measure of the quality of wetting. For perfectly wetting, in which the liquid spreads as a thin
film over the surface of the solid, u is zero.
Fig.(c) represents the case of no wetting. If there were exactly zero wetting, u would be 180o.
However, the gravity force on the drop flattens the drop, so that 180o angle is never observed.
This might represent water on teflon or mercury on clean glass.
We normally say that a liquid wets a surface if u is less than 90o and does not wet if u is more
than 90o. Values of u less than 20o are considered strong wetting, and values of u greater than
140o are strong nonwetting.
Capillarity is important (in fluid measurments) when using tubes smaller than about 10 mm
in diameter.
Capillary rise (or depression) in a tube can be calculated by making force balances. The forces
acting are force due to surface tension and gravity.
The force due to surface tesnion,
Fs = tdocos(u), where u is the wetting angle or contact angle. If tube (made of glass) is clean u
is zero for water and about 140
o
for Mercury. This is opposed by the gravity force on the
column of fluid, which is equal to the height of the liquid which is above (or below) the free
surface and which equals
Fg = (t/4)d2hg, where is the density of liquid.

Equating these forces and solving for Capillary rise (or depression), we find
h = 4ocos(u)/(gd)
Ex. 1. Air is introduced through a nozzle into a tank of water to form a stream of bubbles. If the
bubbles are intended to have a diameter of 2 mm, calculate how much the pressure of the air at
the tip of the nozzle must exceed that of the surrounding water. Assume that the value of surface
tension between air and water as 72.7 x 10
-3
N/m.
Data:
Surface tension (o) = 72.7 x 10
-3
N/m
Radius of bubble (r) = 1
Formula:
Ap = 2o/r
Calculations:
Ap = 2 x 72.7 x 10
-3
/ 1 = 145.4 N/m
2

That is, the pressure of the air at the tip of nozzle must exceed the pressure of surrounding
water by 145.4 N/m
2

Ex.2 A soap bubble 50 mm in diameter contains a pressure (in excess of atmospheric) of 2 bar.
Find the surface tension in the soap film.
Data:
Radius of soap bubble (r) = 25 mm = 0.025 m
Ap = 2 Bar = 2 x 105 N/m
2

Formula:
Pressure inside a soap bubble and surface tension (o) are related by,
Ap = 4o/r
Calculations:
o = Apr/4 = 2 x 105 x 0.025/4 = 1250 N/m
Ex 3. Water has a surface tension of 0.4 N/m. In a 3 mm diameter vertical tube if the liquid rises
6 mm above the liquid outside the tube, calculate the contact angle.
Data:
Surface tension (o) = 0.4 N/m
Dia of tube (d) = 3 mm = 0.003 m
Capillary rise (h) = 6 mm = 0.006 m
Formula:
Capillary rise due to surface tension is given by
h = 4ocos(u)/(gd), where u is the contact angle.
Calculations:
cos(u) = hgd/(4o) = 0.006 x 1000 x 9.812 x 0.003 / (4 x 0.4) = 0.11
Therfore, contact angle u = 83.7
o

BUOYANCY
THE BUOYANT FORCE
The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the liquid that the object displaces. The buoyant
force is essentially caused by the difference between the pressure at the top of the object,
which pushes it downward, and the pressure at the bottom, which pushes it upward. Since the
pressure at the bottom is always greater than at the top, every object submerged in a fluid
necessarily feels an upward buoyant force. Of course, objects also feel a downward force due
to gravity, and the difference between the gravitational force and buoyant force on a
submerged object determines whether that object will sink, or rise to the surface. If the
weight is greater than the buoyant force, the object sinks, and vice versa. If the liquid is
denser, the buoyant force is greater. Steel sinks in water, but floats in mercury. Buoyancy is
the ability to float.
ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE:
An object is buoyed up with a force equal to the weight of the liquid it displaces. This is known
as Archimedes' Principle

We can calculate the force exerted by static fluids on floating & immersed bodies be
integrating the vertical component of the pressure force over the entire surface of the body.

The vertical component pressure force integrated around entire surface of a float or
submerged body is called buoyant force.

}
= u ud P F cos
or ( ) y x P P F
top bottom
A A =
l
h
Ptop
Pbottom
But ( )
top air liq bot
P h l g gh P + + =
( ) h l g gh P P
air liq top bot
+ =
( ) ( ) y x h l g gh y x P P F
air liq top bottom
A A + = A A =
Since liq>>air
We have
liq liq liq
gV y x gh F = A A =
i.e., the weight of the floating body is exactly equal to the weight of the displaced. Thus, for
floating bodies Archimedes principle.

Thus for floating bodies Archimedes principle is often stated that A floating body displaces a
volume of fluid whose weight is exactly equal to its own weight or Buoyant force is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced.

In equations:
buoyant force Fb = weight of fluid displaced, mfluiddisplaced g.
But mfluiddisplaced =density of fluid X volume of object = fluid Vobject.
Thus, we get: Fb = fluid Vobject g. (1)
Note:
This only works if the object is completely submerged.
Also only applies where there is gravity, because it is the force of gravity that makes
the pressure in a fluid increase the further down you go.

We can use Archimedes' Principle to design a simple method of measuring the density of a
fluid. The basic idea is that we carefully measure the volume of an object, directly find the
buoyant force on an object when it is totally submerged in a fluid, and use equation 1 to find
fluid:
fluid = Fb / g Vobject (2)

Can you measure Fb directly? Almost. If you try to weigh an object while it is under water, you
will find that it weight less than if it were in air. That is because, when you weigh a submerged
object, you are actually measuring the weight minus the buoyant force. If you do this with a
mass scale, then the apparent mass (mapparent) will be less than the actual mass (mactual)
accordingly. What you will do is measure the apparent mass of the object when it is
submerged in the fluid using the mass scale (there is a special attachment that allows you to
do this; I will show you how it works). The difference between the apparent mass and the
actual mass will be due to the buoyant force on the object. That is:
Fb = mactual g mapparent g = (mactual mapparent)g. (3)
Combining equations (2) and (3):
( ) ( )
fluid
apparent actual
fluid
apparent actual
fluid
V
m m
g V
g m m
=

=

TYPES OF FLUIDS
Fluids may be classified in different ways; either according to their behavior under the action
of externally applied pressure, or according to the effects produced by the action of shear
stress
NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Fluid can be classified as Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids according to the effect
produced by the action of a shear stress
NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Fluids that obey the Newtons law of viscosity are called as Newtonian fluids. Newtons law of
viscosity states that the shear stress is directly proportional to velocity gradient. It is given by
t =
dy
dv

Where t = shear stress, N/m
2
= viscosity of fluid, kg m
-1
s
-1
v = velocity, m/s
dy
dv

= shear rate, rate of strain or velocity gradient s
-1
.
All gases and most liquids that have simpler molecular formula and low molecular weight
such as water, benzene, ethyl alcohol, CCl4, hexane and most solutions of simple molecules are
Newtonian fluids.
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS:
Fluids that do not obey the Newtons law of viscosity are called as non-Newtonian fluids.
Generally non-Newtonian fluids are complex mixtures: slurries, pastes, gels, polymer
solutions etc.,


Various non-Newtonian Behaviors:
Time-Independent behaviors
:
Fluid properties are independent of time under shear.
Bingham-plastic: Resist a small shear stress (threshold shear stress) but flow easily under
larger shear stresses. It follows a straight line in a graph of shear stress Vs. rate of shear. e.g.
tooth-paste, jellies, and some slurries.
Pseudo-plastic: Most non-Newtonian fluids fall under this group. Viscosity decreases with
increasing velocity gradient. e.g. polymer solutions, blood. Pseudoplastic fluids are also called
as Shear thinning fluids. At low shear rates (dv/dy) the shear thinning fluid is more viscous
than the Newtonian fluid, and at high shear rates it is less viscous.
n>1
du/dy
n=1
N<1
du/dy
Dilatant fluids: Viscosity increases with increasing velocity gradient. They are uncommon,
but suspensions of starch and sand behave in this way. Dilatant fluids are also called as shear
thickening fluids.
Time dependent behaviors
:

The properties of these fluids are dependent upon duration of shear.
Thixotropic fluids: The dynamic viscosity decreases with the time for which shearing forces
are applied. e.g. thixotropic jelly paints.
Rheopectic fluids: Dynamic viscosity increases with the time for which shearing forces are
applied. e.g. gypsum suspension in water.
Visco-elastic fluids: Some fluids have elastic properties, which allow them to spring back
when a shear force is released. e.g. egg white.
Power law
Power law is a mathematical model describing the flow behavior of all the non- Newtonian
fluids. It is also known as Ostwald-de Walae Model
dy
du
dy
du
m
n 1
= t
here, m = flow consistency index
n = flow behavior index
according to power law viscosity is given as
1
= =
n
dy
du
m
dy
du
t

when n = 1, m= model satisfies Newtonian model
when n < 1, model valid for Pseudoplastic fluids, e.g: gelatin, blood, milk etc.,
when n > 1, model valid for dilatent fluids, e.g: sugar in water, aq. Suspension of rice
starch etc
RHEOLOGY
The relationship between the shear stress and shear rate in a real fluid are part of the science
rheology. Ihe rheological behavior of fluids are summarized as follows
Type of fluid Effect of increase shear stress Time dependent
Newtonian

None No
Pseudoplastic
Thixotropic
Dilatent
Rheopectic
Thins
Thins
Thickens
Thickens
No
Yes
No
Yes

COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS
Fluid can be classified as Compressible and incompressible fluids according to the effect
produced by change in pressure
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
If the volume of the fluid varies with change in temperature and pressure it is said to be
compressible fluid. Most of the gases are compressible
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID
If the volume of the fluid does not vary with change in temperature and pressure it is said to
be incompressible fluid. Most of the liquids are compressible

FLUID STATICS
PASCAL'S LAW FOR PRESSURE AT A POINT
Pressure is defined as the amount of force exerted on a unit area of a substance.
In algebraic form this definition may be stated as: Pa
m
N
area
force
P = = =
2

Pressure is a Normal Force (acts perpendicular to surfaces)
It is also called a Surface Force
Pressure acts uniformly in all directions on a small volume of fluid. The pressure at any
point in a stationary fluid is independent of direction.
In a fluid confined by solid boundaries, pressure acts perpendicular to the boundary
Pressure is a scalar field p = p(x; y; z; t)
The value of p varies in space, but p is not associated with a direction.
A pressure sensor will not detect different values of pressure when the orientation of the
sensor is changed at a fixed measurement point.

Units for Pressure
1 pascal (Pa) = 1 kg m
-1
s
-2

1 bar = 1 x 10
5
Pa
1 atmosphere (atm) =101,325 Pa
1 torr = 1 / 760 atm
760 mm Hg = 1 atm
14.696 pounds per sq. in. (psi) = 1 atm

For a static fluid, as shown by the following analysis, pressure is independent direction.

By considering the equilibrium of a small fluid element in the form of a triangular prism
ABCDEF surrounding a point in the fluid, a relationship can be established between the
pressures Px in the x direction, Py in the y direction, and Ps normal to any plane inclined at
any angle u to the horizontal at this point.
PX IS ACTING AT RIGHT ANGLE TO ABEF, AND PY AT RIGHT ANGLE TO CDEF, SIMILARLY
PS AT RIGHT ANGLE TO ABCD.
Since there can be no shearing forces for a fluid at rest, and there will be no accelerating
forces, the sum of the forces in any direction must therefore, be zero. The forces acting are
due to the pressures on the surrounding and the gravity force.
Force due to Px = Px X Area ABEF = Pxoyoz
Horizontal component of force due to Ps = - (Ps x Area ABCD) sin(u) = - Psosoz oy/os = -Psoyoz
As Py has no component in the x direction, the element will be in equilibrium, if
Pxoyoz -Psoyoz) = 0
i.e. Px = Ps
Similarly in the y direction, force due to Py = Pyoxoz
Component of force due to Ps = - (Ps x Area ABCD) cos(u) = - Psosoz ox/os = - Psoxoz
Force due to weight of element = - mg = - Vg = - (oxoyoz/2) g
Since ox, oy, and oz are very small quantities, oxoyoz is negligible in comparison with other
two vertical force terms, and the equation reduces to,
Py = Ps
Therefore,
Px = Py = Ps
i.e. pressure at a point is same in all directions. This is Pascal's law. This applies to fluid at
rest.
VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH
ELEVATION:
Consider a hypothetical differential
cylindrical element of fluid of cross
sectional area A and height (z2 - z1).
Upward force due to pressure P1 on the
element = P1A
Downward force due to pressure P2 on the
element = P2A
Force due to weight of the element = mg =
A(z2 - z1)g
Equating the upward and downward forces,
P1A = P2A + A(z2 - z1)g
P2 - P1 = - A(z2 - z1)g

Thus in any fluid under gravitational acceleration, pressure decreases, with increasing height
z in the upward direction.
Equality of pressure at the same level in a static fluid:
Equating the horizontal forces, P1A = P2A (i.e. some of the horizontal forces must be zero)



Area A
Z2
Z1
P2
P1
Fluid of
mass
density
Area A
P2
Fluid of mass
density
P1
mg

Equality of pressure at the same level in a continuous body of fluid:
Pressures at the same level will be equal in a continuous body of fluid, even though there is no
direct horizontal path between P and Q provided that P and Q are in the same continuous
body of fluid.
We know that, PR = PS
PR = PP + gh 1
PS = PQ + gh 2
From equn.1 and 2, PP = PQ
General equation for the variation of pressure due to gravity from point to point in a
static fluid:(law of hydrostatic equilibrium)

Lets determine the pressure distribution in a fluid at rest in which the only body force acting
is due to gravity. Therefore the sum of the forces acting on the fluid must equal zero in any
direction.

Resolving the forces along the axis PQ,
pA - (p + op)A - gAos cos(u) = 0
op = - gos cos(u)
or in differential form,
dp/ds = - gcos(u)
In the vertical z direction, u = 0. Therefore, dp = -gdz (or)
dp/dz = -g

This equation predicts a pressure decrease in the vertically upward direction at a rate
proportional to the local density. This equation expresses the condition for hydrostatic
equilibrium also called fundamental equation of hydrostatics.
BAROMETRIC EQUATION
VARIATION OF PRESSURE IN AN INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID (LIQUID)
dz g dp =

} }
=
2
1
2
1
z
z
p
p
dz g dp

For liquids: = const
( )
1 2 1 2
z z g p p =


( )
1 2 1 2
z z g p p =

at z
1
=0, p
1
=p
atm

( )
1 2 2
z z g p p
atm
=

h p p
atm
+ =
2
where h is called pressure head
VARIATION OF PRESSURE IN A COMPRESSIBLE FLUID (GAS)
dz g dp =

} }
=
2
1
2
1
z
z
p
p
dz g dp

for liquids: is variable, e.g. for an ideal gas:
RT
p
=

dz
RT
g
p
dp
=

} }
=
2
1
2
1
z
z
p
p
dz
RT
g
p
dp

}
=
2
1
1
2
ln
z
z
T
dz
R
g
p
p

Need to know T=T(z)

Case I: uniform temperature: T=T
o
( )
(

=
o
RT
z z g
p p
1 2
1 2
exp

Case II: of linear temperature variation: T=T
o
+|z
at z
1
=0 (sea level), T=T
o and
p
1
=p
o
R
g
o
o
T
z
p p
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
1

These equations are known as barometric equation
GRAVITY DECANTING
A gravity decanter is used to for the continuous separation of two immiscible liquids of
differing densities. The feed mixtures enters at one end of the decanter; the two liquid flow
slowly into the vessel. Separate into two layers and discharges through the overflow line.

Provided the overflow lines are so large that the frictional losses are negligible, and provided
the liquids discharge at the same pressure as that in the gas space above the fluid in the
decanter the performance of the decanter can be analyzed by the principles of fluid statics.










Figure 9.1: Continuous gravity decanter
For example in the decanter shown in figure 9.1 let the density of the heavier fluid is
A
and
that of lighter fluid
B
. the depth of the heavy liquid is ZA1 and that of the light liquid is ZB. The
total depth of the fluid in the vessel ZT is fixed by the position of the over flow nozzle for the
light liquid. Heavy liquid discharges through an overflow leg connected to the bottom of the
vessel and rising to a height ZA2 above the floor vessel. The overflow line and the top of the
vessel are all vented to the atmosphere.

Since there is negligible frictional resistance to flow in the discharge lines, there must a
hydrostatic equilibrium exist
According to hydrostatic balance:

ZBB + ZA1A= ZA2A
Solving the equation for ZA1 we get
ZA1= ZA2-ZB(B/ A)= ZA2-(ZT- ZA1)(B/ A)
Feed
ZB
ZA1
ZT ZA2
From this
B
A
B
A
T A
A
Z Z
Z

|
.
|

\
|

=
1
2
1

The equation indicate that the position of the liq-liq interface in the separator depends on the
ratio of the densities of the two liquids and on the elevations of the overflow lines.
It is independent of the rates of flow of the liquids. It also shows that as A approaches B, the
position of the interface becomes very sensitive to changes in ZA2, the height of the heavy-
liquid leg.

The size of the decanter is established by the time required for required separation. It
depends on the densities of the two liquids and viscosity of the continuous phase.

The empirical equation
A A
t

=
100
gives a reasonable estimate of the time required for
separation provided the liquids are clean and dont form emulsion.
PRESSURE SCALES
Absolute pressure: p
abs
is measured relative to an absolute vacuum; it is always positive.
Gage pressure: p
gage
is measured relative to the current pressure of the atmosphere; it can
be negative or positive.
In a region such as outer space, which is virtually void of gases, the pressure is essentially
zero. Such a condition can be approached very nearly in a laboratory when a vacuum pump is
used to evacuate a bottle. The pressure in a vacuum is called absolute zero, and all pressures
referenced with respect to this zero pressure are termed absolute pressures.
Many pressure-measuring devices measure not absolute pressure but only difference in
pressure. For example, a Bourdon-tube gage indicates only the difference between the
pressure in the fluid to which it is tapped and the pressure in the atmosphere. In this case,
then, the reference pressure is actually the atmospheric pressure. This type of pressure
reading is called gage pressure. For example, if a pressure of 50 kPa is measured with a gage
referenced to the atmosphere and the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, then the pressure can
be expressed as either p = 50 kPa gage or p = 150 kPa absolute.
Whenever atmospheric pressure is used as a reference, the possibility exists that the pressure
thus measured can be either positive or negative. Negative gage pressure are also termed as
vacuum pressures. Hence, if a gage tapped into a tank indicates a vacuum pressure of 31 kPa,
this can also be stated as 70 kPa absolute, or -31 kPa gage, assuming that the atmospheric
pressure is 101 kPa absolute.
In a stationary fluid the pressure is exerted equally in all directions and is referred to as the
static pressure. In a moving fluid, the static pressure is exerted on any plane parallel to the
direction of motion. The fluid pressure exerted on a plane right angle to the direction of flow
is greater than the static pressure because the surface has, in addition, to exert sufficient force
to bring the fluid to rest. The additional pressure is proportional to the kinetic energy of fluid;
it cannot be measured independently of the static pressure.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
When the static pressure in a moving fluid is to be determined, the measuring surface must be
parallel to the direction of flow so that no kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy at
the surface. If the fluid is flowing in a circular pipe the measuring surface must be
perpendicular to the radial direction at any point. The pressure connection, which is known
as a piezometer tube, should flush with the wall of the pipe so that the flow is not disturbed:
the pressure is then measured near the walls were the velocity is a minimum and the reading
would be subject only to a small error if the surface were not quite parallel to the direction of
flow.
The static pressure should always be measured at a distance of not less than 50 diameters
from bends or other obstructions, so that the flow lines are almost parallel to the walls of the
tube. If there are likely to be large cross-currents or eddies, a piezometer ring should be used.
This consists of 4 pressure tapings equally spaced at 90o intervals round the circumference of
the tube; they are joined by a circular tube which is connected to the pressure measuring
device. By this means, false readings due to irregular flow or avoided. If the pressure on one
side of the tube is relatively high, the pressure on the opposite side is generally
correspondingly low; with the piezometer ring a mean value is obtained.
BAROMETERS
A barometer is a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. A
simple barometer consists of a tube more than 30 inch (760 mm)
long inserted in an open container of mercury with a closed and
evacuated end at the top and open tube end at the bottom and with
mercury extending from the container up into the tube. Strictly, the
space above the liquid cannot be a true vaccum. It contains mercury
vapor at its saturated vapor pressure, but this is extremely small at room temperatures (e.g.
0.173 Pa at 20oC).
The atmospheric pressure is calculated from the relation
Patm = gh where is the density of fluid in the barometer.

PIEZOMETER
For measuring pressure inside a vessel or
pipe in which liquid is there, a tube may be
attached to the walls of the container (or
pipe) in which the liquid resides so liquid
can rise in the tube. By determining the
height to which liquid rises and using the
relation P1 = gh, gauge pressure of the
liquid can be determined. Such a device is
known as piezometer. To avoid capillary
effects, a piezometer's tube should be about
1/2 inch or greater.
It is important that the opening of the device
to be tangential to any fluid motion, otherwise an erroneous reading will result.
MANOMETERS
A somewhat more complicated device for measuring fluid pressure consists of a bent tube
containing one or more liquid of different specific gravities. Such a device is known as
manometer.
In using a manometer, generally a known pressure (which may be atmospheric) is applied to
one end of the manometer tube and the unknown pressure to be determined is applied to the
other end.
Differential pressure manometer measures only the difference between the two pressures.
Manometers - Various forms
1. Simple U - tube Manometer
2. Inverted U - tube Manometer
3. U - tube with one leg enlarged
4. Two fluid U - tube Manometer
5. Inclined U - tube Manometer

Simple U - tube Manometer
Equating the pressure at the level XX'(pressure at the same level in a continuous body of fluid
is equal),

For the left hand side:
( ) h a g p p
X
+ + =
1

For the right hand side:
gh ga p p
m
X
+ + =
2
'
Since Px = Px'
( ) h g p p
m
=
2 1

The maximum value of P1 - P2 is limited by the height of
the manometer. To measure larger pressure differences
we can choose a manometer with higher density, and to measure smaller pressure differences
with accuracy we can choose a manometer fluid which is having a density closer to the fluid
density.
Inverted U - tube Manometer
Inverted U-tube manometer is used for measuring
pressure differences in liquids. The space above the liquid
in the manometer is filled with air which can be admitted
or expelled through the tap on the top, in order to adjust
the level of the liquid in the manometer.
Equating the pressure at the level XX'(pressure at the same
level in a continuous body of static fluid is equal),
For the left hand side:
( ) h a g p p
X
+ =
1

For the right hand side:
gh ga p p
m
X
=
2
'
Since Px = Px'
( ) h g p p
m
=
2 1

If the manometric fluid is choosen in such a way that m << then, P1 - P2 = gh. For inverted
U - tube manometer the manometric fluid is usually air.
U - tube with one leg enlarged
Industrially, the simple U - tube manometer has the disadvantage that the movement of the
liquid in both the limbs must be read. By making the diameter of one leg large as compared
with the other, it is possible to make the movement the large leg very small, so that it is only
necessary to read the movement of the liquid in the narrow leg.
In figure, OO' represents the level of liquid surface when the pressure difference P1 - P2 is
zero. Then when pressure is applied, the level in the right hand limb will rise a distance h
vertically.
Volume of liquid transferred from left-hand leg to right-hand leg = h(t/4)d
2

where d is the diameter of smaller diameter leg.
If D is the diameter of larger diameter leg, then, fall in level of left-hand leg = Volume
transferred/Area of left-hand leg
= (h(t/4)d
2
) / ((t/4)D
2
) = h(d/D)
2

For the left-hand leg, pressure at X , i.e. Px = P1 + g(h+a) + g h(d/D)
2

For the right-hand leg, pressure at X', i.e. Px' = P2 + g(h+a) + g h(d/D)
2
For the equality of pressure at XX',
P1 + g(h+a) + g h(d/D)
2
= P2 + g(h+a) + g h(d/D)
2

P1 - P2 = mg(h + h(d/D)
2
) - gh - g h(d/D)
2

If D>>d then, the term h(d/D)
2
will be negligible( i.e approximately about zero)
Then P1 - P2 = (m - )gh.
Where h is the manometer liquid rise in the right-hand leg. If the fluid density is negligible
compared with the manometric fluid density (e.g. the case for air as the fluid and water as
manometric fluid ), then P1 - P2 = m gh.

Two fluid U-tube Manometer
Small differences in pressure in gases are often measured with
a manometer of the form shown in the figure.





Inclined U-tube manometer
For measuring small differences in pressure the inclined manometer may be used. To
measure small pressure differences need to magnify R
m
which is done here through an
inclined limb.

o sin ) (
1 b a b a
gR P P =
Ex: A simple U-tube manometer is installed across an orifice plate. The manometer is filled with
mercury (specific gravity = 13.6) and the liquid above the mercury is water. If the pressure
difference across the orifice is 24 psi, what is the height difference (reading) on the manometer
in inches of mercury ?
Manometers
The manometer in its various forms is an extremely useful type of pressure measuring
instrument, but suffers from a number of limitations.
- While it can be adapted to measure very small pressure differences, it can not be used
conveniently for large pressure differences - although it is possible to connect a
number of manometers in series and to use mercury as the manometric fluid to
improve the range. (limitation)
- A manometer does not have to be calibrated against any standard; the pressure
difference can be calculated from first principles. ( Advantage)
- Some liquids are unsuitable for use because they do not form well-defined menisci.
Surface tension can also cause errors due to capillary rise; this can be avoided if the
diameters of the tubes are sufficiently large - preferably not less than 15 mm
diameter. (limitation)
- A major disadvantage of the manometer is its slow response, which makes it
unsuitable for measuring fluctuating pressures.(limitation)
- It is essential that the pipes connecting the manometer to the pipe or vessel
containing the liquid under pressure should be filled with this liquid and there should
be no air bubbles in the liquid.(important point to be kept in mind)
PRESSURE GAUGES
Bourdon Gauge:

The pressure to be measured is applied to a curved tube, oval in cross section. Pressure
applied to the tube tends to cause the tube to straighten out, and the deflection of the end of
the tube is communicated through a system of levers to a recording needle. This gauge is
widely used for steam and compressed gases. The pressure indicated is the difference
between that communicated by the system to the external (ambient) pressure, and is usually
referred to as the gauge pressure.
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
Any physical situation can be described by certain familiar properties e.g. length, velocity,
area, volume, acceleration etc. These are all known as dimensions. Of course dimensions are
of no use without a magnitude being attached. We must know more than that something has a
length. It must also have a standardized unit - such as a meter, a foot, a yard etc. Dimensions
are properties which can be measured. Units are the standard elements we use to quantify these
dimensions.
SYSTEMS OF UNITS
The official international system of units (System International d'Units). Strong efforts are
underway for its universal adoption as the exclusive system for all engineering and science,
but older systems, particularly the cgs and fps engineering gravitational systems are still in
use and probably will be around for some time. The chemical engineer finds many
physiochemical data given in cgs units; that many calculations are most conveniently made in
fps units; and that SI units are increasingly encountered in science and engineering. Thus it
becomes necessary to be expert in the use of all three systems.
SI system:
Primary quantities:
Quantity Unit
Mass in Kilogram Kg
Length in Meter M
Time in Second s or as sec
Temperature in Kelvin K
Mole gmol or simply as mol
Derived quantities:
Quantity SI CGS FPS
Force N dyn Lbf
Pressure N/m2 dyn/cm
2
Psi
Work, J Erg, cal BTU
Power W
DIMENSIONS
Dimension is generalization of the concept of units
A set of fundamental dimensions(Primary dimensions): Set of independent
dimensions, all other physical quantities can be expressed in terms of fundamental
dimensions: Eg. Mass, length, time, temperature, electric current, luminous
intensityDimensions of the primary quantities:
Fundamental dimension Symbol
Length L
Mass M
Time T
Temperature T
Dimensions of derived quantities, can be expressed in terms of the fundamental dimensions.
Quantity Representative
symbol
Dimensions
Angular velocity
Area
Density
Force
Kinematic viscosity
Linear velocity
Linear acceleration
Mass flow rate
Power
Pressure
Sonic velocity
Shear stress
Surface tension
Viscosity
Volume
e
A

F
v
V
A
m.
P
P
C
t
o

V
t
-1

L
2

M/L
3

ML/t
2

L
2
/t
L/t
L/t
2

M/t
ML
2
/t
3

M/Lt
2

L/t
M/Lt
2

M/t
2

M/Lt
L
3



DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS:

Many important engineering problems cannot be solved completely by theoretical or
mathematical methods. Problems of this type are especially common in fluid-flow, heat-flow,
and diffusional operations. One method of attacking a problem for which no mathematical
equation can be derived is that of empirical experimentations. For example, the pressure loss
from friction in a long, round, straight, smooth pipe depends on all these variables: the length
and diameter of the pipe, the flow rate of the liquid, and the density and viscosity of the liquid.
If any one of these variables is changed, the pressure drop also changes. The empirical
method of obtaining an equation relating these factors to pressure drop requires that the
effect of each separate variable be determined in turn by systematically varying that variable
while keep all others constant. The procedure is laborious, and is difficult to organize or
correlate the results so obtained into a useful relationship for calculations.
There exists a method intermediate between formal mathematical development and a
completely empirical study. It is based on the fact that if a theoretical equation does exist
among the variables affecting a physical process, that equation must be dimensionally
homogeneous. Because of this requirement it is possible to group many factors into a smaller
number of dimensionless groups of variables. The groups themselves rather than the separate
factors appear in the final equation.
Dimensional analysis does not yield a numerical equation, and experiment is required to
complete the solution of the problem. The result of a dimensional analysis is valuable in
pointing a way to correlations of experimental data suitable for engineering use.
Dimensional analysis drastically simplifies the task of fitting experimental data to design
equations where a completely mathematical treatment is not possible; it is also useful in
checking the consistency of the units in equations, in converting units, and in the scale-up of
data obtained in physical models to predict the performance of full-scale model. The method
is based on the concept of dimension and the use of dimensional formulas.
Dimensional analysis is a useful technique in all experimentally based areas of engineering. If
it is possible to identify the factors involved in a physical situation, dimensional analysis can
form a relationship between them. Any equation describing a physical situation will only be
true if both sides have the same dimensions. That is it must be dimensionally homogenous.
The resulting expressions may not at first sight appear rigorous but these qualitative results
converted to quantitative forms can be used to obtain any unknown factors from
experimental analysis.
DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
Any equation describing a physical situation will only be true if both sides have the same
dimensions. That is it must be dimensionally homogenous.
For example the equation which gives for over a rectangular weir (derived earlier in this
module) is,

2
3
2
3
2
H g B Q =
The SI units of the left hand side are m
3
s
-1
. The units of the right hand side must be the same.
Writing the equation with only the SI units gives

i.e. the units are consistent.
To be more strict, it is the dimensions which must be consistent (any set of units can be used
and simply converted using a constant). Writing the equation again in terms of dimensions,

Notice how the powers of the individual dimensions are equal, (for L they are both 3, for T
both -1).
This property of dimensional homogeneity can be useful for:
1. Checking units of equations;
2. Converting between two sets of units;
3. Defining dimensionless relationships (see below).
Because of the requirement of the dimensional homogeneity, it is possible to group many
factors into a smaller number of dimensionless groups of variables. The groups themselves
rather than separate factors appear in final equation. Thus the result of performing
dimensional analysis on a physical problem is a single equation involving smaller number of
individual dimensionless groups (parameters) rather than individual physical parameter.
This is probably best seen in an example. If we want to find the force on a propeller blade we
must first decide what might influence this force. It would be reasonable to assume that the
force, F, depends on the following physical properties:
diameter, d
forward velocity of the propeller (velocity of the plane), u
fluid density,
revolutions per second, N
fluid viscosity,
Before we do any analysis we can write this equation:
F = | ( d, u, , N, )
or
0 = |1 ( F, d, u, , N, )
These can be expanded into an infinite series which can itself be reduced to
F = K d
m
u
p

q
N
r

s

where K is some constant and m, p, q, r, s are unknown constant powers.
From dimensional analysis we
1. obtain these powers
2. form the variables into several dimensionless groups
The value of K or the functions | and |1 must be determined from experiment. The knowledge
of the dimensionless groups often helps in deciding what experimental measurements should
be taken.
BUCKINGHAMS t THEOREMS
Although there are other methods of performing dimensional analysis, (notably the indicial
method) the method based on the Buckingham t theorems gives a good generalised strategy
for obtaining a solution. This will be outlined below.

There are two theorems accredited to Buckingham, and know as his t theorems.
1
ST
t THEOREM:
A relationship between m variables (physical properties such as velocity, density etc.) can be
expressed as a relationship between m-n non-dimensional groups of variables (called
t groups), where n is the number of fundamental dimensions (such as mass, length and time)
required to express the variables.
So if a physical problem can be expressed:
| ( Q1 , Q2 , Q3 ,, Qm ) = 0
then, according to the above theorem, this can also be expressed
| ( t1 , t2 , t3 ,, Qm-n ) = 0
In fluids, we can normally take n = 3 (corresponding to M, L, T).
2
ND
t THEOREM
Each t group is a function of n governing or repeating variables plus one of the remaining
variables.
CHOICE OF REPEATING VARIABLES
Repeating variables are those which we think will appear in all or most of the t groups, and
are a influence in the problem. Before commencing analysis of a problem one must choose the
repeating variables. There is considerable freedom allowed in the choice.

Some rules which should be followed are
i. From the 2nd theorem there can be n ( = 3) repeating variables.
ii. When combined, these repeating variables variable must contain all of dimensions
(M, L, T) (That is not to say that each must contain M,L and T).
iii. A combination of the repeating variables must not form a dimensionless group.
iv. The repeating variables do not have to appear in all p groups.
v. The repeating variables should be chosen to be measurable in an experimental
investigation.
They should be of major interest to the designer. For example, pipe diameter (dimension L) is
more useful and measurable than roughness height (also dimension L).
In fluids it is usually possible to take , u and d as the three repeating variables. This freedom
of choice results in there being many different t groups which can be formed - and all are
valid. There is not really a wrong choice.
AN EXAMPLE
Taking the example discussed above of force F induced on a propeller blade, we have the
equation
0 = | ( F, d, u, , N, )
n = 3 and m = 6
There are m - n = 3 t groups, so
| ( t1 , t2 , t3 ) = 0
The choice of , u, d as the repeating variables satisfies the criteria above. They are
measurable, good design parameters and, in combination, contain all the dimension M,L and
T. We can now form the three groups according to the 2nd theorem,
F d u
c b a
1 1 1
1
t =
N d u
c b a
2 2 2
2
t =
t
3 3 3
3
c b a
d u =

As the t groups are all dimensionless i.e. they have dimensions M
0
L
0
T
0
we can use the
principle of dimensional homogeneity to equate the dimensions for each t group.
For the first t group,

F d u
c b a
1 1 1
1
t =
In terms of SI units: 1 = (kgm
-3
)
a1
(ms
-1
)
a2
(m )
c3
kgms
-2
And in terms of dimensions

For each dimension (M, L or T) the powers must be equal on both sides of the equation, so
for M: 0 = a1 + 1
a1 = -1
for L: 0 = -3a1 + b1 + c1 + 1
0 = 4 + b1 + c1
for T: 0 = -b1 - 2
b1 = -2
c1 = -4 - b1 = -2





WRONG CHOICE OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.
If, when defining the problem, extra - unimportant - variables are introduced then extra
t groups will be formed. They will play very little role influencing the physical behavior of the
problem concerned and should be identified during experimental work. If an important /
influential variable was missed then a t group would be missing. Experimental analysis based
on these results may miss significant behavioral changes. It is therefore, very important that
the initial choice of variables is carried out with great care.
MANIPULATION OF THE t GROUPS
Once identified manipulation of the t groups is permitted. These manipulations do not change
the number of groups involved, but may change their appearance drastically.
Taking the defining equation as: | ( t1 , t2 , t3 tm-n ) = 0
Then the following manipulations are permitted:
i. Any number of groups can be combined by multiplication or division to form a
new group which replaces one of the existing. E.g. t1 and t2 may be combined to
form t1a = t1 / t2 so the defining equation becomes: | ( t1a , t2 , t3 tm-n ) = 0
ii. The reciprocal of any dimensionless group is valid. So | ( t1 ,1/ t2 , t3 1/ tm-n
) = 0 is valid.
iii. Any dimensionless group may be raised to any power. So | ( ( t1 )
2
, ( t2 )
1/2
, ( t3
)
3
tm-n ) = 0 is valid.
iv. Any dimensionless group may be multiplied by a constant.
v. Any group may be expressed as a function of the other groups, e.g. t2 = | ( t1 , t3
tm-n )
In general the defining equation could look like: | ( t1 , 1/ t2 ,( t3 )
i
0.5 tm-n ) = 0
Important Dimensionless Numbers in Fluid Mechanics:
Dimensionless
Number
Symbol Formula Numerator Denominator Importance
Reynolds
number
NRe Dv/ Inertial
force
Viscous force Fluid flow
involving
viscous and
inertial forces
Froude number NFr U
2
/gD Inertial
force
Gravitational
force
Fluid flow with
free surface
Weber number new U
2
D/o Inertial
force
Surface force Fluid flow with
interfacial forces
Mach number NMa u/c Local
velocity
Sonic velocity Gas flow at high
velocity
Drag
coefficient
CD FD/(u
2
/2) Total drag
force
Inertial force Flow around
solid bodies
Friction factor F tw/(u
2
/2) Shear force Inertial force Flow though
closed conduits
Pressure
coefficient
CP Ap/(u
2
/2) Pressure
force
Inertial force Flow though
closed conduits.
Pressure drop
estimation

SIMILITUDE
Whenever it is necessary to perform tests on a model to obtain information that cannot be
obtained by analytical means alone, the rules of similitude must be applied. Similitude is the
theory and art of predicting prototype performance from model observations.
Model Study: Present engineering practice makes use of model tests more frequently than
most people realize. For example, whenever a new airplane is designed, tests are made not
only on the general scale model but also on various components of the plane. Numerous tests
are made on individual wing sections as well as on the engine pods and tail sections.
Models of automobiles and high-speed trains are also tested in wind tunnels to predict the
drag and flow patterns for the prototype. Information derived from these model studies often
indicates potential problems that can be corrected before prototype is built, thereby saving
considerable time and expense in development of the prototype.
Marine engineers make extensive tests on model shop hulls to predict the drag of the ships.
Geometric similarity refers to linear dimensions. Two vessels of different sizes are
geometrically similar if the ratios of the corresponding dimensions on the two scales are the
same. If photographs of two vessels are completely super-impossible, they are geometrically
similar.
Kinematic similarity refers to motion and requires geometric similarity and the same ratio of
velocities for the corresponding positions in the vessels.
Dynamic similarity concerns forces and requires all force ratios for corresponding positions
to be equal in kinematically similar vessels.
The requirement for similitude of flow between model and prototype is that the significant
dimensionless parameters must be equal for model and prototype

GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY
Geometric similarity refers to linear dimensions. Geometric similarity exists between model
and prototype if the ratio of all corresponding dimensions in the model and prototype are
equal.

L
p
m
prototype
el
L
L
L
L
= =
mod

Where L is the scale factor for length.
For area
2
2
2
mod
L
p
m
prototype
el
L
L
A
A
= =
KINEMATIC SIMILARITY
Kinematic similarity refers to motion and requires geometric similarity and the same ratio of
velocities for the corresponding positions in the vessels. Dynamic similarity concerns forces
and requires all force ratios for corresponding positions to be equal in kinematically similar
vessels.

Kinematic similarity is the similarity of time as well as geometry. It exists between model and
prototype
i. If the paths of moving particles are geometrically similar
ii. If the rations of the velocities of particles are similar
Some useful ratios are:
Velocity
V
T
L
P P
m m
prototype
el
T L
T L
V
V

= = =
/
/
mod

Acceleration:
a
L
P
m m
prototype
el
T P
T L
T L
a
a

= = =
2 2
2
mod
/
/

This has the consequence that streamline patterns are the same.
DYNAMIC SIMILARITY
Dynamic similarity exists between geometrically and kinematically similar systems if the
ratios of all forces in the model and prototype are the same.
Force ratio


This occurs when the controlling dimensionless group on the right hand side of the defining
equation is the same for model and prototype.
MODELS
When a hydraulic structure is build it undergoes some analysis in the design stage. Often the
structures are too complex for simple mathematical analysis and a hydraulic model is build.
Usually the model is less than full size but it may be greater. The real structure is known as
the prototype. The model is usually built to an exact geometric scale of the prototype but in
some cases - notably river model - this is not possible. Measurements can be taken from the
model and a suitable scaling law applied to predict the values in the prototype. Whenever it is
necessary to perform tests on a model to obtain information that cannot be obtained by
analytical means alone, the rules of similitude must be applied. Similitude is the theory and art
of predicting prototype performance from model observations. The requirement for
similitude of flow between model and prototype is that the significant dimensionless
parameters must be equal for model and prototype

Index
adhesion, 10
Archimedes' Principle, 13
barometer, 26
barometric equation, 23
Bingham-plastic, 16
Buckingham t theorems, 36
Bulk Modulu, 8
Buoyancy, 13
buoyant force, 13
Capillarity, 10
capillary, 10
Capillary rise, 12
cohesio, 10
Compressibility, 7
Compressible, 17
Density, 5
derived quantities, 33
Dilatant fluids, 16
Dimensional analysis, 34
dimensionally homogenous, 34
Dimensions, 32
Dynamic similarity, 41
elasticity. See Compressibility
Fluid
Compressible fuid, 43
Continuum, 4
definition, 3
Incompressible fluid, 43
Newtonian fluid, 43
non-Newtonian, 15
non-Newtonian fluid, 43
Physical properties, 5
Shear thickening, 16
Shear thinning, 16
Time dependent behaviors, 16
Time-Independent behaviors, 16
Fluid Mechanics, 3
Fluids
Classification, 14
Newtonian, 15
Rheopectic, 17
Thixotropic, 17
Visco-elastic, 17
Geometric similarity, 40
gravity decanter, 24
hydrostatic equilibrium, 23
incompressible, 17
Kinematic similarity, 41
kinematic viscosity, 6
manometer, 27
Manometer
Inclined, 30
Inverted U Tube, 28
Two fluid, 30
U-tube, 28
Manoneter
One leg enlarged U Tube, 29
model, 42
Newtons Law of Viscosity, 5
Pascal's law, 18
piezometer, 26, 27
Power law, 17
Pressure, 18
Pressure gauge, 31
Primary dimensions, 33
prototype, 42
Pseudo-plastic, 16
rheology, 17
SI system, 32
Similitude, 40
Specific Gravity, 5
Specific Volume, 5
Specific weight, 5
static pressure, 26
surface tension, 8
system of units, 32
Units, 32
vapor pressure, 6
Viscosity, 1, 6
Newton's law, 1