INTRODUCTION When a torque is applied to an object, torsion is produced.

Torsion is the strain experienced by a length of wire or rod when a twisting force is applied to one end while the other end is fixed. It can be measured by observing how much an object twists due to a given torque. Engineering materials employed in rotating machine parts, such as engine crankshafts and shippropeller shafts, must resist the torsional stresses induced by the twisting loads.

OBJECTIVE This experiments objective is to study the behavior of a torsional pendulum. EQUIPMENT A collet which can grip shafts of various diameters firmly is attached to a wall-bracket.The vertical shafts supports a large body of revolution by a similar collet at its lower end.This body can be made to rotate tortionally. THEORY A fine wire whose shear modulus is to be determined is suspended from a fixed support A and the other end B is fixed to the center of a heavy disc (collet) whose moment of inertia is known. The disc is allowed to oscillate with small amplitude , from the equilibrium position A. The torsion of the wire will try to restore the disc to the position A, but due to inertia it will continue to move beyond A to C till it swings back and in the process executes simple harmonic motion. The equation of motion is given by: I d2 dt2 + G =0

Therefore the time period T which can be measured by means of a stopwatch is given by : T = 2 I/G Where, I = moment of inertia of disc I = Mr2 Where, M is mass of the disc and r is the radius of disc. Also, G = shear modulus. G = n a4 2l Here, a is radius of shaft and l is the length of shaft. a4 = J (second moment of area of the shaft) 2

Support

Shaft d

Length (L)

Cylindrical body

PROCEDURE Choose a shaft and length L and determine T by timing a number of vibrations. Repeat several times and average your results. Move a shaft through the collet and repeat for a range of lengths. Repeat for shafts of the same material and different diameters. Determine the variation of T with d. Repeat for shafts of other materials. Determine G, and compare with published values. RESULTS Material: Mild steel Diameter of shaft: 6.3mm No of oscillation: 20 L/cm 55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00 Tab.1 t1/s 10.80 10.70 12.00 12.20 12.50 t2/s 11.00 11.00 11.80 12.40 12.60 m = 0.0053 s2/cm Ave.time /s 10.90 10.85 11.90 12.30 12.55 T/s 0.545 0.543 0.595 0.615 0.628 T2/s2 0.297 0.295 0.354 0.378 0.394

Material: Mild steel Diameter of shaft: 5.2mm No of oscillation: 20 L/cm 55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00 t1/s 15.40 16.00 16.80 17.40 t2/s 15.60 16.20 16.60 17.40 m = 0.0109 s2/cm Ave.tim e/s 15.50 16.10 16.70 17.40 3 T/S 0.775 0.805 0.835 0.870 T2/S2 0.601 0.648 0.697 0.757

75.00 Tab.2

18.20

18.20

18.20

0.910

0.828

Material: Mild steel Diameter of shaft: 3.2mm No of oscillation: 20 L/cm 55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00 Tab.3 t1/s 37.80 39.60 41.20 42.40 43.80 t2/s 37.90 39.20 40.60 42.20 43.80 m = 0.0643 s2/cm Ave.tim e/s 37.85 39.40 40.90 42.30 43.80 T/s 1.893 1.970 2.045 2.115 2.190 T2/s2 3.583 3.881 4.182 4.473 4.796

Material: Copper Diameter of shaft: 6.3mm No of oscillations: 20 L/cm 55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00 Tab.4 t1/s 14.80 15.20 15.80 16.40 16.60 t2/s 14.80 15.40 15.80 16.60 17.00 m = 0.0097 s2/cm Ave.tim e/s 14.80 15.30 15.80 16.50 16.80 T/s 0.740 0.765 0.790 0.825 0.840 T2/s2 0.548 0.585 0.624 0.681 0.706

Material: copper Diameter of shaft: 5.1mm No of oscillation: 20 L/cm t1/s t2/s m = 0.0235 s2/cm Ave.tim 4 T/s T2/s2

55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00 Tab.5

22.80 23.80 24.80 25.80 26.20

22.80 24.00 24.80 25.80 26.40

e/s 22.80 23.90 24.80 25.80 26.30

1.140 1.195 1.240 1.290 1.315

1.300 1.428 1.538 1.664 1.729

Material: Copper Diameter of shaft: 3.0mm No of oscillation: 20 L/cm 55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00 Tab.6 t1/s 65.00 67.60 70.20 72.80 74.40 t2/s 64.80 67.80 69.80 72.80 74.80 m = 0.1887 s2/cm Ave.tim e/s 64.90 67.70 70.00 72.80 74.60 T/S 3.245 3.385 3.500 3.640 3.730 T2/S2 10.530 11.458 12.250 13.250 13.913

DETERMINATION OF G, From theory, T = 2 IL GJ

T2 =

4 2 IL GJ

Therefore from graph, 4 2 I GJ Where, I = Mr2, J = d4 and 32 m=

Slope (m) = G = 4 2I slope mJ

....... eqn *

G for the various diameters of mild steel shaft: 6.3mm diameter, I = 0.1387029 J = 1.546 10-10 m = 0.53, substituting into eqn * gives: G = 66.9 GPa

5.2mm diameter I = 0.1387029 J = 7.179 10-11 m = 1.09, 3.2mm diameter I = 0.1387029 J = 1.0296 10-11 m = 6.43 substituting into eqn * gives: G = 82.8 GPa substituting into eqn * gives: G = 70.0 GPa

Average of the Gs of mild steel, G = 73.2 GPa Standard value of G for mild steel, G = 75.0 GPa % Error = 75.0 73.2 100% 75.0 = 2.4%

G for the various diameters of copper shaft, 6.3mm diameter, I = 0.1387029 J = 1.546 10-10 m = 0.97 5.1mm diameter, I = 0.1387029 J = 7.17909 10-11 m = 2.35 substituting into eqn * gives: G = 32.5 GPa substituting into eqn * gives: G = 36.5 GPa

3.0mm diameter, I = 0.1387029 J = 7.953 10-12 m = 18.87 substituting into eqn * gives: G = 36.5 GPa

Average of the Gs of copper shaft, G = 35.2 GPa Standard value of G for copper, G = 40.0 GPa % Error = 40.0 35.2 100 % 40.0 = 12%

VARIATION OF (T) WITH (d),

The period T is inversely proportional to the diameter d for both mild steel and copper. As d increases, T decreases and as d decreases T increases.

EXERCISE: Show from analysis that the period of the torsional pendulum is

T= 2

IL GJ

Where, I = moment of inertia and J = Second moment of area. G = Shearing modulus

DEDUCTION A torsional pendulum consists of a rigid body supported on a shaft as shown below.

When the pendulum is twisted through a small angle and released, a simple harmonic angular motion results from the stresses developed in the shaft. Assume that a vibratory motion of body B in diagram above is started 8

by twisting the assembly through the small angle , as shown, and then releasing the pendulum. If the limit of proportionality of the material in a solid circular shaft is not exceeded, the moment necessary to twist the shaft is proportional to the angle of twist and can be obtained from: T = JG L =K

J=

d4 (Second moment of area) 32

G = Shearing modulus = Angle of twist in radians L = Length of shaft The moment exerted by the shaft on the body B is equal in magnitude and opposite in sense to the moment,T,required to twist the shaft.The moment exerted by the shaft on B has a sense opposite to the sense of the angular displacement of the lower end of the shaft.

The equation of motion for body B, in scalar form, is: M= I or T=-K = I The angular acceleration is, = K I

This equation proves that body B has simple angular motion, and the natural circular frequency of the motion is:

=
= The frequency is given by: f =

K I JG IL

Hence Period, T= 1 2 = f

Where,

JG IL

Therefore,

T = 2

IL GJ

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CONCLUSION From the results obtained, the period T is dependent on the length L and diameter d of the shaft used. As length L of shaft is increased the period T also increases, whiles as the diameter d of the shaft is increased the period T decreases. As diameter d decreases the period T increases. Also from the experimental values obtained, the square of the period T can be plotted against length L of the shaft, to give a straight line. From this line the shear modulus G of the shaft material can be determined from its slope. Experimental values not equal to theoretical values due to the following: I. II. III. IV. The shaft not perfectly straight. Angle of twist of the shaft not uniform throughout the experiment. Unbalance forces due to air resistance. Loss of some of the shafts elasticity due to the years it has being used.

For the inaccuracies to be corrected, all the assumptions behind the theory must be obeyed and followed when performing the experiment to achieve very accurate results. The assumptions behind the theory are: Deformation the angle of twist must be small. Geometry the shaft must be straight. Material behaviour the shaft should not be stressed beyond its elastic limit.

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Equilibrium - all external loading should be such that the internal force resulting at any section along the axis of the bar is a torque or couple parallel to the axis of the bar. APPLICATIONS OF EXPERIMENT - It can be used to determine material behaviour (ie; strength, stiffness, etc). - It is used to determine material properties. - It is used to solve statically indeterminate torsional problems. - It can be used to determine the moment of inertia of a body. PRECAUTIONS 1) We made sure the angular displacement of the material was small. 2) We made sure the time taken for 20 oscillations was done twice and the average of taken. 3) We made sure that the shafts did not swing as it was oscillating. REFERENCES 1) Engineering Mechanics by Archie Higdon.

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