1

hc vin k thut qun s

Bi quang bnh
















vt liu lm khun
(dng cho o to i hc chuyn ngnh c - nhit luyn )
















h ni 2001
2
hc vin k thut qun s
khoa c kh














c-ng gio trnh
vt liu lm khun
(dng cho o to i hc chuyn ngnh c - nhit luyn )



















h ni 2001
3
hc vin k thut qun s
phng o to



ph duyt
Ngy thng nm 2001
gim c hc vin









c-ng gio trnh
vt liu lm khun
(dng cho o to i hc chuyn ngnh c - nhit luyn )


















h ni 2001
4
c-ng
Ch-ng m u
Ch-ng 1.
vt liu lm khun
1.1. C s ho l ca l thuyt v cc tnh cht ca vt liu lm khun
1.1.1. phn tn ca ct v t st lm khun
1.1.2. Lc phn t b mt phn gii gia cc pha
1.1.3. T chc v tnh cht ca cc lp b mt phn gii gia cc pha
1.1.4. S hnh thnh cc t chc trong cc h phn tn
1.2. Ct lm khun
1.2.1. Thnh phn khong cht ca ct lm khun
1.2.2. Thnh phn ht
1.2.3. Thnh phn t st ca ct lm khun
1.2.4. Nhng tnh cht cng ngh v cc ph-ng php xc nh
1.2.5. Phn loi ct lm khun
1.2.6. Cc vt liu lm khun chu la cao
1.3. Cht dnh
1.3.1. t st lm khun
1.3.2. Cc cht dnh khc
1.4. Vt liu ph lm khun
1.4.1. Vt liu chng chy dnh ct
1.4.2. Vt liu ph c tc dng bo v
1.4.3. Vt liu ph c tnh cht nhit l c bit
1.4.4. Cht xc tc ng rn
1.4.5. Cht gim nht
1.4.6. Cht to bt
1.4.7. Cht lm tng thi gian sng ca hn hp lm khun
5
1.4.8. Cht ho tan
1.4.9. Cht n nh huyn ph
1.4.10. Cht ph thm lm tng tnh do, tnh ln ca khun, rut
1.4.11. Nhng cht thm c bit
Ch-ng 2
. Hn hp lm khun
2.1. i c-ng v phn loi
2.2. Tnh cht cng ngh ca hn hp lm khun
2.3. Hn hp ct st
2.3.1. Hn hp lm khun t-i khng ho cng
2.3.2. Hn hp lm khun kh
2.3.3. Hn hp ct m
2.3.4. Quy trnh chun b hn hp ct - t st
2.3.5. Hn hp khun bn vnh cu
2.3.6. Hn hp khun pht nhit v cch nhit
2.4. Hn hp lm khun, rut t ng cng khng qua nung nng
2.4.1. Hn hp ng rn dng kh CO
2

2.4.2. Hn hp t ng rn dng do
2.4.3. Hn hp bt nho t ng rn
2.5. Hn hp ct - nha ng rn ngui
2.5.1. Hn hp ng rn ngui trn c s nha cacbamit
2.5.2. Hn hp ng rn ngui trn c s nha cacbamit - furan
2.5.3. Hn hp ng rn ngui trn c s nha fnolphoocmandehi
2.5.4. Hn hp ng rn ngui trn c s nha fnol furan
2.6. Hn hp lm rut ng rn qua sy
2.6.1. Hn hp ct - du
2.6.2. Hn hp lm rut trn c s cht dnh kt tng hp khan
2.6.3. Hn hp lm rut trn c s cht dnh kt cha n-c
6
Ch-ng 3
Cht sn khun, va trt, keo dn v cht rc
3.1. Cng dng cht sn khun
3.2. Thnh phn ca cht sn khun, va trt
3.2.1. Thnh phn ht
3.2.2. Cht thm dnh kt
3.2.3. Cc cht thm c bit
3.2.4. Cc cht lng ho sn
3.3. Cc loi sn khun
3.3.1. Sn tng bn
3.3.2. Sn lm tng bng b mt vt c
3.3.3. Cc loi sn v va chng chy dnh ct
3.4. Keo dn v ma tt
3.5. Cht rc khun








ng-i vit ti liu tr-ng phng o to


bi quang bnh i t v nht minh


7
Ti liu tham kho
1. Gia cng c kh GS-TSKH Phm Vn Khi Nh xut bn Gio dc
1998.
2. K thut c Phm Quang Lc Nh xut bn thanh nin 2000.
3. Nhng vt liu lm khun I.U. XTPANOV, V.I. XMNOV Nguyn Th
dch - Nh xut bn KH&KT 1975
4. Tuyn tp bo co Sm sn 89 Hi ngh chuyn than antraxit c gang.
Vt liu lm khun Vit nam.
5. Bo co kho st th tr-ng c Vit Nam GS -TSKH Phm Vn Khi
Tr-ng HBK H Ni 1995.
6.
.. .. .
1982

.. . 1983.















8
Mc lc
Trang
Ch-ng m u............................................................................................. 9
Ch-ng 1. vt liu lm khun
1.1. C s ho l v cc tnh cht ca vt liu lm khun........................... 18
1.1.1. phn tn ca ct v t st lm khun...................................... 18
1.1.2. Lc phn t b mt phn gii gia cc pha................................. 21
1.1.3. T chc v tnh cht ca cc lp b mt phn gii gia cc pha .... 25
1.1.4. S hnh thnh cc t chc trong cc h phn tn............................ 30
1.2. Ct lm khun..................................................................................... 33
1.2.1. Thnh phn khong cht ca ct lm khun .................................. 33
1.2.2. Thnh phn ht......................................................................... 34
1.2.3. Thnh phn t st ca ct lm khun........................................... 35
1.2.4. Nhng tnh cht cng ngh v cc ph-ng php xc nh.............. 37
1.2.5. Phn loi ct lm khun ................................................................ 47
1.2.6. Cc vt liu lm khun chu la cao .............................................. 50
1.3. Cht dnh ............................................................................................ 52
1.3.1. t st lm khun ......................................................................... 53
1.3.2. Cc cht dnh khc ........................................................................ 60
1.4. Vt liu ph lm khun....................................................................... 68
1.4.1. Vt liu chng chy dnh ct ......................................................... 71
1.4.2. Vt liu ph c tc dng bo v .................................................... 72
1.4.3. Vt liu ph c tnh cht nhit l c bit .................................... 73
1.4.4. Cht xc tc ng rn.................................................................... 74
1.4.5. Cht gim nht ......................................................................... 74
1.4.6. Cht to bt................................................................................... 74
1.4.7. Cht lm tng thi gian sng ca hn hp lm khun.................... 75
1.4.8. Cht ho tan ( dung mi ).............................................................. 75
1.4.9. Cht n nh huyn ph ................................................................ 76
9
1.4.10. Cht ph thm lm tng tnh do, tnh ln ca khun, rut.......... 76
1.4.11. Nhng cht thm c bit............................................................ 76
Ch-ng 2. Hn hp lm khun
2.1. i c-ng v phn loi....................................................................... 79
2.2. Tnh cht cng ngh ca hn hp lm khun ..................................... 81
2.3. Hn hp ct -t st ............................................................................ 85
2.3.1. Hn hp lm khun t-i khng ho cng...................................... 85
2.3.2. Hn hp lm khun kh................................................................ 87
2.3.3. Hn hp ct m........................................................................... 87
2.3.4. Quy trnh chun b hn hp ct - t st ........................................ 92
2.3.5. Hn hp khun bn vnh cu ........................................................ 93
2.3.6. Hn hp khun pht nhit v cch nhit........................................ 94
2.4. Hn hp lm khun, rut t ng cng khng qua nung nng............. 96
2.4.1. Hn hp ng rn dng kh CO
2
................................................... 96
2.4.2. Hn hp t ng rn dng do ..................................................... 103
2.4.3. Hn hp bt nho t ng rn....................................................... 107
2.5. Hn hp ct - nha ng rn ngui ..................................................... 108
2.5.1. Hn hp ng rn ngui trn c s nha cacbamit ........................ 108
2.5.2. Hn hp ng rn ngui trn c s nha cacbamit - furan............. 108
2.5.3. Hn hp ng rn ngui trn c s nha fnolphoocmandehit ..... 112
2.5.4. Hn hp ng rn ngui trn c s nha fnol furan .................... 112
2.6. Hn hp lm rut ng rn qua sy..................................................... 114
2.6.1. Hn hp ct - du......................................................................... 114
2.6.2. Hn hp lm rut trn c s cht dnh kt tng hp khan.............. 114
2.6.3. Hn hp lm rut trn c s cht dnh kt cha n-c ................... 115
Ch-ng 3. Cht sn khun, va trt, keo dn v cht rc
3.1. Cng dng cht sn khun.................................................................. 117
3.2. Thnh phn ca cht sn khun, va trt............................................. 118
3.2.1. Thnh phn ht ............................................................................. 118
10
3.2.2. Cht thm dnh kt ........................................................................ 119
3.2.3. Cc cht thm c bit .................................................................. 119
3.2.4. Cc cht lng ho sn............................................................... 119
3.3. Cc loi sn khun ............................................................................. 120
3.3.1. Sn tng bn ................................................................................. 120
3.3.2. Sn lm tng bng b mt vt c ............................................ 120
3.3.3. Cc loi sn v va chng chy dnh ct ....................................... 121
3.4. Keo dn v ma tit ................................................................................ 124
3.5. Cht rc khun.................................................................................... 125






























11
Ch-ng m u
pht trin nn kinh t quc dn trong thi k cng nghip ho v hin i
ho t n-c th s pht trin ca ngnh cng nghip ch to my chim mt v
tr rt quan trng. Vic nng cao nng sut lao ng v cht l-ng sn phm cng
i hi cc nh qun l v cn b k thut quan tm mt cch y , nhm gim
gi thnh, tng mc tiu th sn phm. i vi nghnh cng nghip ch to my
phn ln cc chi tit -c ch to bng ph-ng php c. N c th chim t 30
n 80% khi l-ng cc chi tit.
c l mt trong nhng ph-ng php ch yu sn xut phi (vt c) cho
cc chi tit my, v qu trnh sn xut rt kinh t, c th ch to -c vt c c
kch th-c v hnh dng bt k bng tt c cc hp kim v kim loi vi l-ng d-
gia cng nh nht m li c c tnh cao. Thc t sn xut trong v ngoi n-c cho
thy cht l-ng v gi thnh ca sn phm c c nh h-ng rt ln (i khi l
quyt nh) n cht l-ng v gi thnh ca tng chi tit my ni ring v ton b
thit b my mc ni chung.
Qu trnh ch to vt c c th tm tt theo s hnh 1:












Hnh 1.
Vt liu nu
Nng l-ng
Mu
Hp li
Vt liu
lm khun
Nu
chy
kim
loi
Lm
khun,
rut
Chun
b hn
hp
Rt
khun
Lp
rp
khun
Ct c
ti sinh
X l
vt c
R
khun
Kim
tra
Ph
phm
Vt
c
hon
chnh
u rt,
u ngt
12
Loi ng-i bit ti cng ngh c rt sm, cch y khong su ngn
nm. Vit Nam ng-i ta bit c nhng dng c phc v nng nghip nh-
l-i lim ng, cuc ng, dao ng, ru, do, mi lao, mi tn, thp, trng,
ching bng ng... t thi cc vua Hng dng n-c. Ngoi vic c cc dng c
sn xut trong nng nghip, ng-i ta cn c cc dng c phc v cho sinh hot
hng ngy, trang tr, phc v t l. C th k n bn vt qu bng ng c
kch th-c v khi l-ng ln -c c n-c ta nh-: T-ng cha Qunh Lm
(ng Triu Qung Ninh) cao khong 20 m, nng 500 tn; Thp Bo Thin 12
tng xy dng nm 1057 i vua L Thnh Tng cao khong 70 m c cc tng
trn ca thp u -c c bng ng; chung Quy in c nm 1101 (i L
Nhn Tng); vc cha Ph Ninh (Nam H) c thi vua Trn Nhn Tng (1279
1293) su gn 1,5 m, rng 3,3 m, nng 3075 kg.
Hin nay trn th gii k ngh c kim loi vn pht trin mc d c k ngh
c cht do v rn dp thay th ch to mt s chi tit. Cc cng trnh nghin
cu v cng ngh mi, my mc mi c kh ho v t ng ho sn xut c
vn ang -c y mnh nhm nng cao nng xut v cht l-ng vt c.
-u im ca cng ngh c:
- c -c nhng vt c hnh dng phc tp m cc ph-ng php gia cng
khc rt kh thc hin ( thn my cng c, v ng c, cnh qut tuabin nh my
in)
- c -c vt c c khi l-ng t rt nh (vi gam) n rt ln ( hng
trm tn).
- c -c cc vt c chnh xc cao, vt c xong c th s dng -c
ngay m khng cn gia cng hoc ch cn gia cng rt t.
- Thnh phn vt liu c khng ch cht ch c th to -c nhng vt
liu c tnh nng c bit nh- chu mi mn, chu n mn...
- Nng sut cao, gi thnh h.
Nh-c im :
Trong sn xut c d gy bi, kh c hi v ting n; kh c -c vt liu
c im chy qu cao trn 2000
0
C (nh- W); tn kim loi cho h thng u
ngt, u hi; d gy ra cc khuyt tt nh- r kh, chy ct; kh kim tra
khuyt tt bn trong.
13
Vt c -c ch to ra trong cc khun c. Khun c c th l khun ct,
khun bn vnh cu, khun vnh cu. Khun ct -c lm bng hn hp ct + t
st hay cht dnh khc v ch dng c vt c -c mt ln.
Khun bn vnh cu lm bng loi vt liu chu la cao v dng c nhiu
ln (50 - 200 vt c).
Khun vnh cu lm bng gang hay thp hp kim c hng trm v hng nghn
vt c cho n khi b hng. Vic chn khun c ph thuc vo quy m sn xut, vo
loi kim loi c v nhng yu cu i vi vt c. Khun ct hay -c dng nhiu v
ph bin do n c kh nng c -c nhng vt c c hnh dng v kch th-c bt k,
chi ph v thit b, dng c v vt liu lm khun khng cao m cch lm khun n
gin. V vy trong ni dung ca gio trnh ny ch cp n vt liu lm khun ct l
chnh.
Ng-i ta phn loi sn xut c theo ph-ng php lm khun. Theo tp qun
thng th-ng -c chia lm hai loi: c trong khun ct v c c bit.
c trong khun ct th-ng dng khun t-i, khun kh, khun sy b mt,
khun t ng cng (khun c cht dnh c bit, khng cn sy cng t ng
cng).
c c bit l c theo cng ngh mi, dng hn hp mi lm khun
hay dng khun kim loi. Theo vt liu lm khun khc nhau ng-i ta cng phn
c c bit thnh hai loi :
- Loi dng ct t nhin l chnh lm khun nh- khun mu chy, khun
v mng, khun gm,
- Loi th hai dng kim loi lm khun l chnh gm c c trong khun
kim loi, c ly tm, c lin tc, c p lc, c ht chn khng, c dp lng,
c trong khun t,
Cc b phn ca khun ct:
Khun c th-ng gm 2 na: na trn v na d-i (hnh 2)
Cc na khun -c lm bng hn hp lm khun trong cc hm khun.
Hm khun l nhng khung cng bng kim loi. Hn hp lm khun gm c ct
thch anh, t st hay cht dnh khc v nhng cht ph thm c bit -c nho
trn k vi nhau.
14
Nhng phn rng bn trong v nhng l vt c -c to thnh nh cc
rut, gm c ct thch anh, cht dnh v cc cht ph c bit. Kim loi lng
-c rt vo khun theo h thng rt. dn khng kh v cc cht kh trong
khun v rut ra ngoi ng-i ta lm nhng l thng hi.








Hnh 2. Khun c : 1- Na trn; 2- Na d-i; 3, 4 Hm khun;
5 Cht nh v; 6 Rut; 7 H thng rt; 8 L thng hi.
Khun -c em rt trng thi m ( khun t-i) hay trng thi kh
(khun kh). Lm khun t-i kinh t hn v d c kh ho v t ng ho trong
qu trnh sn xut. Khun t-i ch yu dng c cc vt c bng gang, hp
kim nhm v hp kim ng, nhng vt c nh v trung bnh bng thp iu
kin sn xut n chic v lot ln. Khun kh th-ng dng c cc vt c
ln v thnh dy.
Khun c phi m bo vt c ra c hnh dng v kch th-c theo yu cu
vi chnh xc v bng b mt nht nh, m bo tc v h-ng ng
cng xc nh ca vt c. Vt liu lm khun l nhng vt liu dng lm
khun v rut. Ng-i ta chia vt liu lm khun ra lm vt liu gc, hn hp lm
khun, hn hp lm rut, thnh phn ph. Vt liu gc chia lm 2 nhm:
1. Vt liu chnh l cc cht to nn chu la ca hn hp (nh- ct thch
anh, livinit, crmit, manhzit, zircn...), cc cht dnh (t st, n-c...)
2. Vt liu ph l cc cht ph thm (than bn, mn c-a, than) to hn
hp c nhng tnh cht nht nh no y.
15
Hn hp lm khun v lm rut -c ch to t cc vt liu gc. Thnh phn
ca hn hp -c chn ph thuc vo cng dng, ph-ng php lm khun, loi
kim loi rt vo khun.
Nhng thnh phn ph l cc cht sn, keo dn, cht trt cn thit cho vic
ch to, sa cha khun v rut.

Yu cu i vi vt liu lm khun v cc
tnh cht ca chng
Mun sn xut1 tn vt c phi dng t 2 n 5 tn vt liu lm khun ( tu
theo loi cng ngh lm khun). Trong chy hao, mt mt khng s dng li
-c chim t 0,6 n 2 tn. Gi thnh vt liu lm khun chim t 8 n 12%
gi thnh vt c.
Ch tiu vt liu lm khun cho 1 tn vt c thnh phm khi c trong
khun ct ( bng 1).
Bng 1.

Vt liu Ch tiu, kg
Ct thch anh 1400 1800
t st 200
Bentnit 15
Bt ct thch anh 50
Cc cht dnh 30
Cht dn li 20
m bo nhn -c vt c hp cch, vt liu lm khun phi c cc tnh
cht p ng -c cc yu cu nht nh ca:
- Cng ngh lm khun v lm rut
- Nhng iu kin tc dng qua li gia khun vi kim loi lng khi rt
khun, khi vt c ng v ngui.
- Cng ngh chun b hn hp lm khun hay lm rut.
16
- iu kin r khun, ph rut.
Nh- vy hn hp lm khun phi c cc tnh cht sau:
a. Tnh do
L kh nng bin dng ca hn hp d-i tc dng ca ti trng t vo. Hn
hp lm khun v lm rut phi c tnh do in li -c chnh xc hnh dng
ca mu trong khun. Tnh cht ny th-ng c nhng vt liu c kh nng
bin dng do d-i tc dng ca nhng lc yu. Hn hp lm khun c t chc
gm nhng ht thch anh c mt mng cht dnh bao ph. Nh lc dnh kt m
cc ht thch anh lin kt chc li vi nhau. Mun tch hoc dch chuyn cc ht
y phi c lc tc dng vo, lc ny s cng ln khi nht ca cht dnh cng
cao. Nh- vy nht cht dnh cng cao th hn hp lm khun cng km do.
b. bn
Khun c, rut phi c mt bn nht nh. c bn nht nh phi
m cht hn hp trong qu trnh lm khun, rut.
bn phi cao khun, rut khng b hng khi rt mu, quay lt, vn
chuyn, rp khun, khi kim loi in y v khi chu p sut thu tnh ca kim loi
lng.
Song bn ca hn hp lm khun, rut phi thp :
- Trong qu trnh ng cng kim loi lng, khun, rut khng cn tr s co
ngt ca vt c, khng gy ra ng sut trong v nt vt c. Tnh cht ny ca
hn hp lm khun, rut gi l tnh ln.
c bit rut cn tr nhiu n s co ca vt c nn rut cn phi c tnh
ln cao hn, ngha l cn d dng bin dng v dch chuyn khi vt c co ngt.
- Khi r vt c, khun phi d ph. Tnh cht ny ca hn hp gi l tnh d
ph. Nu hn hp lm rut kh ph th s mt nhiu sc lao ng ly rut v
lm sch vt c. Tnh d ph ca hn hp lm rut -c coi l l t-ng nu nh-
khi ph rut hn hp t ti ra nh- ct kh.
bn ca hn hp -c xc nh trng thi t-i, kh v nung nng.
bn ca hn hp trng thi m s c tr-ng cho bn ca khun
khng sy khi rt kim loi lng vo. bn ny ph thuc vo loi hp kim c,
17
khi l-ng, kch th-c, phc tp v hnh dng ca vt c, ph-ng php m
khun.
i vi vt c bng cc hp kim nng (hp kim ng, ch, thp ) bn
ca hn hp v ca khun phi cao, v nhng hp kim ny trng thi lng s
tc dng mt p sut ln ln thnh khun, c th lm khun b bin dng gy
mo vt c. Khi l-ng, kch th-c (nht l chiu cao) vt c cng ln th
thnh khun phi chu p sut cng cao, v bn ca hn hp lm khun cng
phi cao.
Khi lm khun c nhng vt c nh, phc tp c nhiu g, nt, -ng
l-n v i khi c nhng mt phng ca khun nhn -c th-ng khng chun:
ht ct bm vo mt mu v tch khi hn hp lm khun khi rt mu. Hin
t-ng ny gi l tnh dnh bm. Tnh dnh bm c tr-ng cho bn b mt ca
hn hp t-i v ph thuc vo bn lin kt gia cht lng trong hn hp vi b
mt mu (lc dnh kt ngoi) v gia cht lng vi cc ht ct (lc lin kt trong).
Nu lc dnh kt ngoi ln hn lin kt trong th nhng ht ct ca hn hp s
dnh bm vo b mt mu v s b tch khi khi c bn ca khun khi rt mu.
Tnh dnh bm ca hn hp ph thuc vo cht dnh v iu kin thm -t ca
cht dnh vi b mt mu v b mt cc ht ct. Tnh dnh bm ca hn hp s
gim khi m hay l-ng cht dnh trong hn hp gim, hay khi ph ln b mt
mu, hp rut cc loi bt hay cc cht lng khng thm -t (du ho).
bn trng thi kh c tr-ng cho bn ca khun v rut sau khi sy.
Trong qu trnh sy do ca hn hp lm khun gim, bn tng. Cho nn
khun kh dng c nhng vt c ln, thnh dy bng thp, gang v hp kim
ng. Rut bao gi cng phi sy kh v rut lm vic trong iu kin nng n
hn so vi khun.
Khi rp khun, vn chuyn, ct gi khun, rut c th lm hng b mt
khun, lm cho ct lp b mt b ri ra. Do hn hp lm khun, rut phi c
ri nh nht, ri ny ph thuc vo bn b mt ca khun, rut.
bn ca hn hp khi nung nng n nhit rt kim loi vo khun
quyt nh trng thi ca khun, kh nng b bin dng khi in y kim loi
lng, khi ng v ngui ca vt c. Khun, rut b nung nng s tham gia t-ng
tc lc qua li vi vt c. Trong qu trnh in y, khun lm vic nh- mt
bnh c thnh dy y cht lng. Khi vt c ng v ngui, khun, rut cn
18
tr s co ngt gy ra ng sut v bin dng trong vt c n mc c th b cong
vnh hay nt n.
Tu theo iu kin chu ti trng c th ca khun, rut ng-i ta ra cc
yu cu khc nhau v bn nn, un, ko cho hn hp lm khun. Nhng
khun c dung tch kim loi ln phi chu ng sut p ln ca p sut tnh t kim
loi lng. Trng thi ca nhng khun ny ph thuc vo bn nn ca hn hp
lm khun. Nhng rut di, mng (rut c cc ng) d-i tc dng ca khi
l-ng bn thn (tr-c khi rt) v ca kim loi lng khi rt s b un cong. bn
ca rut ny -c c tr-ng bng bn un trng thi kh. Nhng rut c
phn treo ln phi chu ti trng ct. Cho nn khi chn hn hp lm khun, rut
phi tnh n iu kin chu ti trng ca khun, rut.
c. chu la
L kh nng ca hn hp lm khun, rut chu -c tc dng ca nhit
cao m khng b nng chy. Thnh ca lng khun khi rt kim loi lng vo s
b nung nng ln n nhit bng nhit cu kim loi lng. Nhit rt thp
lng l 1550 1580
0
C, gang lng l 1300 1340
0
C, hp kim nhm l 700
730
0
C. Do nhit nng chy ca hn hp lm khun phi cao hn nhit
kim loi lng rt vo, ngha l hn hp lm khun phi c chu la cao. Do
nhit cao v do nhng phn ng ho hc xy ra mt tip xc gia kim loi
lng v khun m nhng silict kim loi d chy c th -c to thnh v xm
nhp vo nhng l rng nh ca khun. Kt qu l trn b mt vt c to thnh
ct chy lm gim nhn bng b mt. Ngoi nhit v cc phn ng ho hc,
xp ca khun cng nh- thi gian tc dng nhit ca kim loi lng ln thnh
khun cng nh h-ng n l-ng ct chy. chu la ca hn hp lm khun
cng cao, hn hp cng tr i vi cc phn ng ho hc nhit cao th s ct
chy cng t.
d. sinh kh v thot hi
Khi thnh khun, rut b kim loi lng nung nng th kh m c trong khun,
cht dnh, cc vt liu ph (mn c-a, than) s to ra mt l-ng ln cc cht kh,
hi n-c. Tnh cht ca hn hp tit ra cc cht kh, hi n-c khi b nung nng
gi l kh nng sinh kh. Nhng cht kh v hi n-c sinh ra chu tc dng nhit
s dn n v di chuyn vo thnh khun ( theo k h gia cc ht ct ) v vo c
trong kim loi lng. Nu sc cn chuyn ng ca cc cht kh v hi n-c theo
19
k h gia cc ht ct ln hn sc cn chuyn ng ca cc cht kh qua kim loi
lng th trong vt c s xut hin r kh. vt c khng r kh th hn hp
lm khun, rut phi cho kh i qua -c, ngha l phi c thot hi cao. Cc
cht kh to ra do s phn hu cht dnh ca rut ( b phn to l rng trong vt
c ) s thot ra mnh hn. Nhng cht kh ny s thot ra qua cc gi rut (u
gc rut) c kch th-c khng ln lm. Hin t-ng ny lm cho p sut kh trong
rut tng ln gy r kh trong vt c. V vy hn hp lm rut phi c sinh
kh tht nh v thot hi cao.
e. Tnh ht m
L kh nng ca hn hp lm khun, rut ht n-c t khng kh vo. ht
m ph thuc ch yu vo tnh cht ca cht dnh trong hn hp. ht m ca
hn hp phi nh nht v mt khun b bo ho m ( trong qu trnh rp khun v
ngoi khng kh ) c th s l nguyn nhn to ra r kh trong vt c.
g. Tui th ( bn lu)
L kh nng ca hn hp gi li -c hu nh- hon ton nhng tnh cht
ca chng khi dng nhiu ln. Tui th ca hn hp lm khun l c tr-ng
quan trng quyt nh tnh kinh t ca vic s dng cc hn hp y.
Hn hp lm khun, rut qua mi ln rt khun s mt mt phn cc tnh
cht ban u -c gi l hn hp ct dng ri hay ct c. Hn hp ct c phi
-c em ti sinh - l khu gia cng c bit kh b bi, v phn cn li
ca cht dnh v.v... Trong nhng khu gia cng tip theo ng-i ta cho thm t
st vo ct c tng thm bn cho hn hp. Vic dng li hn hp ct dng
ri sau khi ti sinh s gim chi ph vt liu lm khun rt nhiu, nng cao hiu
qu kinh t ca qu trnh sn xut.







20
Ch-ng 1
Vt liu lm khun
1.1 C s ho l v cc tnh cht ca vt liu lm khun
bn, do, thot hi v cc tnh cht cng ngh khc ca hn hp
lm khun ph thuc vo cc thnh phn gc v cu trc ca n. L-ng t st
hoc nhng cht dnh khc bao quanh cc ht ct, to thnh lp mng bc bo
m cho s lin kt ca chng c nh h-ng n cu trc ca hn hp.
T chc ca lp mng bc c th iu chnh bng cc cht hot tnh b mt,
tinh bt v cc cht ph thm khc tu theo bn cht v mc tc dng ca
chng vi thnh phn lp mng m nhng cht ny c th lm gim hay tng
bn, cng ca lp mng, do s nh h-ng n tnh cht ca hn hp.
Nguyn l iu chnh t chc ca h thng keo, trong bao gm cc loi
t st, ct, hn hp lm khun, rut -c nghin cu k trong ngnh ho keo
v c hc ho l. S dng nguyn l ny cho php ta hiu su hn, y hn
nhng qu trnh hnh thnh t chc, to ra -c nhng hn hp lm khun, rut
mi v ci thin -c nhng hn hp ang -c dng trong sn xut.
1.1.1 phn tn ca ct v t st lm khun
H phn tn l h hai hay nhiu pha, trong mt pha gm nhng ht rt
nh, ring bit (pha phn tn) -c phn b trong mt pha khc (mi tr-ng phn
tn). Hn hp lm khun l h a phn tn. Ct thch anh thuc loi vt liu phn
tn th, cn t st lm khun thuc loi vt liu phn tn tinh, cn theo kch
th-c ht th nhng vt liu ny thuc h phn tn dng keo.
phn tn ca vt liu -c xc nh bng t s
D
S
V
= (1.1 )
Trong : S - l din tch b mt ca cc ht;
V - th tch cc ht.
phn tn t l nghch vi kch th-c di ca cc ht ( hnh1. 1 ). Qu trnh
lm nh cc ht ca vt cht gi l s phn tn ho, cn qu trnh lm to thm gi
l s kt t.
21
Nu coi ht khong vt c dng hnh cu th b mt ca chng s t l thun
vi bnh ph-ng bn knh ( S = 4tR
2
), cn th tch th t l vi lp ph-ng bn
knh (V =
4
3
tR
3
). Thay gi tr S v V vo cng thc (1. 1) ta c:
D
R
=
3
(1. 2)









Hnh 1. 1. Quan h gia phn tn D vi kch th-c ht ca pha phn tn.
I Dung dch thc; II H keo;
III H phn tn tinh; IV H phn tn th.
Tr-ng hp khi cc ht ct c hnh dng bt k th phn tn -c xc nh bng
cng thc:
D =
|
o
(1. 3 )
Trong : | - h s hnh dng ca cc ht;
o - kch th-c ln nht ca cc ht.
phn tn tng r rt khi chuyn t h phn tn th sang h phn tn tinh.
Nhng h phn tn dng keo c phn tn ln nht, trong nhng h ny cc ht
c kch th-c gn bng kch th-c cc phn t. Gia dung dch thc v h phn
tn dng keo khng c ranh gii r rt. Ranh gii ny ph thuc vo thnh phn
ho hc ca cc cht to thnh pha phn tn v mi tr-ng phn tn.
22
Mi tr-ng phn tn l mi tr-ng bt k trong c phn b nhng ht ca
pha khc. Th d, trong dung dch nh t-ng n-c + t st hay va lm cht dnh
trong hn hp lm khun th mi tr-ng phn tn l n-c cn pha phn tn l cc
ht t st. B mt phn gii gia pha phn tn v mi tr-ng phn tn gi l b
mt phn gii gia cc pha. Gi tr b mt phn gii gia cc pha bng b mt cc
ht. Nh- vy b mt phn gii gia cc pha t l thun vi phn tn ca cc
ht. Nu gi nguyn hnh dng, khi kch th-c ca cc ht gim xung bao nhiu
ln th b mt ca chng tng ln by nhiu ln bnh ph-ng.
Ct v t st thin nhin dng trong sn xut c gm cc ht c kch th-c khc
nhau.
Thnh phn ht ca ct -c xc nh bng ph-ng php sng trn ry,
cn thnh phn ht ca t st -c xc nh bng ph-ng php lng. Cc ht
-c phn chia thnh tng phn theo kch th-c. Ht ct c dng gn nh- hnh
cu, ht t st c dng rt khng i xng. T s gia kch th-c ln nht v
nh nht ca t st cao lanh l (6 8):1, cn ca t st mnmrilnt
(Al
2
(OH)
2
..Si
4
O
10
.

nH
2
O) l (100 200) : 1.
Phn loi cc h phn tn.
Theo trng thi tn ti ca mi tr-ng v pha phn tn, cc h phn tn -c
chia lm 3 nhm: Lng L, Rn R, Kh K. H phn tn -c k hiu bng cc
ch ( t-ng ng vi trng thi tn ti ca mi tr-ng v pha phn tn) vi cc ch
s km theo. Ch s 1 k hiu cho pha phn tn, ch s 2 cho mi tr-ng phn
tn.
Th d:
L
1
/L
2
biu th dung dch nh t-ng gia 2 cht lng, v d du trong n-c;
R
1
/L
2
biu th dung dch huyn ph, v d t st trong n-c.
Theo c-ng tc dng gia cc phn t trn b mt phn chia cc pha th
cc h phn tn c th chia ra h phn tn t do v h phn tn lin kt. H phn
tn t do gi l cc cht keo, h phn tn lin kt gi l cc gel. Qu trnh chuyn
t gel thnh keo gi l s pepty ho, qu trnh ng-c li gi l s ng t.
ng t
pepty ho
H phn tn
t do - keo
H phn tn
lin kt - gel
23
Th d keo c th l cht sn khun va ch to xong. Sau mt thi gian sn
c li do lin kt gia cc ht ca pha phn tn vi nhau to mng khng gian
dy c (khung), iu ph hp vi s chuyn keo thnh gel. Khuy o sn
tr-c khi dng s ph v gel, lm gim nht, lm sn c kh nng bao ph tt.
S to thnh gel mt cch nhanh chng sau khi qut sn ln nhng mt ng ca
rut s loi tr -c hin t-ng chy git ca sn, iu lm cho mt vt c
sch, phng v nhn bng.
1.1.2 Lc phn t b mt phn gii gia cc pha
Lc phn t f
1
v f
2
tc dng vo mt phn t vt cht nm trong th tch ca
cht y l bng nhau. Hp lc ca nhng lc ny bng khng (hnh 1. 2, a).







Hnh 1. 2 - S tc dng ca cc lc phn t
a - bn trong pha; o - b mt phn gii cc pha
Nhng phn t nm b mt ca mt cht (pha) chu lc ht mt chiu (hnh
1. 2, o). Nh- vy b mt phn gii gia 2 pha l ngun gc ca tr-ng lc phn
t do s khng trit tiu cc lc phn t cc lp b mt gia cc pha h
1
v h
2
.
n v c-ng ca tr-ng lc phn t ny l sc cng b mt gia cc pha o
(N/m) - nng l-ng d- trn 1cm
2
din tch phn gii ca pha.
phn tn ca vt liu tng th b mt phn gii S ca cc pha tng v
nng l-ng F ca lp b mt dV cng tng. Nng l-ng d- lp b mt khi nhit
v p sut khng i -c xc nh theo cng thc:
F = o. S (1. 4 )
H thng s bn vng trong iu kin cho nu nng l-ng ca n l nh
nht. V th h phn tn c xu h-ng t gim nng l-ng b mt. S thay i
nng l-ng ca lp b mt -c biu th bng ph-ng trnh:
24
F = o.dS + S.do (1. 5 )
Nh- vy mun gim nng l-ng ca lp b mt cn phi:
- Gim din tch b mt phn gii pha khi sc cng b mt khng i
- Hoc thay i sc cng b mt khi din tch khng i.
Cc qu trnh thay i th nht c th xy ra lp b mt l cc qu trnh t pht
lm gim b mt n mc nh nht. Th d nh- xu h-ng cc git n-c tin n dng
cu, hin t-ng thm -t v khng thm -t cc b mt, s sinh ra p sut mao dn.
Cc qu trnh thay i th 2 l qu trnh hp ph lm gim sc cng b mt.
Hin t-ng thm -t v khng thm -t cc b mt
Xu h-ng gim nng l-ng t do f n cc tiu bng cch gim b mt phn
gii pha trong h thng gm vt th rn 3, cht lng 1 v cht kh 2 (hnh 1. 3) s
dn n s xut hin lc o
12
=
f
L
, thng gc vi -ng chu vi phn gii lng rn
L v tip tuyn vi b mt phn gii pha lng.
Khi thm -t khng hon ton, b mt cht lng tip xc vi b mt rn theo
mt -ng gi l chu vi thm -t v to thnh vi b mt y mt gc mp u.
Cosu l n v o s thm -t, v n lin quan vi ba sc cng b mt:
o
12
, o
31
, o
32
tc dng ln mt n v chiu di ca chu vi git.
o
32
- o
31
= o
12
cosu
T suy ra: cosu
o o
o
=

32 31
12
(1. 6)








Hnh 1. 3. S tc dng ca lc sc cng b mt trong h vt th rn -
lng - kh: 1 - lng, 2 - kh, 3 - vt rn
25
Khi u < 90
0
(o
32
> o
31
) b mt -c n-c thm -t tt hn loi cht lng v
cc hyr cacbon; nhng b mt nh- th gi l b mt -a n-c.
Khi u > 90
0
(o
31
> o
32
) b mt -c n-c thm -t km hn cht lng hyr
cacbon, nhng b mt ny gi l nhng b mt k n-c.
Nh- vy cng mt b mt, n-c c th thm -t nh-ng du hoc cc cht
lng khc li khng thm -t. Th d trn b mt cc ht thch anh n-c thm -t
tt, du thm -t km, nh-ng du li loang ra (thm -t) mt cch d dng theo
b mt ca n-c. Ng-i ta ch n hin t-ng ny khi quyt nh th t cc
thnh phn ca hn hp vo cc my trn.
p sut mao dn
bt k b mt cong phn gii ca pha lng ng trong bnh cng c ch
t bin ca p sut thu tnh, hin t-ng ny gy ra bi sc cng b mt, n xc
nh tnh cht ca p sut mao dn. i l-ng ca p sut mao dn P
o
t l thun
vi sc cng b mt o
12
v t l nghch vi bn knh r
0
ca ng mao dn:

0
12
2
r
P
o
o
= (1. 7)
Nh nhng cht lng thm -t s t dng ln trong ng mao dn n
cao h (Hnh 1. 4), cn nhng cht lng khng thm -t th khng xm nhp vo
ng mao dn. Chiu cao dng ln ca cht lng trong ng mao dn t l thun vi
sc cng b mt o
12
, cos u v t l nghch vi hiu s t trng ca cht lng
1
v
hi bo ho
2
ca n, vi bn knh ng mao dn r
0
v gia tc trng tr-ng g:

g r
h
. ). (
cos 2
0 2 1
12

u o

= (1. 8)




Hnh 1. 4. S ca s thm -t mao dn


26
p sut mao dn v s thm -t nh h-ng n s to thnh ct chy trn b
mt vt c. Thp lng thm -t cc b mt ht thch anh km, nh-ng cc xt
st li thm -t b mt thch anh tt. Nh c p sut mao dn nhng xt ny
trng thi lng trn b mt vt c s thm su vo nhng l rng gia cc ht
ct; cng vi chng gy ra phn ng ho hc to ra lin kt vng chc trn b mt
vt c, iu l gim sch b mt vt c.
Hp ph l s thay i nng ca cht ho tan lp b mt. Khi c nhng
phn t ca thnh phn th 3 (nhng cht hot tnh b mt ) -c hp ph lp
b mt th s xy ra qu trnh gim t pht sc cng b mt. S lin quan gia
hp ph D vi s gim sc cng b mt do -c biu din bng ph-ng trnh
Gibbs:
D
C
RT
d
dC
= .
o
(1. 9)
Trong : C - nng cht hot tnh b mt trong mi tr-ng phn tn;
R - hng s kh;
T - nhit tuyt i.
i l-ng
d
dC
G
o
= l th-c o hot tnh b mt ca mt cht. Nu
d
dC
o
> 0 th cht l cht hot tnh b mt v s -c hp ph b mt phn
gii. Nu
d
dC
o
< 0 th l cht kh hot tnh b mt v n s gy ra s tng sc
cng b mt; v vy nhng cht ny s khng b hp ph b mt phn gii pha.
Nhng hp cht ho hc thuc cc cht hot tnh b mt bao gm nhm phn
cc v phn v cc. Cc nhm phn cc OH, COOH v.v.... l nhng cht mang
m men l-ng cc. Nhng phn t v cc ca cc cht hot tnh b mt c tr-ng
lc phn t yu v l nhng mch hyr cacbon bao gm cc nhm CH
2
. Nhm
phn cc c i lc ln vi cc pha phn cc. C bit nhm ny c th b ht vo
trong n-c, cn mch hyr v cc s b y ra khi n-c (hnh 1.5).
Ng-i ta hay dng cc axt bo lm cc cht hot tnh b mt. S gim
sc cng b mt ph thuc c vo nng ln trng l-ng phn t ca axt bo..
Trng l-ng phn t tng th c-ng gim, sc cng b mt tng.

27






Hnh 1. 5: S phn b cc cht hot tnh b mt trn mt n-c.
Trong mt s tr-ng hp lp bo ho hp ph l lp n phn t, ngha l ch
c mt lp cc phn t -c lin kt bng lc lin kt phn t vi b mt phn
gii, cn thng th-ng tn ti mt lp chuyn tip b mt gia cc pha c chiu
dy nh hn 0,1 m. Ng-i ta ng dng rng ri s hp ph v tc dng ca cc
cht hot tnh b mt trong qa trnh ch to hn hp lm khun, rut vi nhng
tnh cht cng ngh cho tr-c. Th d cho thm cc cht hot tnh b mt trong
mt s tr-ng hp s lm tng bn ca hn hp trng thi m, hoc trong
mt s tr-ng hp khc li lm hn hp chy nh- cht lng.
Trn c s nhng cht hot tnh b mt m ng-i ta ch to -c nhng
hn hp chy lng t ng cng, cho php c kh ho -c qu trnh nng nhc
ch to cc rut ln trong sn xut n chic hay hng lot.
1.1.3 T chc v nhng tnh cht ca cc lp b mt gia cc pha
Nhng lp hp ph b mt phn gii gia hai pha c th -c to thnh do
s hp ph cc phn t hay cc ion. Nhng lp hp ph phn t hay ion c bn
cht khc nhau, do chng cng c t chc v tnh cht khc nhau.
Cc lp hp ph phn t do cc cht hot tnh b mt to thnh, c th c
chiu dy t 1 phn t n 0,1 m. Nhng cht hot tnh b mt to thnh lp hp
ph th gel cho chiu dy ln hn. Nhng cht hot tnh b mt ny l nhng cht
keo -a dung mi, trong pha phn tn b mi tr-ng phn tn thm qua, ngha
l h thng ging nh- ch c 1 pha. Cc loi keo -a dung mi l cc cht prtin,
x phng kim trong n-c, cc cht nha v x phng kim loi trong du. Khi
nng thp nhng cht keo -a dung mi khng to -c cc cu trc khng
gian m ch lm thay i mt cht nht trong th tch ca mi tr-ng phn
tn. Khi tp trung b mt phn gii gia cc pha, chng to nn cc lp hp ph
28
c nht kt cu cao, cn khi bo ho ln c n hi v bn tr-t. Lp
hp ph ny dng keo t bt khi tch khi b mt cc ht.
Nhng keo -a dung mi to nn cc lp hp ph c cc tnh cht kt cu c
hc ring vi tnh n nh mnh, ngn tr s lin kt cc ht li vi nhau, ngha l
ngn tr s kt t ca h thng. S n nh ca h thng keo t -c, th nht l
do s gim sc cng b mt cc ht n tr s sc cng b mt ca mi tr-ng
phn tn, th hai l do cc lp hp ph c nht cao v c kh nng lm tt
ng nng chuyn ng Braw ca cc ht. Nng l-ng nhit ng ca cc ht
khng chc thng cc lp hp ph c nht cao.
Tnh cht lm n nh cc ht ca keo -a dung mi th-ng -c ng dng
ch to cc cht sn, cc loi va trt. Trong thnh phn ca cc cht sn, va trt
phi c keo dextrin (mt bin th ca tinh bt) hoc mt cht hu c khc r hn
(nh- mt, keo pectin).
Cc cht keo -a dung mi khi hp ph trn mt t st s n nh chng,
ngn khng cho lp sn b phn lp thnh pha rn v pha lng mt cch qu
nhanh.
Do s lin kt phn t ca mi tr-ng lng vi b mt cc ht v do s bn
vng nhit ng hc ca cc lp mng cht lng gia cc ht ca pha phn tn
(m ta gi l nhng lp mng dung hp ) lm cho bn thn mi tr-ng phn tn
cng c tnh cht lm n nh cc ht n mt chng mc nht nh. Tnh cht
trn ca mi tr-ng phn tn do B.V. Deriagin tm ra v -c gi l p sut dn.
p sut dn P
x
s bng 0 khong cch gia cc ht x= 0,1- 0,01m (hnh1.6, a).
p sut ny s tng khi cc ht st li gn nhau v khi lp m ca mi tr-ng
gia chng gim i. Khi cc ht tip xc st li na th lp m ca mi tr-ng
s t mng i nhiu v ch cn nh- mt lp mng n phn t lin kt.
-a dung mi ca h thng tng th chiu dy ca lp mng dung hp
cng tng; bng p sut dn nhng mng ny s lm cn bng lc c xu h-ng
-a cc ht st li gn nhau. S -a dung mi ca b mt cc ht ca pha phn tn
t -c bng cch to thnh mt lp hp ph cc cht hot tnh b mt lm
thay i bn cht b mt cc ht phn tn, hoc bng cch hp ph ion to nn
lp mng in kp. Lp mng ion, do lc tnh in s lm xut hin p sut dn.


29








Hnh 1. 6. S cu to ca cc lp ion hp ph I v khuch tn II trn mt
cc ht rn 1 trong mi tr-ng lng 2 v s xut hin p sut dn P
x
.
Lp hp ph ion xut hin khi trong mi tr-ng phn tn c cha nhng ion
nm trong thnh phn cc ht ca pha rn. Nhng ion ny thit lp nn mng tinh
th v to nn in th trn mt cc ht. Con -ng th hai lm xut hin in th
c lin quan vi s phn ly cc phn t trn b mt ca cc ht pha rn thnh ion
trong mi tr-ng lng v s dch chuyn mt phn cc ion vo trong dung dch.
in th trong keo axit silic cng sinh ra bng cch nh- vy. Nhng phn t
H
2
SiO
3
trn b mt phn ly thnh cc ion H
+
chuyn vo mi tr-ng lng (vo
n-c), cn cc ion Si O
3
2
do lin kt vi b mt cc ht vng hn nm li trong
pha rn.
in tch ca b mt cc ht -c iu ho bi cc ion khc du nm trong
mi tr-ng lng to thnh mt lp mang in kp (hnh 1. 6, o). Lp ion mang
in tch m s sinh ra trn b mt mt in th
12
. Mt phn cc ion khc du
mang in tch d-ng s st nhp vi lp ion hp ph to in th . Lp ion hp
ph ny c chiu dy o lin kt vng chc vi b mt ca pha phn tn. Phn cn
li ca cc ion d-ng nm trong mi tr-ng phn tn v phn b theo -ng cong
khuch tn.
C th hnh dung cu to cc phn t keo nh- sau, th d axit silic: lp b
mt ca tp hp m phn t H
2
SiO
3
khng ho tan trong n-c, c n phn t
H
2
SiO
3
phn ly ra (2n-x) ion H
+
to thnh lp hp ph, cn x ion H
+
s to nn
lp khuch tn.
[mH
2
SiO
3
. nSiO
3
2
(2n - x) H
+
] xH
+

30
C hai lp hp ph v khuch tn s to lp mng dung hp ca cc phn t
keo. H thng nm trong du [ ] l n v ng hc mang in tch m trong
tr-ng hp ny mang in tch m =
12
- . H thng bao gm cc phn t
H
2
SiO
3
, lp hp ph v lp khuch tn gi l h mixen (hnh 1. 7)


Hnh 1. 7. S cu to mixen
ca axt silic:
I - Lp hp ph;
II - Lp khuch tn ca cc ion.



Nhng ion nm trong thnh phn ca cc lp hp ph v khuch tn c th
b cc ion cng du ca mt nguyn t khc thay th. Th d, ion H
+
c th b cc
ion Na
+
, K
+
, Ca
2+
v.v. thay th. Khi th in ng ca cc ht b thay i.
Hin t-ng ny gi l s trao i ion.
S trao i ion b mt phn gii cc pha tun theo quy lut tc dng ca
cc cht:

2
1
2
1
C
C
K
D
D
= (1.10)
Trong : D
1
v D
2
- nng cc ion trn b mt cc ht pha rn,
C
1
v C
2
- nng cng ca cc ion trong dung dch,
K - h s t l.
T s s l-ng cc ion b hp ph t l thun vi t s nng cn bng
cng ca cc ion trong dung dch. Nhng ion ca lp hp ph khng hon ton
b thay th m ch thay th mt phn bi cc ion khc.
Trn thc t c s sai lch so vi nh lut tc dng khi l-ng. l do s
l-ng ion b hp ph trong qu trnh trao i ph thuc vo ho tr v th tch
thu ng lc ca n, tc l th tch ca ion cng vi mng hyrt bao bc xung
quanh n. S hp ph ion s tng khi ho tr ca cc ion tng, nh-ng i vi cc
31
ion cng ho tr th s hp ph s tng khi trng l-ng nguyn t tng. Nhng
tnh cht ni trn ca cc lp ion hp ph -c th hin rt r khi nhng khong
cht t st bentnit - loi t st dng lm cht dnh trong hn hp lm khun
tc dng vi n-c. Bentnit c nhng ion c kh nng thay th. X l bentnit
bng cc cht kim th c th thay mt s ion trong mng tinh th ca n bng
cc ion khc. Th d, nu bentnit - Ca c th lin kt -c vi gn 200% n-c
theo trng l-ng bentnit, th khi thay cc ion Ca
2+
bng ion Na
+
l-ng n-c
lin kt tng ln n 500%.
Tnh cht ca cc bentnt - Na to thnh cc lp khuch tn lm cn tr s
lin kt ca cc ht -c ng dng rng ri trong nghnh c. Bentnit -Na lm
cht n nh trong thnh phn ca cc cht sn khun. N ngn khng cho sn b
phn lp thnh cht ph chu la v cht ho tan (n-c).
Trong nhng dung dch huyn ph t st c (va) s thay th hon ton
bng cc ion Li
+
v Na
+
khng ngn -c s to thnh cc t chc bn vng, v
n-c ca nhng lp ion khuch tn kp tr thnh lin kt km v thc t l n-c
t do. S thay phc cht trao i ion bentnt khng lm nh h-ng ti bn
ca hn hp trng thi m khng nh vn trn. Song bn ca hn hp
lm khun trng thi m c th tng ln khi c tc dng ca cc cht hot tnh
(natri ccbonat, cc cht kim) lm gim kch th-c ca cc ht t st, ngha l
lm tng phn tn ca h thng.
Nhng cht hot tnh b mt hp ph trn b mt cc ht c th lm thay i
r rt bn cht ca b mt phn gii cc pha. Th d, nhng b mt rn -a n-c
d b n-c thm -t c th tr thnh k n-c (khng b n-c thm -t). Nhng
phn t ca cc cht hot tnh b mt bin b mt thnh k n-c bng cch h-ng
cc nhm phn cc v pha mt phn cc -a n-c v cc mch hyrccbon v
h-ng ng-c li. Nu em nh n-c vo b mt ny s khng b thm -t na,
iu ny th hin bng s thay i gc bin thm -t.
Hin t-ng k n-c ho th-ng -c ng dng trong thc t. Th d, em
phun dung dch mazut trong du ho ln b mt mu lm gim s dnh bm
ca hn hp lm khun. Mng hyr cc bon trn b mt s ngn cn s tip xc
trc tip v s lin kt cc phn t ca n-c vi kim loi. Cng vi mc ch
t-ng t nh- vy ng-i ta cho vo hn hp lm khun n 0,5% mazut. Trong
hn hp lm khun mazut nm b mt cc mng n-c ca v t st bao quanh
cc ht ct. Mazut d dng b y vo nhng ch tip xc gia cc ht, iu
32
lm gim cht t bn ca hn hp trng thi m, nh-ng li gim -c
dnh bm, bi v gia mng n-c v kim loi cng c mt lp m hyr cacbon.
Cc b mt ban u k n-c c th tr thnh -a n-c bng cch hp ph cc
cht hot tnh b mt t cc dung dch n-c. Tc dng -a dung mi ho (-a n-c
ho) -c ng dng khi sn xut nhng cht dnh phc tp C H v C m trong
thnh phn ca chng c cha cc cht dnh c n-c (n-c b giy) v cht dnh
khan (I T u, m du ho xy ho). Cc cht dnh C H v C l cht nh
t-ng trong cc git du v n-c -c nhng phn t n-c b giy lm n
nh. Do s thay i v bn cht b mt phn gii nn s lin kt ca nhng git
nh du vi n-c b chm li rt nhiu
1.1.4. S hnh thnh t chc trong cc h phn tn
Theo c tnh th h phn tn trong gm c t st benttnt lm khun,
hn hp khun, cht sn khun v va chim v tr trung gian gia cht rn v
cht lng. Chng gn vi cht ny hay cht kia l tu theo mc pht trin v
bn lin kt ca cc ht ca pha phn tn nhng ch tip xc to thnh mng
t chc khng gian.
Mng t chc lm cho c h thng phn tn c n hi, bn, do v
dai. Nhng c tnh ny thay i -c xc nh bi bn cht ca cc cht to
thnh h phn tn y, bi s tc dng ln nhau gia pha phn tn v mi tr-ng
phn tn, cng nh- lin kt phn t ca cc ht nhng ch tip xc.
Theo c hc ho l h phn tn -c chia thnh 2 nhm ln:
1) Nhng h khng c t chc, trong cc phn t ca pha phn tn
khng lin kt vi nhau;
2) Nhng h c t chc c mng khng gian dy c.
V ph-ng din c hc th nhng h khng c t chc l nhng cht lng c
nht cao. S tng t-ng i ca nht t l thun vi t s gia th tch ca
cc ht ca pha phn tn bao gm c nhng v dung hp bao quanh chng vi th
tch chung ca c h v -c biu din bng ph-ng trnh Enstin.
q q
q

=
0 1
0
K
V
V
. (1.11)
Trong : q - nht ca h phn tn,
33
q
0
- nht ca mi tr-ng phn tn,
V
1
- th tch ca pha phn tn,
V
0
- th tch ca mi tr-ng phn tn,
K - h s ph thuc vo hnh dng ca cc ht.
Cho thm cc cht hot tnh b mt lm cht n nh th c th lm tng
nng ti hn ca cc ht ln rt nhiu m khung mng cu trc vn khng to
thnh. Khi n nh hon ton, nng ti hn ny t-ng ng vi s lp y ti
hn th tch ca mi tr-ng phn tn. C th ly cc hn hp lm khun lng t
ng cng lm v d.
Cc h c t chc -c phn bit theo cc tnh cht c hc cht rn pht trin
mnh hay yu. Cc ht lin kt vi nhau to thnh mt th thng nht, trong
cha ton b th tch ca mi tr-ng phn tn. H khng b phn lp thnh 2 pha
v bn vng c vi thi gian, c vi tc dng bn ngoi.
S to thnh nhng khung mng cu trc l c s ca c cu lin kt cc ht
nhng ch tip xc, song cc tm ng t khng -c phn b u theo b mt
cc ht. Ng-i ta cho rng, lc phn t tp trung cc gc cnh, nhng ch li
lm, h- hng ca cc tinh th, v nhng ch c cong b mt ln nht v
c s tp trung nng l-ng t do ln nht. Ti mng dung hp hp ph ca
mi tr-ng phn tn cng d b ph v nht.
dai hiu qu ca t chc ny khng ngng gim xung theo s tng ca
tc tr-t, iu c lin quan n s ph hu ca t chc. Trong tr-ng hp
n gin nht, s thay i dai hiu qu q tun theo nh lut Bingam:
q q
c
= +
0
0
P
(1.12)
Trong : q
0
- dai ph hy ti hn ca t chc,
P
0
- ng sut tr-t ti hn,
c - tc bin dng.
Tnh cht chung ca cc t chc phn tn l tnh xc bin, tc l kh nng
ca t chc t phc hi dn dn cc tnh cht c hc sau s ph hu c hc. T
chc -c phc hi l do cc phn t trong chuyn ng Brao gp nhau mt cch
thun li. L-ng xc bin c th -c c tr-ng bng cc -ng cong ca s tng
34
m un n hi khi tr-t, ca ng sut tr-t ti hn v ca s thay i chu k tch
thot theo thi gian. Nhng -ng cong ny c tr-ng cho s pht trin ca mng
cu trc. Gi tr cc i ca bn v ca mun n hi khi tr-t t-ng ng vi
gii hn ca s pht trin mng cu trc.
C tnh ca cc h phn tn -c quyt nh bi hai nguyn nhn sau:
1) Do s lin kt phn t ca cc ht ca pha phn tn nhng ch tip xc,
iu t-ng ng vi s y ton b cc lp m ca mi tr-ng phn tn ra
khi nhng ch y v t-ng ng vi s kt t vng nht.
2) Nhng mng dung hp ca mi tr-ng phn tn khi c dy nh th
khng nhng c d- nng l-ng t do m cn t ti nhng tnh cht th rn. M
un n hi khi tr-t, ngha l cng vng ca cc mng , s tng mt cch
t bin khi gim chiu dy t 0,6 m n 0,2 m. Nh- vy, nu cc ht ca pha
phn tn -c ngn cch bng cc mng mng ca mi tr-ng phn tn lng th
ton h c th c -c mt cng vng v bn c hc no do nhng tnh
cht th rn ca lp m gia cc ht.
iu khin nhng tnh cht c hc cu trc ca cc h phn tn bng cc
cht hot tnh b mt th c th c -c hn hp lm khun, rut vi cc tnh
cht cho tr-c. Da trn nguyn tc y m ng-i ta ch to ra nhng hn hp
lm khun c m thp vi thot hi, d do v bn cao. thay
i t chc cc mng dung hp ca nhng phn t t st ng-i ta cho vo
hn hp lm khun cc cht prtin (dextrin, mt -ng) c kh nng to
thnh nhng dung dch keo c nht cao.
Lin kt vi n-c t do ca cc mng dung hp, cc cht prtin nng
cao bn, do ca hn hp v do lm gim m chung. em hot
tnh ho n-c bng cc cht hot tnh b mt c th lm gim tip m ca
hn hp. Cc phn t ca cc cht hot tnh b mt lm yu sc cng b mt
ca cc ht v mc lin kt ca n-c trong mng dung hp do c th
gim l-ng n-c nhiu hn na m khng lm gim tnh do ca hn hp i
nhiu.
Trong cc hn hp lm khun lng t ng cng, nhng phn t ca
cc cht hot tnh b mt lm gim lc tc dng t-ng h gia cc phn t
n mc cc ht b mt kh nng to thnh khung mng khng gian cng
35
vng, v vy cc ht trong hn hp c th dch chuyn mt cch t do v
hn hp t n tnh cht ca cht lng - tnh chy long. iu lm thay
i c bn cng ngh ch to rut, hn hp rut khng phi m m rt vo
hp rut. Nh nhng cht thm c bit m hn hp c th t cng li to thnh
rut trong hp. Hn hp lng t kh gim -c sc lao ng nng nhc khi ch
to rut, nng cao nng sut lao ng.
1.2. Ct lm khun
Loi vt liu ch yu p ng -c cc yu cu v iu kin lm vic ca
khun c l ct thch anh nguyn cht, n bao gm cc ht SiO
2
c kch th-c
v hnh dng nht nh. t khi thy ct thch anh nguyn cht trong thin nhin,
thng th-ng trong ct thch anh c cha cc tp cht khc nhau m ch yu l
cc oxit kim loi (Al
2
O
3
, CaO, MgO, Na
2
O, K
2
O, Fe
2
O
3
....)
Ct v t st lm khun l nhng trm tch ca m nham thch. Chng -c
to thnh l do s lng ng lin tip cc sn phm khong cht, s phong ho
nhng trm tch trong cc mi tr-ng dung dch khc nhau. Ct v t st lm
khun -c khai thc nhng m ring bng ph-ng php l thin. Nu ct c
ln tp cht hay thnh phn ht khng u phi tin hnh lm giu ct.
1.2.1 Thnh phn khong cht ca ct lm khun
Ngoi thch anh l thnh phn ch yu ca ct cn c mt s cc khong
cht khc nhau nh- fenspat, mica, cc xit v hyrxit st, canxit...
Thch anh l hp cht ha hc SiO
2
c khi l-ng ring l 2,5 2,8 g/cm
3
.
Nhit nng chy ca thch anh l 1713
0
C. Mu ca thch anh ph thuc
vo tp cht cha trong n, c th l khng mu hay mu xm, vng, en
v cc mu sc khc. Khi nung nng thch anh chuyn sang dng th hnh
khc c km theo s thay i th tch. 573
0
C thch anh o chuyn thnh
thch anh | v th tch thay i 2,4%, 870
0
C thch anh | chuyn thnh
| - triimit vi s thay i th tch l 15,1%. 1470
0
C | - triimit chuyn
thnh | - cristbalit v th tch thay i l 4,7%. 1743
0
C | - cristbalit
nng chy v th tch thay i 0,1%.
Fenspat (MeO.Al
2
O
3
.6SiO
2
) th-ng c cc loi fenspat natri v fenspat
natri-canxit.
36
So vi thch anh fenspat c cng thp hn, nhit nng chy l 1170 -
1550
0
C, n nhit 1000
0
C n 2,75%. Ct thch anh fenspat th-ng c hm
l-ng SiO
2
> 90%.
Mica.
Trong thin nhin ph bin nht l loi mica kali trng K
2
O.3Al
2
O
3
.
6SiO
2
.H
2
O muscvit v mica st - manhzit en K
2
O.6(Mg,Fe)O.Al
2
O
3
.
6SiO
2
.2H
2
O - bitit. Mica c khi l-ng ring khong 2,7 3,2 g/cm
3
, nhit
nng chy khng cao lm 1150 1400
0
C, n nhit 1000
0
C l 1,55%, mica
lm gim chu la ca ct.
Cc xit st
Th-ng gp Fe
2
O
3
(hmatt) c khi l-ng ring 5 5,3 g/cm
3
, c nhit
nng chy 1560
0
C v bn vng trong iu kin oxi ho. FeO.Fe
2
O
3
(manhtt) c
khi l-ng ring 4,9 5,2 g/cm
3
, nhit nng chy 1540
0
C. FeO.TiO
2
(
inmenit) v cc tp cht khc c khi l-ng ring 4,72g/cm
3
.
Cc hyrxit st (nFe
2
O
3
xH
2
O)
Tu theo hm l-ng n-c ng-i ta phn cc hyrxit st ra mt s dng
khc nhau. Cc hyrxit ny khng bn vng, khi b nung nng s mt n-c lm
gim cc tnh cht ca ct v c kh nng to thnh cc hp cht silicat d chy
gy s chy dnh ct trn vt c.
Cc cacbonnat lm gim chu la ca ct lm khun, s phn hu ca
cacbonnat khi nung nng n 500 900
0
C c kh nng to thnh cc khuyt tt
khc nhau trong vt c. Trong thnh phn ca ct th-ng cha canxit (CaCO
3
),
manhzit (MgCO
3
), lmit (CaCO
3
. MgCO
3
), xierit (FeCO
3
)
Cc khong cht t st trong ct lm khun th-ng gp mt s loi t st
nh-: kaolinit hay cn gi l cao lanh, illit hay thu mica (sn phm trung gian ca
s phn ho t mica thnh kaolinit) v mnmrilnit cn gi l bentnit.
1.2.2 Thnh phn ht
Thnh phn ht c nh h-ng n tnh cht cng ngh ca hn hp lm
khun. Ton b cc ht c kch th-c nm trong cng mt khong gi l
nhm ht ca ct hay hn hp. Nhm ht m trong cc ht c kch
th-c tit din nh hn 22 m -c gi l nhm ht gc t st (thnh
phn t st). Tng hp cc ht ca cc nhm ht ln hn 22 m -c gi
37
l nhm ht gc ct. ht v hnh dng b mt ca ct c ngha quan
trng hn c. Ngoi ra l-ng cc ht ln v nh trong ton b khi l-ng
ct cng nh h-ng n tnh cht ca hn hp lm khun.
Kch th-c cc ht -c xc nh bng ph-ng php sng qua b ry
th nghim. Ph-ng php ny gi l ph-ng php phn tch bng ry v dng
tch cc ht ct thnh cc nhm theo kch th-c ht. Cc ht ct nh
-c tch ra bng ph-ng php lng da trn tc lng khc nhau ca cc
ht trong cht lng. Tr-c khi xc nh thnh phn ht cn phi tch s b
t st trong thnh phn ca ct ra khi cc ht thch anh bng ph-ng php
lng.
Theo hnh dng ht, ct -c tm thi chia ra mt s nhm: ct ht
trn, na trn, ct sc cnh, ct mnh. trn cc ht ph thuc vo thnh
phn khong cht, c im ngun gc. Cc ht khong cht c cng cao nh-
ct thch anh th-ng c dng trn. Cc khong cht dng tm (mica, fenspat) b
v ra s mt hnh dng ban u v tr thnh cc ht sc cnh, mnh. B mt cc
ht ct c th x x, ng thi b bao bc ton b hay mt phn bng mt lp
mng cc cht khc (th-ng l t st). Lp mng b mt c th c cu to
khc nhau. Trng thi b mt nh h-ng n tnh cht ca ct v hn hp lm
khun.
1.2.3 Thnh phn t st ca ct lm khun
Tu theo l-ng t st, ct lm khun -c chia ra ct thch anh v ct t
st. Ct thch anh ch cha l-ng t st < 2% cn 90 97% l SiO
2
v d-i 10%
cc tp cht khc. Ct cha > 50% t st th thuc loi ct t st. L-ng t st
trong ct -c xc nh bng ph-ng php lng chun nh- sau. Mu ct hay hn
hp c khi l-ng 50 g -c em sy kh 105 110
o
C, ri cho vo bnh thu
tinh dung tch 1 lt v 475 cm
3
n-c ct v 25 cm
3
dung dch 1% NaOH vo
. Kp cht bnh trn mt thit b quay c bit v cho quay trong mt gi vi
tc 60 vg/ph. Sau cho thm n-c vo bnh sao cho mc n-c trong bnh
cch y150 mm. ct ang l lng trong n-c lng xung 10 ph. Cc ht
thch anh lng xung y bnh, cn t st cng vi n-c -c ht ra ngoi bng
ng xiphng. u d-i ng xiphng phi cch y bnh 25 mm v cch mt n-c
125 mm (hnh 1.8). Nhng ng tc trn c lp i lp li cho n khi n-c trong
bnh trong sut, chng t t st -c tch ht khi ct.
38
Nhng cht cha trong bnh em lc trn giy lc. Ct cn li trn giy lc
em sy 105 110
o
C ri em cn li. Khi l-ng phn trm mt i so vi khi
l-ng ban u ( 50 g ) biu th hm l-ng t st trong ct.





Hnh 1. 8.
Ht n-c bng xiphng


Nhm ht gc ct ca ct lm khun -c xc nh theo ph-ng php phn tch
bng ry. Tr-c khi xc nh nhm ht, ct phi -c lm sch t st bng ph-ng
php lng. Phn mu phn tch cn li sau khi lng (gc ct) -c ry qua nhng chic
ry chun c kch th-c mt ry chnh xc, (bng 1. 1). -ng knh ca ry l 200 mm.
B ry chun gm 11 ry t-ng ng vi bng 1. 1, d-i chic ry cui cng c lp y
(chu).
Bng 1. 1. Ry tiu chun phn ht

S ry Kch th-c cc cnh
mt ry, mm
S ry Kch th-c cc cnh
mt ry, mm
2,5 2,50 0315 0,315
1,6 1,60 02 0,200
1 1,00 016 0,160
0,63 0,630 01 0,100
0,4 0,400 0063 0,063
005 0,050
39
B ry -c kp cht ln bn ca my lc (hnh1. 9) theo th t ry th-a
trn, ry mau d-i. Ry mau nht N
0
005 d-i cng. Mu ct phn tch
-c vo ry N
0
2,5 trn cng c np y.





Hnh 1. 9.
Dng c xc nh gc ht ca ct

B ry -c lc theo mt mt phng ngang vi tn s 300 dao ng/ph.
ng thi u ba dn ng cng g ln np ca ry trn cng 180 ln/ph.
Sau 15 pht ry -c ly ra khi my v cn tng phn ct cn li trn mi
ry v np y. Kt qu phn tch bng ry -c biu th bng phn trm
ca khi l-ng ban u ca mu th (50 g) c k c l-ng t st tch ra
khi hn hp bng cch lng. Tng s nhng phn cn li trn cc ry v np
y, k c cc thnh phn t st phi bng 100%. d thy kt qu phn
tch bng ry, nhm ht gc ct -c biu din bng th (hnh 1. 10).
1.2.4 Nhng tnh cht cng ngh v cc ph-ng php xc nh
Nhng tnh cht cng ngh ca ct lm khun l t trng cht ng, m,
bn, chu la, thng hi v nhng tnh cht khc quyt nh tnh thch
hp lm khun c.
a) Trng l-ng cht ng
Trng l-ng cht ng ca ct lm khun ph thuc vo thnh phn khong
cht. Trng l-ng ring ca cc cht c trong ct cng cao th trng l-ng cht
ng cng cng cao. Thnh phn khong cht ca ct thch anh khng nh h-ng
ln lm n khi l-ng ring ca chng. Cn ct ziricon bao gm cc ht ZrSiO
4

c trng l-ng ring 4,68 4,7 g/cm
3
nn trng l-ng cht ng ca n so vi ct
thch anh ln hn nhiu.
40
Trng l-ng cht ng cng ln nu ct cng -c nn cht v cng nh nu
ct cha l-ng m cng ln.











Hnh 1.10. Kt qu phn tch ct bng ry
Trng l-ng cht ng ca ct ch-a m cht -c xc nh bng cch so
snh khi l-ng ca hai th tch ct v n-c nh- nhau: em y ct vo mt
bnh ri em cn, sau cng bnh em y n-c ri em cn li. Trng
l-ng cht ng o -c tnh theo cng thc:
o =

Q Q
Q Q
2 1
3 1
g/cm
3
(1.13)
Trong : Q
1
- khi l-ng ca bnh khng;
Q
2
- khi l-ng ca bnh cha ct;
Q
3
- khi l-ng bnh cha n-c;
- khi l-ng ring ca n-c.
b) m
m ca ct v hn hp lm khun l hm l-ng n-c t do v n-c m
tnh bng % khi l-ng ca vt liu y.
41
W
G G
G
=

1
100% . (1.14)
Trong : G - Khi l-ng ca ct hay hn hp tr-c khi sy, g;
G
1
- Khi l-ng ca ct sau khi sy, g.
L-ng m trong ct hay hn hp lm khun -c xc nh theo 2 ph-ng
php:
Ph-ng php th-ng; mu ct 50 g -c cn chnh xc n 0,01g. Trong mt
chn s -c cn v sy kh tr-c, em chn ct y sy nhit 105
110
0
C cho n khi trng l-ng khng i. Mu sy kh ngui n nhit
phng ri em cn li. L-ng m W% -c tnh theo cng thc (1.14).
Ph-ng php nhanh; mu ct -c sy bng khng kh nng 110 200
0
C,
hay bng nng l-ng bc x ca cc n (hnh1. 11). Vic xc nh m ca
ct cng theo cng thc (1. 14).










Hnh 1. 11. Dng c sy mu ct hay hn hp
a - Sy bng kh nng; b - Sy bng n in
c. bn
Ct thch anh kh khng c bn c hc, v chng l nhng vt th ri. bn
ca ct m ph thuc vo khi l-ng v tnh cht ca cht lng, vo thnh phn ca

42
t st, kch th-c v hnh dng cc ht thch anh. Tng m ca ct th bn s
tng n cc i do sc cng b mt, v sau s gim xung (-ng cong 2
hnh 1.12).

o KN/m
2







Hnh 1. 12. bn ph thuc vo m
1 - Ct giu t st; 2- Ct thch anh.
Khi tip tc tng m na th bn li tng. bn cc i th 1 t-ng
ng vi t s gia b mt cc ht ct v m, khi m l-ng mng n-c bm trn
b mt cc ht y l cc i. bn cc i th 2 t-ng ng vi m mao dn
ln nht. bn trng thi m ca ct giu t st ln hn ct khng cha t
st. bn ny cng tng khi tng l-ng t st v n-c. i vi hn hp lm
khun quy lut cng t-ng t nh- vy. Khi tng m n 5 6% bn ca ct
giu t st s tng, song nu tip tc tng m ln na th bn li gim
(-ng cong 1 hnh 1. 12). bn ca ct v hn hp lm khun c th xc nh
trng thi m, sy kh v nung nng vi cc dng ti trng khc nhau: nn, ct,
ko, un. C cc ph-ng php chun th ct v hn hp lm khun chu nn
trng thi m v chu ko trng thi kh. bn ca ct lm khun ph thuc
vo m cht, v th khi th ng-i ta dng nhng mu c cng m cht
nh- nhau.
S m cht ca mu th -c tin hnh bng my ba c bit. Hn
hp -c b vo ng mu bng kim loi c -ng knh trong 50 0,2 mm
(khi l-ng hn hp l 170 - 180g), v m 3 ln bng my ba c qa ba nng
43
6,35 kg ri t cao 50 mm xung. Chiu cao ca mu th sau khi m cht phi
bng 50 0,8 mm.
bn nn -c xc nh trn 3 mu chun ch to bng ct hay hn hp
lm khun ca cng mt m th nghim. Ch s bn nn l tr s trung bnh
cng ca cc kt qu thu -c. th nghim ng-i ta dng my th kiu n
by hay my th vn nng c kh nng tng lin tc ti trng vi tc khng
qu 196 KN/m
2
(2KG/cm
2
) trong mt pht. Gii hn bn nn o
n
ca ct hay hn
hp -c xc nh theo cng thc:
o
n
P
F
= (1.15)
Trong : P - ti trng ph v mu tnh bng KN,
F - tit din ngang ca mu th tnh bng m
2
.
bn ko ca ct hay hn hp khun -c xc nh trn 3 mu chun hnh
s 8 (hnh 1. 13).









Hnh 1.13.
Hp rut v mu chun
hnh s 8 xc nh
bn ko ca hn hp

44
Cc mu th -c ch to trong cc hp rut trn my ba th nghim. Ct
hay hn hp -c m cht bng 3 ln ri ca qu ba.
Sau khi m cht, cc mu th -c em sy kh v em th trn nhng
my th nghim. Gi tr trung bnh cng cc kt qu th nghim ca 3 mu th
-c coi l ch s bn. Gii hn bn ko cng -c xc nh theo cng thc
(1. 15).
bn b mt ( ri) ca ct v hn hp lm khun -c xc nh bng cch
dng cc mu th chun hnh tr c -ng knh v chiu cao 50 mm. Cc mu th
-c em th nghim trng thi m v trng thi kh. Dng c th l ci tang nh
-ng knh 110 mm. Thnh tang lm bng loi l-i kim loi c mt 4 x 4 mm. -ng
knh cc si l-i l 0,9 mm. Dng c t v tr cn bng nm ngang. Mu th t vo
trong tang sao cho khi ng ng c ca my, tang quay vi tc 60 vng/ pht th
khng b va chm vo cc mt u ca tang. Khi mt bn ca mu s b ch st vi
thnh tang. bn b mt ( ri) -c biu th bng s mt mt trng l-ng ca
mu trong mt n v thi gian v tnh bng phn trm (%) so vi trng l-ng ban u
ca mu.
d) cng b mt ca khun v rut
bn ca mu chun khng th hin -c ton b bn ca khun v rut
lm bng hn hp . Ng-i ta xc nh -c gia bn ca hn hp v cng
b mt ca khun lm bng hn hp y th-ng c mi t-ng quan nh- sau: bn
cng cao th cng cng ln. V th nhng tnh cht bn ca hn hp trong khun c
th biu th bng ngay cng b mt ca khun . cng ca khun v rut
trng thi m -c o bng ng h o cng, gm mt u bi trn c -ng knh
10mm, cc l xo v ng h ch th c chia (hnh 1. 14, a).







Hnh 1. 14.
Cc ng h o
cng b mt
ca khun c
45
cng -c xc nh bng sc bn ca hn hp chng li s ln su ca
vin bi vo su 0 5 mm, d-i ti trng 1,96 - 9,8 N ( 0,2 - 1KG). Tr s ca
cng biu th bng n v tuyt i.
Ng-i ta cn dng ph-ng php ct su b mt bng u dao ca ng h o
xc nh cng ca khun v rut kh (hnh 1. 14, o). cng -c xc
nh bng sc bn ca hn hp chng li s n su ca u dao vo su t 0
2,5 mm d-i ti trng 9,8 - 18,6 N (1- 2 KG).
e) thng hi
thng hi ca ct ph thuc vo kch th-c, hnh dng v trng thi
b mt ca cc ht, ng u ca thnh phn ht, m v t phn t
st, ng thi ph thuc c vo m cht. Cc ht ct cng to th khong
cch gia chng cng ln, -ng i ca kh cng thng thong v s mt
mt do ma st vi b mt cc ht cng nh. thng hi ca cc ht to ln
hn cc ht nh. Ct c dng ht sc cnh kh b m cht do khong
cch gia cc ht cn li ln hn, v th thng hi ca chng cao hn.
Nu ct c thnh phn ht khng u th cc ht nh s lp y cc k h
gia cc ht ln lm cho thng hi gim i. thng hi xc nh bng cch
cho khng kh c nhit bnh th-ng (nhit phng) i qua mu th chun
hnh tr lm bng hn hp lm khun m ta cn xc nh thng hi. Gi tr
thng hi -c xc nh theo cng thc:

|
|
.
|

\
|
t
=
Ph . G
cm
s . N
m
.
FP
h . V
K
4 4
(1. 16)
Trong : V - th tch khng kh i qua mu th, m
3
(cm
3
);
h - chiu cao mu th, m (cm);
F - din tch tit din ngang ca mu th, m
2
(cm
2
);
P - p sut khng kh tr-c khi qua mu th, N/m
2
(G/cm
2
);
t - thi gian khng kh i qua mu th, s (ph).
Th-ng th thng hi -c biu th bng mt tr s khng c n v o.
thng hi -c o bng my o c bit (hnh 1. 15).
46










Hnh 1. 15. My o thng hi ca hn hp lm khun
1 - my; 2 - Thng; 3 - ng dn h-ng v thot hi; 4 - Chp;
5 - ng; 6 - Ti trng; 7 - Van 3 chiu; 8 - Cc t mu th;
9 - u nt thot hi; 10 - p k.

g) chu la ca ct ( hay hn hp) lm khun
Cc mu ct (hay hn hp) em th nghim -c ch to thnh cc mu
hnh thp nhn 3 cnh ( thp nhit k ). Nhng thp ny cho vo l cng vi
nhng thp nhit k t-ng t lm bng cc loi ct ( hay hn hp) bit
tr-c chu la. Nhit m ti nh cc thp mu th cong xung
chm y -c coi l chu la ca ct (hay hn hp). chu la -c
k hiu bng s hiu ca thp nhit k chun cng cong xung mt lc vi
mu th (hnh 1. 16). Nu mu th cong xung khong gia hai thi im
cong ca hai thp nhit k chun th n -c k hiu bng s hiu ca c
hai thp nhit k y.
chu la ca ct lm khun ph thuc vo nhiu yu t nh-: thnh
phn khong cht, ht, thi gian nung.
Ct thch anh c cha cc khong cht khc s lm gim nhit nng
chy ca ct. Nhng tp cht ny l Al
2
O
3
, Fe
2
O
3
, CaO, MgO cng vi SiO
2

47
s to thnh cng tinh c nhit nng chy thp hn nhit nng chy
ca SiO
2
(1713
0
C). Th d, hn hp gm 5,5% Al
2
O
3
v 94,5% SiO
2
s to
thnh cng tinh c nhit nng chy l 1545
o
C. Hn hp c nng
khong 72% FeO v 28% SiO
2
chy nhit khong 1220
o
C. Nu cho vo
hn hp mt xit th ba th nhit nng chy gim xung r rt, nh- hn
hp 2FeO.Al
2
O
3
..2SiO
2
s to thnh cng tinh 1140
o
C. Cc hp cht ca
canxi trong ct cng lm gim nhit nng chy ca ct. Ht ct cng nh
th cng b nung nng nhanh hn v cng b nng chy nhit thp hn.









Hnh 1. 16. Cc thp nhit k xc nh chu la ca ct lm khun

h) Cc tnh cht nhit - l ca ct (hn hp) lm khun
Nhit dung, dn nhit, dn nhit , h s tch nhit nh h-ng
nhiu n qu trnh tc dng qua li ca kim loi lng vi thnh khun. Ct
(hn hp) lm khun l nhng h phn tn phc tp bao gm cc ht thch
anh rn, n-c, khng kh, v th cc tnh cht nhit-l ca chng khng c
nh. Nhng tnh cht ny ph thuc vo: thnh phn khong cht v thnh
phn ht ca ct, t trng, m, l-ng t st v nhit . S hnh
thnh t chc tinh th ca vt c v nhng tnh cht ca chng c lin
quan cht ch vi c-ng dn nhit ra khi vt c trong qu trnh ng
v ngui. C-ng dn nhit -c xc nh bng h s tch nhit ca hn
hp lm khun:
48
b C = (1. 17)
Trong : - dn nhit ca hn hp;
C - nhit dung ca hn hp;
- trng l-ng ring ca hn hp.
Chiu su -c nung nng ca khun trong qu trnh khun tip xc vi vt
c ph thuc vo dn nhit ca hn hp lm khun:
a
C
=

(1. 18)
Khun cng b nung nng nhiu th trong hn hp xut hin cng nhiu thnh
phm dng bi lm gim thng hi, chu la, lm xu cht l-ng ca hn hp.
Gi tr ca nhng tnh cht nhit-l c bn ca ct v hn hp lm khun -c nu
trong bng 1. 2.
Bng 1. 2. Cc tnh cht nhit - l ca ct v hn hp lm khun

Vt liu
Nhit

0
C
Trng
l-ng
ring
kg/m
3

Nhit
dung
J/(kg.)
dn
nhit
w/(m.)
dn
nhit
m
2
/s
H s tch
nhit
w.s
2

m
2
.
Ct kh 20 1500 0,795.10
3
0,326 0,274.10
-6
620
Ct m 20 1650 2,1. 10
3
1,13 0,049.10
-6
1970
Hn hp
ct - t st
( m
6%)
- 1700 2,01.10
3
0,656 0,192.10
-6
1500



49
1.2.5. Phn loi ct lm khun
n-c ta ct -c dng lm vt liu lm khun nhiu nht c th k n
ct Vn Hi (thuc huyn Cm Ph,Qung Ninh), ct Cu Cm (ng Triu,
Qung Ninh), ct Qu V (Qu V, Bc Ninh), ct Sng Cng (Ph Yn, Thi
Nguyn), ct Ph Li (Ch Linh, Hi D-ng)Thnh phn ch yu xem bng 1. 3.
Ngun ct thch anh pha nam n-c ta kh phong ph, cht l-ng tt v d
khai thc. Theo kt qu nghin cu kho st t nm 1973 ti nay ca Vin trao
i khoa hc k thut Nht Bn v Vit Nam th thnh phn ch yu ca ct
thch anh dng lm vt liu lm khun c -c ghi trong bng 1. 4.
Tu theo l-ng t st m ct thch anh -c chia ra cc loi sau: Ct thch
anh, ct gy, ct na m, ct m v ct rt m. L-ng oxit silic (SiO
2
) v cc tp
cht c hi ch quy nh cho nhm ct thch anh (bng 1. 5).
Bng 1. 3.
Th
t

Tn ct
Hm l-ng
t st +
bi (%)
Hm
l-ng
SiO
2

(%)
Tr
l-ng
(tn)

c im
1 Vn Hi 0,1 98,7 5 triu Lm khun c thp,
gang
2 Cu Cm 2-3 96,2 2 triu Lm khun c gang
3 Qu V 0,5 98 5 vn Lm khun c gang,
thp
4 Sng Cng 3,82 95,48 10 vn Lm khun c gang
5 Ph Li 1,5 97,15 20 vn Nhiu mn cn x l
6 Sng Hng Kh nhiu 90,82 t
7 Sng
ung
Kh nhiu 86,25 t
8 Sng Nhu Kh nhiu 7,14 t
Khng nn dng lm
khun c v cht l-ng
thp
50
Bng 1. 4.
Th
t
Tn ct Hm l-ng
SiO
2
(%)
Tr l-ng (tn) c im
1 Bn o
Hn Gm
96 1000 triu Ht nh, mn
2 Nam 95,5 25 triu Ht nh, mn
3 Tam K 99,6 23 triu Ht nh, mn
4 Cam Ranh 99,8 25 triu Ht nh, mn
Hin nay nh n-c ta ch-a c tiu chun quc gia v vt liu lm khun m
mi ch xy dng -c mt s tiu chun ngnh bao gm:
- Tiu chun nghnh v ct c;
- Tiu chun nghnh v t st;
- Tiu chun nghnh v phn ch bc;
- Tiu chun nghnh v phn ch en.
Ct lm khun bao gm cc ht thch anh v t st. L-ng t st cha
trong ct khng v-t qu 50%. Trong sn xut c ct lm khun -c dng
trng thi t nhin hay -c lm giu.
Trong c n-c ch-a c c s no sn xut ct c. Cc vt liu lm khun
ni chung khng phi s dng ring cho c m chung cho nhiu nghnh khc, v
d nh- ct thch anh ch yu dng cho xy dng. Kim tra mt s c s c ca
b c kh v luyn kim thy hm l-ng t st trong hn hp lm khun qu ln,
bn ca hn hp trng thi m khng bo m, m ca khun t-i cao gy ra t
l sai hng ca vt c cao, c ni chim ti 55%.
i vi cc n-c cng nghip pht trin, vt liu lm khun -c tiu chun
ho. Cn c vo cc nh sn xut chn vt liu p ng -c tiu chun, cht
l-ng sn phm vt c. Trong gio trnh ny c trch dn cc tiu chun ca
Lin X c bn c tham kho, ly lm c s cho vic chn vt liu lm
khun nng cao cht l-ng vt c theo h-ng mong mun.


51

Bng 1. 5. Phn loi ct lm khun theo IOCT 2138 74.
Cc tp cht c hi, %
Tn ct

Loi
Hm l-ng
t st, %

SiO
2
, %
xt kim loi
kim v kim th
xt st
O 1k d-i 0,2 98,5
s 0,40 s 0,20
O 2k 0,5 98,0
s 0,75 s 0,40
Ct giu
thch anh
O3k 1,0 97,5
s 1,00 s 0,60
1k 2,0 97,0
s 1,20 s 0,75
2k 2,0 96,0
s 1,50 s 1,00
3k 2,0 94,0
s 2,0 s 1,50

Ct
thch anh
4k 2,0 90,0 - -
Ct gy T
t 2 10
- - -
Ct na m
H t 10 20
- - -
Ct m t 20 30
- - -
Ct rt m O t 30 50
- - -
Ghi ch: Trong ct thch anh l-ng l-u hunh trong cc sunfua khng v-t
qu 0,05%.
Theo IOCT 2138 - 74 Ct lm khun -c chia thnh cc nhm theo i
l-ng ht ca cc nhm ht (bng 1. 6).
Bng 1. 6: Phn loi ct lm khun theo ht.

Tn ct

Nhm
S ca cc
ry k tip
nhau m trn
cc ht ca
phn c bn
nm li

Tn ct

Nhm
S ca cc ry
k tip nhau
m trn cc
ht ca phn c
bn nm li
Ct th 063 1; 063; 04 Ct nh 016 02; 016; 01
Ct rt to 04 063; 04; 0315 Ct rt nh 01 016; 01; 0063
Ct to 0315 04; 0315; 02 Ct mnh 0063 01; 0063; 005
Ct trung
bnh
02 0315; 02; 016 Ct bt dng
bi
005 0063; 005; np
y
52
Theo ht, cht l-ng ca ct -c coi l t yu cu nu khi th nghim phn
tch ht bng ry phn ln cc ht ct nm tp trung trn 3 ry k tip nhau.
Tu theo l-ng cn li ca cc nhm ht trn cc ry tn cng (ry trn
cng v d-i cng) trong 3 ry k tip y ng-i ta chia ct thnh hng A v
. Ct c nhm ht c bn nm li ry trn cng nhiu hn ry d-i cng
l ct hng A; ng-c li nu ct ry d-i cng nhiu hn ry trn cng
thuc ct hng . Ngoi cc loi ct c ht tp trung cn c nhiu loi
ct c ht phn tn. Nhm cc ht c bn ca nhng loi ct ny nm
li trn 4 -5 ry lin tip. Hn hp ca nhng loi ct ny bn vng, c
ri khng ln lm, t to cc khuyt tt trn b mt vt c. Ct c t chc
ht phn tn phi nm li trn 3 ry lin tip khng t hn 60% s ht.
Khi k hiu ct t ch s u tin l loi, ch s th hai l nhm cn
ch s th ba l hng. Th d, ct thch anh c ht trung bnh k hiu l
1K02A, 2K02A hoc 2K02; Ct giu t st (ct na m v rt m) k
hiu l H025, O 01, v.v...
Cng dng ca ct lm khun. ch to cc hn hp lm khun rut
c cng dng khc nhau cn dng mt cch hp l nhng loi ct nht nh
(bng 1. 7). a im ca nh my so vi ni khai thc cng nh h-ng n
s la chn loi ct.
1.2.6. Cc vt liu lm khun chu la cao
Khi ch to nhng vt c ln bng thp v gang, khun b nung nng n
nhit cao. Trong iu kin nh- vy, cc silicct trong thnh phn hn hp lm
khun tc dng vi xit st trn b mt vt c to thnh s chy dnh ct. Phn
ng xy ra nh- sau:
FeO ( kim loi lng) + SiO
2
(khun) FeOSiO
2
(phaialit)
C th khc phc s chy dnh ct bng cch dng vt liu chu la cao thay
ct thch anh. Nhng vt liu ny nhit cao khng tc dng vi cc xit st.
livinit - l cc loi magi silict. Cng thc ho hc chung ca chng l
R
2
SiO
4
, trong R l Mg, Fe, Mn, Ni, Co, Zn, Ca. livin (Mg, Fe)
2
SiO
4
c nhit
nng chy 1830 - 1850
0
C dng ch to khun c. livin dng ch
to hn hp ct o cho cc vt c ln bng thp, gang. chu la ca livinit
1750 -1850
0
C.
53
Bng 1. 7. Th d v cng dng ca ct lm khun
Dng
c
Cng dng ca ct K hiu ct
Lm khun t-i cho cc vt c c khi
l-ng:

D-i 20 kg
H016A, H01A,
K016A
D-i 200 kg
H02A, H016A, K02A


c
gang
D-i 2000 kg
H02A, T01A, K02A
Lm khun t-i cho cc vt c c khi
l-ng :

D-i 500 kg K02A, K016
D-i 5000 kg K02A, K016A

c
thp
Dng cho hn hp lm rut K02A, K016A
Lm khun t-i v khun kh cho cc vt
c bng:

- ng thanh, ng thau, cc hp kim
nhm.
H016A, H01A
- Dng cho hn hp lm rut K02A


c kim
loi mu
- Dng lm khun nhng vt c nh yu
cu c b mt tht nhn bng.
H0063A
Crmit (qung st- crm). Thnh phn ho hc bao gm crmit FeCr
2
O
4
;
(Mg,Fe) Cr
2
O
4
; (Fe,Mg)(Cr,Al)
2
O
4
. Nhng qung ny c cha l-ng Cr
2
O
3
cng
cao th chu la cng tng. Qung st crm dng dng tn nh (kch th-c
ht 1,7 0,8 mm) lm ct o cho vt c ln bng thp. chu la 1600 -
1800
0
C. Qung Crmit (C nh Thanh Ho) n-c ta c cht l-ng tt,
ngun phong ph, tr l-ng trn 17 t tn dng lm hn hp lm khun phc v
cho ngnh c, luyn kim, xy t-ng l, ch bin Fr Crm. Trong ngnh ho
crmit ch to cht mu, trong ngnh c kh dng lm bt mi.
Manhzit MgCO
3
cha 47,82% MgO, 52,18% CO
2
v cc tp cht canxi
cacbont, st cacbont, mangan cacbont, thch anh v talk. Trng l-ng ring
ca manhzit 2,9 3,1 g/cm
3
. Manhzit qua nung kt 1500 - 1650
0
C l loi vt
liu chu la. Nhit nng chy ca MgO l 2800
0
C. L-ng MgO trong
54
manhzit cng cao th chu la ca n cng cao. Manhzit khng tham gia vo
phn ng vi cc mangan xit v vy n l vt liu lm khun c thp
mangan. chu la 1900 -2000
0
C.
Zircn ZrSiO
4
c trng l-ng ring cao (4,68 - 4,7g/cm
3
), nhit nng chy
2430 - 2450
0
C, dn nhit tt v n nhit khng ln. Nh dn nhit cao nn ct
Zircn c th dng thay st ngui to ra s ng c h-ng ca vt c.. ch
to hn hp lm khun, rut dng loi Zircn tn vn v kh st cha hn
60% ZrO
2
v d-i 0,1%FeO, hoc loi Zircn ht cha trn 60% ZrO
2
, 1 6%
TiO
2
. Ngoi vic dng lm hn hp ct o v hn hp lm rut, Zircn tn nh c
ht 0063 cn -c dng lm cht sn khun v va chu la cho khun, rut.
Chng cng dng ch to cc khun gm v rut gm. chu la 2400
0
C.
Samt (40% Al
2
O
3
cn li l SiO
2
) l t st chu la sau khi em thiu kt
c chu la cao (1670 - 1750
0
C). Samt dng ch to hn hp lm khun
kh c nhng vt c thp trung bnh v ln.
1.3. Cht dnh
lin kt cc ht li v to khun c trong thnh phn hn hp lm khun
phi c cht dnh kt. Ngoi t st l cht dnh kt truyn thng lu i, ngy
nay ng-i ta cn dng n-c thu tinh, cc cht dnh t ngun nha tng hp, cc
loi du thc vt, n-c b giy, n-c g -ng lm tng bn dnh kt ca
hn hp lm khun. Cc cht dnh -c phn theo cc th h sau:
- Cht dnh th h 1 Ch yu l t st.
- Cht dnh th h 2 Cht dnh ch yu l ngun vt liu v c ( n-c
thu tinh, xi mng ... )
- Cht dnh th h 3 Cht dnh c ngun gc l vt liu hu c ( nha
Phnolformalhit ... ).
- Cht dnh th h 4 Tc dng lin kt cc ht vt liu nn bng bin php
vt l ( v d, vt liu nn l cc ht kim loi -c lin kt bng t tr-ng;
lm khun ng lnh nh vic cho n-c ng bng lin kt cc ht ct
li).
- Cht dnh th h 5 Cht dnh -c dng ch yu t ngun sinh vt ( v
d nh- cc axit amin... ).
Ph bin nht hin nay l cht dnh thuc ba th h u.
55
1.3.1. t st lm khun
t st lm khun c l nhng nham thch bao gm nhng ht rt mn ca
nhm silict ngm n-c v c kh nng kt dnh, c bn nhit ho, do c
th dng t st lm cht kt dnh ch to hn hp lm khun bn vng, khng
b chy dnh vo vt c.
Thnh phn cc loi t st to thnh do s phn hu cc nham thch, ph
thuc vo cc nham thch, vo axit hay kim m c tr-ng l nng ion
Hyr ca n-c ( pH) tc dng ln nham thch y. Trong mi tr-ng axit to
thnh cc loi t st kaolinit, cn trong mi tr-ng kim th to thnh cc loi
t st mnmrilnit (t st bentnit v xupbentnit).
n-c ta t st Ch Linh (Hi D-ng ) thuc loi t st kaolinit v t st
C nh (Thanh Ho ) thuc loi mnmrilnit.
1.3.1.1. Thnh phn khong cht v ht ca t st
a) Thnh phn khong cht
t st lm khun bao gm cc khong cht nh- nhm kaolinit, nhm
mnmrilnit, thu mica.
Nhm kaolinit ( Al
2
O
3
. 2SiO
2
. 2H
2
O ) l loi nhm-silict ngm n-c, c
trng l-ng ring 2,58-2,60 g/cm
3
, c nhit nng chy 1750-1787
0
C. Kaolinit
l phn c bn ca cao lanh v ca a s cc loi t st khc. Khi nung nng
kaolinit s qua nhng chuyn ho sau: 100-140
0
C mt n-c m, 350-580
0
C
mt n-c trong thnh phn cu to phn t. Trong gii hn ca nhng nhit y
c hiu ng thu nhit, kaolinit chuyn thnh mtakaolinit ( Al
2
O
3
. SiO
2
) v t
st mt tnh dnh kt. nhit 900-1050
0
C mtakaolinit b phn hu tch ra
thnh hn hp Al
2
O
3
v SiO
2
v nh hnh km theo hiu ng to nhit. nhit
1200-1280
0
C th Al
2
O
3
v SiO
2
t do to thnh khong cht ( 3Al
2
O
3
. 2SiO
2
)
km theo hiu ng thu nhit.
Nhm mnmrilnit (Al
2
O
3
.4SiO
2
.nH
2
O). Trong mng tinh th ca
mnmrilnit mt phn Al
3+
c th b thay th bng Mg
2+
, cn Si
4+
thay bng Al
3+

kt qu l cc ht t st mang in tch. Thnh phn ho hc ca mnmrilnit
lun thay i. Nhit nng chy l 1250-1300
0
C. L-ng n-c trong
mnmrilnit ph thuc vo p sut hi n-c mi tr-ng xung quanh. Khi thi
tit kh ro n nh-ng mt phn n-c, khi thi tit m -t n ht m t khng
56
kh vo nh kh nng ca mng tinh th c th dn n theo h-ng ca mt trong
cc trc kt tinh. Khi nung nng n 100 -150
0
C n-c t do s thot ra, t 500-
700
0
C mt n-c kt tinh v mt kh nng tr-ng n 600
o
C. nhit 735 -
900
0
C c s ph v cc mng tinh th mnmrilnit v chuyn bin thnh cht v
nh hnh.
t st thu mica; l sn phm trung gian ca s phn ho t mica thnh cao
lanh. Theo thnh phn ho hc v tnh cht l hc th khong cht ny khng c
nh. Trong s nhng khong cht c trong cc loi t st thu mica dng trong
hn hp lm khun ni bt nht l mnternit, mt loi trm tch giu mui hu
c v cc cht hu c.
Ngoi cc khong cht chnh c trong thnh phn t st cn c Hyrxit
st, FeS
2
hoc pirit st (loi tp cht c hi trong t st lm khun v n gy ra
chy dnh ct trn vt c) cacbont d-i dng canxit, manhzit, lmit, siderit
FeCO
3
, thch cao (nhng tp cht c hi).
b) Thnh phn ht
Thnh phn ht ca t st nh h-ng n tnh cht l hc ca chng (
do, kh nng dnh kt ). t st bao gm cc ht c kch th-c khc nhau. i
a s t st lm khun cha 70% phn t ht nh hn 0,02 mm v 30% nhng
ht thch anh ln hn. Nhng ht c kch th-c nh hn 0,022 mm thuc loi
thnh phn t st m l-ng ca chng khng -c t hn 50%. th hin y
hn ng-i ta xc nh phn tn ca gc t st, l-ng ht c kch th-c
0,022 - 0,005; 0,005 - 0,001 v nh hn 0,001 mm.
1.3.1.2. Cc tnh cht ho l
t st lm khun bao gm cc ht nh phn tn to thnh mt h c b mt
pht trin rng. t st lm khun c tnh cht ca h thng keo.
Cu trc t st -c xc nh bng cu to ca mng tinh th. Thnh phn hnh
hc ch yu ca mng nhm-silict l cc ion oxi O
2-
c bn knh ln. Nm gia
cc ion ln l cc ion Si
4+
, Al
3+
, Mg
2+
to nn cc t din ca lp u tin l c s
ca mng nhm-silict ( hnh 1. 17 ).


57





Hnh 1. 17.
T chc tinh th ca kaolinit.

Lp th hai -c to thnh bi cc ion OH
-
, cc ion ny cng vi cc ion O
2-
ca
lp th nht to thnh cc khi 8 mt m trong c cha cc ion Al
3+
hoc Mg
2+
. t
st kaolinit hai lp ny to thnh mt "b kn. Nhng lp cn li nm cch nhau theo
chiu cao mt khong cch nht nh vi s dch chuyn ( lch) v mt pha khng
ln lm. Khong cch gia cc lp (b) l c tr-ng ca loi t st ny.
t st mnmrilnit trn lp cc khi 8 mt cn c lp t din th 3 cc
ion Si
4+
v O
2-
, tip mi n khong trng gia cc b ( hnh 1. 18 ).










Hnh 1. 18. S t chc tinh th ca mnmrilnit
1- Khong cch gia cc lp; 3- Khi 8 mt; 2 v 4- cc t din.

58
S trao i ion
c im ca cc nhm-silict l cc thnh phn c bn ca chng c th b
thay th mt phn bng cc ion khc. Nu cc ion c bn knh gn bng nhau, th
d: Al
3+
( 0,57 A
0
), Fe
3+
( 0,67 A
0
), Ti
4+
( 0,64 A
0
) th s thay th l ng hnh.
Nu bn knh cc ion khc nhau th mng tinh th s b bin dng.
Cc ion thay th v b thay th c in tch khng ging nhau, th d: Si
4+
b
thay th bng Al
3+
. cn bng cn phi thu thm nhng ion khc vo mng
hoc phn b cc ion ny ra cc b mt. Khi trao i mt s ion ny vi mt s
ion khc, tnh cht ca t st thay i theo loi ion s i vo thnh phn ca
mng tinh th. Kt qu l tnh cht ca t st c th thay i bng cch x l
ho hc. Th d cc ion Ca
2+
c th b thay th bng cc ion Na
+
khi dng xt x
l t st. Cc ht cng phn tn th s l-ng cc ion trao i cng nhiu.
tr-ng n ca t st
Trong nhng lp ring bit ca cc b

mng tinh th ca t st cc ion

lin kt vng chc cn cc b lin kt vi nhau bng mi lin kt ho tr yu t.
Do cc b mt ca cc b c in tch m cn khong cch gia chng th ln
hn khong 2A
0
(i vi t st kaolinit) v 20A
0
(i vi mnmrilnit). Nhng
phn t ring bit hay nhng nhm phn t, th d: n-c (bn knh 1,45A
0
) hoc
ca nhng cht lng khc c th chui vo khong cch ny. Thng th-ng trong
t st kaolinit cc phn t n-c nm theo ra mp cc b, cn t st
mnmrilnit n-c chui vo gia cc b. V th tr-ng n ca t st
mnmrilnit ln hn nhiu so vi t st kaolinit.
nht v do ca t st
Trong qu trnh tr-ng n ca t st, mng n-c bao quanh cc phn t ht
t st lm cho lc lin kt gim xung. Kt qu l t st c kh nng bin dng
do d-i tc dng ca ti trng. do ca t st ph thuc vo chiu dy ca
mng n-c v kch th-c cc phn t ht t st. Kch th-c phn t ht t st
cng nh th l-ng n-c trong mng cng ln, tnh do ca t st cng cao. Song
lc y nht ca n s rt cao. Tip tc tng l-ng n-c th nht s gim i.
Tnh xc bin ca t st
trng thi yn tnh huyn ph t st qua mt khong thi gian nht nh
s to thnh gel c t chc v bn nht nh. H thng -c t chc ho y c
59
th quay li trng thi keo - huyn ph. Qu trnh bin keo thnh gel v ng-c li
ny d-i s tc dng c hc, -c gi l tnh xc bin.
1.3.1.3. Phn loi t st lm khun v phm vi s dng
Theo tiu chun ca Lin X c th t st lm khun -c phn loi theo:
- Thnh phn khong cht ( bng 1. 8 );
- Tnh dnh kt - gii hn bn nn trng thi m (bng 1. 9) v trng thi
kh (bng 1. 10);
- Tng s cc cation trao i (tng s cc gc trao i -c o bng -ng
l-ng miligam cho 100g t st kh);
- L-ng l-u hunh trong cc sulfit v l-ng cc tp cht (Fe
2
O
3
, Na
2
O+K
2
O,
CaO+MgO (bng 1. 11);
- Theo do.
Theo tng s cc gc trao i t st lm khun -c chia lm 3 nhm:
+ Cao - hn 50 miligam -ng l-ng;
+ Trung bnh - 2050 miligam -ng l-ng;
+ Thp - thp hn 20 miligam -ng l-ng.
Bng 1. 8. Phn loi t st theo thnh phn khong cht
Dng t st

K hiu Tn gi t st

Nhm khong cht to
nham thch ch yu
K Kaolinit Kaolinit
I Thu Mica Thu Mica
M Mnmrilnit (bentnit ) Mnmrilnit
H t st a khong cht v n
khong cht khc
Khng th hin r hoc khi th
hin khng thuc loi no
60
t st mnmrilnit (bentnit) phi c tng s cc gc trao i ln hn 50
-ng l-ng miligam cho 100g t st kh. Khi trong tp hp trao i c Na
+
v
K
+
t st mnmrilnit gi l t st mnmrilnit Natri. Khi c Ca
2+
v Mg
2+

th gi l t st mnmrilnit Canxi.
Khi nh gi cht l-ng ca t st theo bn nhit ho cn ch l khi
cho vo hn hp lm khun mt l-ng ln t st c bn nhit ho cao th
chu la ca hn hp c th s thp hn so vi tr-ng hp cho vo hn hp mt
l-ng nh t st c bn nhit ho thp.
Bng 1. 9. Phn loi t st theo tnh dnh kt trng thi m
Loi t st Gii hn bn nn ca mu th
K hiu Tn gi KG/cm
2
KN/m
2

I Dnh kt vng 1,1 108
II Dnh kt trung bnh 0,79 - 1,10 77 - 108
III Dnh kt t 0,50 - 0,80 49 - 78
Bng 1. 10. Phn loi t st theo tnh dnh kt trng thi kh
Loi t st Gii hn bn nn ca mu th
K hiu Tn gi KG/cm
2
KN/m
2

1
2
3

Dnh kt vng
Dnh kt trung bnh
Dnh kt t
5,5
3,5 - 5,5
3,5
539
343 - 539
343
K hiu t st bao gm cc ch v s, phn s biu th loi t st ghi theo
ch s bn nn trng thi m, cp t st ghi theo ch s bn nn trng
thi kh; phn ch biu th dng t st ghi theo thnh phn khong cht v nhm
t st c bn nhit ho. Th d, t st lm khun Kaolinit loi ba c dnh
kt trng thi kh v bn nhit ho trung bnh -c k hiu l KIII/2T
2
. t
61
st lm khun mnmrilnit loi I c dnh kt cao trng thi kh v bn
nhit ho trung bnh -c k hiu l MI /1T
2
.
Bng 1. 11. Phn loi t st theo bn nhit ho hc
Nhm t st L-ng tp cht
K
hiu
Tn gi
L-u hunh
trong cc
sunfit
Fe
2
O
3
Na
2
O+K
2
O CaO+MgO
T
1

T
2


T
3

t st c bn
nhit ho cao
t st c bn
nhit ho trung
bnh
t st c bn
nhit ho thp
s 0,2

s 0,2

s0,2
< 2,5

2,5-4,5

Khng quy
nh
1,5

2,5-3,0

Khng quy
nh
s 2

s 3

s 10
Phm vi s dng
Dng t st lm khun trong hn hp ct - t st cn cn c vo ph-ng
php lm khun v vt liu ca vt c ( bng 1.12 ).
Bng 1. 12. Lnh vc s dng t st
Vt liu ca
vt c
Chiu dy thnh
vt c
Ph-ng php lm
khun
K hiu t st

Gang 10 - 50
> 50
Khun t-i I - III / 1-3 T
1

I - II / 1-3 ( T
1
T
2
)

Thp
8 - 20
21 - 70 > 70

Khun t-i
I - III / 1-3 T
1

I - II / 1-3 ( T
1
T
3
)
I / 1-3 T
1

Thp v
gang
> 8 Khun kh I - III / 1-2 ( T
1
T
2
)

62
Khi chn t st phi tnh n nhng iu kin l-ng chy dnh ct ho
hc to thnh trn vt c l t nht, l-ng chy dnh ct ny ph thuc vo l-ng
Fe
2
O
3
v Na
2
O + K
2
O trong t st. L-ng Na
2
O cho php tnh ton trong
thnh phn hn hp khng -c qu 0,5% i vi vt c gang. Khi c gang
nn dng t st mnmrilnit Canxi, cn c thp nn dng t st
mnmrilnit Natri.
Hin nay n-c ta trong cc phn x-ng c, ng-i ta t ch n bn cht
khong vt ca t st khi mua v s dng. Trong lc nhiu n-c ng-i ta
quy nh ch dng t st c do dnh cao ( bentnit) pha trn vi ct to
hn hp ct - t st bn t n-c; thm na ng-i ta cn c bit ch nghin cu
nng cao cht l-ng hn hp bng cch hot ho t st v dng thm cht ph
hu c. Cc cht hot ho th-ng dng nh- natricacbonat (Na
2
CO
3
) v n-c b
giy c cha cationNa
+
lm cho t st bentnit canxi bn hn, do hn.
1.3.2. Cc cht dnh kt khc
Ngoi t st -c s dng lm vt liu kt dnh lin kt cc ht ct li ch
to hn hp lm khun, ng-i ta cn s dng nhiu loi vt liu khc lm cht
kt dnh. Theo bn cht ng-i ta gi cht dnh kt hu c hay cht dnh kt v c.
1.3.2.1. Tnh cht ho l
C nhng quy lut chung lm c s cho cc hin t-ng dnh bm v dnh kt.
Tr-c khi dng, cht dnh kt -c ho vo trong dung mi hay -c nu chy.
Khi cho vo dng lng, cht dnh kt (h) s chy loang trn b mt rn, in
y tt c cc ch khng bng phng v to thnh mt lp tip xc bn chc vi
lp m.
Lc tc dng trn ranh gii gia pha rn v lng cng c bn cht ging nh-
lc tc dng gia cc phn t trong tng pha ring bit. Mun tch cc phn t
ca nhng pha khc nhau theo -ng ranh gii ca chng phi tn mt cng.
Cng gi l cng dnh bm, cng dnh bm ca cht lng vo cht rn -c
biu th bng ph-ng trnh iupr- jung:
W
a
= o
1
( 1- cosu ). ( 1. 19 )
Trong : o
1
- sc cng b mt ca cht lng ranh gii vi cht kh.
u - gc thm -t cht lng ca b mt cht rn.
63
Cng tiu hao thng lc lin kt gia cc phn t trong ni b pha gi l
cng dnh kt. Nu cng dnh bm v-t cng dnh kt th h lng s chy loang
trn b mt vt rn.
Cng dnh bm ph thuc vo cu to ca cc phn t. Kh nng dnh bm
ca hai pha s cao khi trong thnh phn cc phn t c cc nhm cng loi - c
cc hay v cc.
V d: Nu n-c l cht ho tan ch yu ca cc cht dnh th cc nhm
COOH v OH c lc bm dnh rt cao, cn cc mch Hyr cc bon vi cc
nhm CH
2
c lc bm dnh rt thp. V th khng nn dng ng thi cc cht
dnh ho tan v khng ho tan trong n-c. N-c c kh nng dnh bm cao i
vi thch anh nn s y du ra khi b mt cc ht ct, du s nm ri ra trn
mt n-c d-i dng mng mng hay git nh. iu s lm gim bn ca
hn hp.
Khi mng mng ng cng s c s gim th tch, do tc dng ca ng sut
co pht trin trong cc mng. Nhng lp trn kh cng t do s co li v ko cc
lp d-i l nhng lp lin kt vi lp m. Lc mng c th b rn t dng
vt nt nh. S co s ph hu cc b s lin kt ca mng vi lp m. Nu lc
lin kt gia mng v lp m v-t qu bn ca lp mng th mng s b v
ri bong vn ra (mng dn ).
Cc cht dnh hu c khi kh to nn nhng mng dn, cc hn hp trn c
s cc cht dnh y s c bn b mt thp v b ti cao.
Khi mng kh nhng phn t ca cc cht hu c xp thnh nhng chui di
song song vi lp m. Nu trong cc mng c nhng mng khng gian ba
chiu th cc mng ny s rt bn vng.
Qu trnh to thnh cc mng vng chc -c chia thnh ba nhm:
a) ng cng sau khi nng chy (th d nha thng, bitum);
b) Ho cng khi cht ho tan bc hi ( th d t st, mt );
c) Ho cng do kt qu trng hp ca polime (th d du lanh, du trng hp,
cc cht nha).
Nhng cht dnh thuc nhm th ba c bn ln nht, chng to thnh mt
lp mng do v bn khng b rn nt v bong trc khi cc ht ct. Chng l
nhng cht lng nn hn hp dng cht ny c bn thp trng thi m.
64
Nhng cht dnh thuc nhm hai c bn km hn, nh-ng li c nht
cao hn v th-ng dng n-c lm cht ho tan. Nhng cht ny cng vi t st
cho ta hn hp c bn nht nh trng thi m.
Cc cht dnh thuc nhm th nht khng dng ring m th-ng nm trong
thnh phn ca nhng cht dnh phc hp.
1.3.2.2. Phn loi cht dnh
C s phn loi cc cht dnh dng trong ngnh c l hai du hiu chnh:
a) Bn cht ca vt liu (hu c hay v c, ngm n-c hay khan);
b) c im ng cng (thun nghch, trung gian, khng thun nghch).
Nhng cht dnh hu c khng chu -c nhit cao ca kim loi lng khi
rt vo nn d b phn ho, do lm cho rut b hu hoi v vic ph rut -c
d dng hn. Mt khc cht dnh hu c khi rt c s to mng kh hon
nguyn ngn cch b mt khun vi kim loi lng lm b mt c nhn p. Ni
chung, ngy nay cht dnh hu c -c dng nhiu nht l cc loi nha. Nhng
cht dnh v c th ng-c li chu -c tc dng ca nhit cao. V vy chng
-c dng ch yu lm hn hp o khun v cho vo hn hp rut mt l-ng nh
tng bn trng thi t-i (trng thi m).
Theo tnh cht ngm n-c, cht dnh -c chia lm hai nhm; ngm n-c
hoc khng ngm n-c (khan). Cht dnh khan l nhng cht khng ho tan trong
n-c v khng b n-c thm -t. Nhng cht dnh ngm n-c l nhng cht ho
tan trong n-c.
Nhng cht dnh khan hu c l cc loi du thc vt, du ch bin t sn
phm du m. Chng m bo cho rut sau khi sy c bn cao nht.
Nhng cht dnh khan v ngm n-c khng trn ln vi nhau. Pha trn cc
cht dnh khan v ngm n-c hu nh- bao gi cng lm gim bn ca hn hp
c hai trng thi m v kh, nht l khi dng t st lm cht dnh ngm n-c.
Nhng cht dnh ng cng khng thun nghch khi b nung nng s c
nhng s thay i ho hc phc tp, to thnh lp mng bn vng. Sau khi ngui
chng khng khi phc li -c nhng tnh cht ban u. C s ca s ng cng
lp mng l nhng qu trnh trng hp (polime ho) cc cht.
65
Nhng vt liu ng cng thun nghch s khi phc li nhng tnh cht ban
u sau khi ngui (th d nh- bitum, nha -ng, nha thng) hoc do tc dng
ca cc cht ho tan (nh- dextrin, h pectin, b r-u).
Nhng cht dnh m trong thnh phn cha c nhng cht c c tnh ng
cng thun nghch v khng thun nghch th thuc nhm c c tnh ng cng
trung gian.
Cht dnh ng cng khng thun nghch bo m bn ca rut kh cao
nht, cht dnh c c tnh ng cng trung gian, cho bn trung bnh, cn cht
dnh ng cng thun nghch cho bn thp nht. S phn loi cht dnh -c
nu ra trong bng 1. 13. Trong bng phn loi cht dnh hu c -c chia lm hai
loi: Loi A- Khan; loi - Ngm n-c. Cht dnh v c ch c mt loi B -
ngm n-c.
Cc cht dnh hu c sy kh thuc loi - 2 v - 3.
Trong cng nghip hay dng cht dnh ho tan trong n-c nh- dextrrin, b
giy, mt -ng, keo pectin. Nhng cht dnh ny ho tan trong n-c to thnh
dung dch keo c nht cao. Hn hp c dng thm nhng cht ny s c
bn trng thi m cao hn. Cht dnh hu c ngm n-c sy kh d pha trn vi
t st cho nn chng -c dng hu nh- ng thi vi nhau. t st lm cho
hn hp c bn trng thi m, cn cht dnh hu c lm cho hn hp c
bn trng thi kh.
Nhng hn hp rut c cha cht dnh hu c ngm n-c v t st, th cc
phn t t st tc dng ln nhau ch yu qua lp cht hu c. Cc cht hu c s
lin kt v lm cho cc lp n-c ng kt li. V th trong hn hp ct - t st
cho thm cc cht hu c vo to nn dung dch keo lm tng bn trng
thi m, v ng thi cng lm cho hn hp c do cao, do lm gim xu
h-ng b nt n ca hn hp khi sy. do cao ca hn hp nhiu khi c th
gy kh khn cho vic m cht khun, hp rut.
Cc cht dnh hu c thuc nhm A-3.
bn ca hn hp t -c do kt qu ca s ng cng cht dnh sau khi
nng chy. V nhng cht dnh ng cng trng thi ngui th dn, nn hn hp
dng cht dnh ny c bn b mt thp, b ti cao v khng ht n-c. Cc
cht dnh thuc nhm A-3 khng dng ring. Nha -ng th-ng dng cng vi
66
t st v n-c b giy. Cho thm t st v cc cht dnh khc s loi tr -c s
gim bn khi nung nng v b ti cao khi ngui.
Bng 1.13. Phn loi cht dnh
vng ring o
y

Loi A Loi Loi B


Nhm
vt
liu

KG/cm
2

1%

KN/m
2

1%
c
im
ng
cng
Tn vt
liu dnh
kt
c
im
ng
cng
Tn vt
liu dnh
kt
c
im
ng
cng
Tn vt
liu
dnh
kt



I



> 5



> 490


Khng
thun
nghch
A - 1
Du lanh,
du trng
hp, ,
T, TA,
CT,
Nha
pun-
vebaklit,
-1


Khng
thun
nghch
- 1
Mu-17,
M, MC ,
CM-1,
HAK


Khng
thun
nghch
B - 1

N-c
thu
tinh

II

3 - 5

294 -
490

Trung
gian
A - 2
4(),
Tu,
,
K,
,

Trung
gian

- 2
C ,
C,KT
KB, KBC
extrin
keo pectin
B - 2


III


< 3


< 294


Thun
nghch

A - 3
Nha cy
TK
Nha
clphan
Thun
nghch
- 3
Mt
-ng,
n-c b
giy


Thun
nghch
B - 3
t st
lm
khun
67
Cc cht dnh hu c ng cng ho hc nhm A-1, A-2 v -1
Qu trnh to thnh cc mng bn do vng chc da trn cc phn ng ho
hc v trng hp (polime ho). Hn hp lm bng cht dnh ny c bn b mt
cao. bn cao ca mng cho php gim bt sinh kh ca rut bng cch
gim l-ng cht dnh m vn m bo -c bn cng ngh ca rut.
Nhng cht dnh ng cng ho hc ( nguyn l cht lng ) lm cho hn hp
c bn thp trng thi m. Nu hn hp rut cn c bn cao hn trng
thi m th cc cht dnh thuc nhm ny -c dng cng vi t st, dextrin,
bitum, clphan v cc cht dnh khc. Cc cht dnh ng cng ho hc -c
chia lm hai nhm (cc loi du v cc loi nha tng hp ). Khi ng cng cc
loi du cn c s oxi ho, qu trnh xy ra nhanh hn khi -c nung nng. Cn
cc loi nha tng hp ch cn em nung nng.
Trong cc loi du -c chia lm ba nhm nh:
- Du thc vt;
- Du sn phm ca du m;
- Du ca phin nham ( du ).
Du thc vt khng nn lm cht dnh kt v chng him v t.
Cht dnh tng hp -c ch to t mt s cht dnh nhm lm gim l-ng
tiu th nhng cht dnh thuc loi du him. Hn hp lm bng cht dnh tng
hp c bn cn thit c trng thi kh v m vi sinh kh nh nht. Cht
dnh tng hp -c ch to bng cch ho tan, trn ln hay nh t-ng ho.
Cch ho tan dng trong tr-ng hp cc cht dnh c bn cht ging nhau v
cng ho tan -c trong nhng cht ho tan nh- nhau. Cch trn ln s dng khi
cc cht dnh c bn cht khc nhau nh-ng nht thit phi cng cht dnh ngm
n-c vi ngm n-c v khan vi khan. Khi nh t-ng ho ng-i ta cho thm cht
hot tnh b mt, khi n hp ph trn b mt cc ht hay cc git n s ngn
khng cho cc ht lin kt li vi nhau, ngha l tch h thng thnh hai pha ring
bit. Trn thc t th-ng hay dng cht dnh tng hp -c nu trong bng 1. 14.
Nha tng hp -c ch to bng cch ng-ng t fnol (C
6
H
5
OH), anilin
(C
6
H
5
NH
2
) vi formalhit (HCHO) v ur (NH
2
)
2
CO vi formalhit. Nhng
nha ny c th l loi nha phn ng nhit hay nha do nhit, tu theo nguyn
liu gc, cht xc tc v qu trnh sn xut. Trong sn xut c th-ng hay dng
68
cc loi nha phn ng nhit, loi ny khi b nung nng th ng cng khng
thun nghch. Nha tng hp -u vit hn du ch qu trnh ng cng ch xy
ra khi nung nng, tin hnh rt nhanh v to ra mt lp mng bn v do.
Bng 1. 14. Thnh phn cc cht dnh tng hp (%)

Cht
dnh

Du
thc
vt
M
du
m

b
oxi
ho


IT

N-c
b
giy

N-c
than
bn

Bitum

Nha
cl -
phan

t
st
lm
khun
Dung
mi
vecni
(spirit
trng)

Sn
tinn
4
4


C
KT
C
C
25
25
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
32
-
-
-
5
-
-
-
-
55
50
-
-
20
-
-
-
-
-
28-30
95
80
-
-
-
-
-
50
-
-
-
25
13
25
-
55
-
-
25
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
17-20
-
-
50
50
55
20
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
50
-
-
-

Nha punvebaklit l nha fnolfomalhit - mt hp cht cao phn t
(polime) bao gm rt nhiu nhng khu t chc cc nguyn t, lin kt ho hc
vi nhau thnh nhng mch di.
Trong qu trnh ch to nha fenolfomalhit (phn ng ng-ng t) fnol
(C
6
H
5
OH ) lin kt vi formalhit (HCHO) to thnh r-u fnol, nhng phn
ng tip theo s dn n s hnh thnh nhng hp cht ca fnol to thnh nhng
mch di thuc mt phn t rt ln. Tnh cht ca sn phm cui cng ca phn
ng ph thuc vo mi tr-ng xy ra phn ng. Trong dung dch axit s to thnh
nha novalac d chy v khi nung nng s ng cng li. Nhng loi nha ny
-c dng lm khun v mng. Cho thm 7-15% urtropin (CH
2
)
6
N
4
vo
trong nha khi nung nng urtropin s cho ra formalhit lin kt cc mch
phn t nha novalac lm cho chng ng cng li.
69
Trong mi tr-ng kim sn phm cui cng ca phn ng l nha nng chy
(rezol). Nhng nha ny khi nung nng c th ba trng thi: A - lng; khi nung
nng nha lng s mt hot v chuyn sang dng keo (gel) (trng thi B); tip
tc nung nng nha s dn n s to thnh nhng mng nguyn t khng gian 3
chiu, ng cng khng thun nghch (trng thi C).
Nha cacbamit l sn phm ca qu trnh ng-ng t ur vi formalhit - ho
tan tt trong n-c, -c dng ch to cc cht dnh kh nhanh v t kh M-
17 v MC. Nhng cht dnh ny tr-c khi dng khng phi gia cng g thm,
nh-ng nu lu chng s c li, lc phi dng n-c lnh ho tan. Nu
qu lu ( hn 1 nm) cc cht dnh s t trng hp, c cng li khng th dng
n-c ho long ra -c na, nn mt tnh dnh kt.
Cc cht dnh M-17 v M l nhng cht lng nn lm cho hn hp c
bn thp trng thi m. Mun tng bn cho thm t st v n-c b giy
vo. Khi bn t trng thi kh s gim i cht. Nhng cht dnh ny c
th dng ch to nhng rut mng, nh cng nh- cc rut ln dy. Sau khi sy
hn hp dng nha cacbamit lm cht dnh kt s khng ht m v d p v.
Cht dnh v c
Trong cht dnh v c hay dng nht l t st, n-c thu tinh, xi mng v
tu theo yu cu ca cng ngh c khi dng c thch cao na.
N-c thu tinh l dung dch n-c natri silict hay kali silict c thnh phn
thay i Na
2
O.nSiO
2
.mH
2
O, c kh nng kt dnh tt, khi gp CO
2
trong khng
kh th-ng b bin cng. N-c thu tinh chia lm ba loi:
Loi A c m un 2,00-2,30, mt 1,48 1,52 g/cm
3
;
Loi B c m un 2,31-2,60, mt 1,47 1,51 g/cm
3
;
Loi C c m un 2,61-3,00, mt 1,47 1,50 g/cm
3
.
M un ca n-c thu tinh tnh theo cng thc:
m =
%
%
SiO
Na O
2
2
. 1,032 (1. 20)
Trong 1,032 - t l trng l-ng phn t Na
2
O trn trng l-ng phn t
SiO
2
. M un v t trng dng nh gi tnh cht n-c thu tinh. M un cng
70
ln cng d ng keo, cng m un nh-ng mt cng cao c-ng dnh kt
cng ln. N-c thu tinh -c dng ch to cc hn hp lm khun, rut.
Cc tnh cht ca cht dnh -c kim tra ti ni sn xut bng cc ph-ng
php chun. i vi tt c cc cht dnh lng ng-i ta xc nh t trng, nht,
tr s it, s l-ng cc cht khng b x phng ho cng nh- nng cht ho
tan. i vi cc cht dnh dng bt, ng-i ta xc nh nhit ho mm, m,
tro.
1.4. Vt liu ph lm khun
m bo cht l-ng hay tnh cht cn thit ca vt c hoc khi sinh
ra khuyt tt ng-i ta cho vo hn hp lm khun cc cht thm c bit, b mt
ca khun -c ph cc loi bt ph, cht sn hoc va trt. Nhng vt liu lm
khun ny -c gi l cc vt liu ph mc d nhiu khi chng l nhng vt liu
chnh m bo cht l-ng cho vt c hoc khi sinh ra nhng khuyt tt.
Khi dng vt liu ph phi ch n tc ng v nh h-ng ca chng n cc
qu trnh t-ng h gi- vt c v khun. Ng-i ta c th dng vt liu ph
khc phc mt s dng khuyt tt nh- r x, ct dnh, r ct....
R x, ct dnh, r ct sinh ra do lm khun khng cn thn hoc do bn
b mt ca hn hp lm khun, rut khng . Trong tr-ng hp ny b mt ca
khun b dng kim loi lng ph hng, cun i nhng ht ct v nhng phn
khun, rut mng nh ra.
Do tc dng nhit ca kim loi nn lp b mt khun b nng ln, n ra. Mt
s phn hoc on khng bn c th b tch ra khi khun lm cho bng b
mt vt c km i, gy ra hin t-ng ct dnh hay r ct trong vt c.
Nhit rt cng cao bn ca lp b mt khun cng gim. Song nu
tng nhit ln na s c hin t-ng kt dnh lp b mt khun. i vi hn
hp cha t st bentnit th hin t-ng kt dnh bt u xy ra nhit thp
hn, bi v nhit chu la ca chng thp hn so vi t st kaolinit. Tnh chu
nhit ca hn hp lm khun cn ph thuc vo kch th-c ca cc ht, ht th
chu nhit tt hn.
m v thnh phn t st nh h-ng ng k n bn ca hn hp lm
khun, rut d-i tc ng nhit ca kim loi. Tng m s lm gim, cn tng
thnh phn t st s lm tng bn nhit ca hn hp lm khun.
71
C th tng bng v bn b mt khun bng cc loi sn gm nhng
dung dch n-c ca cc cht dnh hu c (dextrin, kim sunfat, keo pectin);
chng s thm qua k h gia cc ht, sau khi sy kh chng s lin kt vng
chc cc ht li vi nhau.
Khp v khng in y khun th-ng gp khi ch to vt c c thnh
mng v mt rng nh- cc tm panen, np,v.v... S d c nhng khuyt tt ny do
s thot nhit ca b mt vt c sang khun qu mnh. C th gim s thot
nhit bng cch thay i kh nng tch nhit ca hn hp lm khun, cho vo hn
hp nhng cht ph thm, ph ln b mt khun nhng cht ph c bit.
Th d, dng hn hp lm khun cha thch cao thay cho hn hp ct - t
st khi c hp kim nhm s lm cho s in y khun tt hn v hn hp lm
khun cha thch cao c kh nng tch nhit km hn so vi hn hp ct - t st.
Cng c th gim bt s thot nhit bng cch iu chnh m ca hn hp lm
khun. Khi m ca hn hp l 5 -5,5% th in y ca vt c thnh
mng bng gang v cc hp kim nhm l cao nht. l do vi m ni trn,
trong qu trnh tc ng nhit gia kim loi ang chuyn ng vi thnh khun
c mt lp mng m hi n-c mng -c to nn gia chng lm gim ma st
gia kim loi vi thnh khun v gy ra sc cn nhit ln ngn cn s truyn
nhit t kim loi sang khun. Khi m gim, chiu dy lp mng m b gim
i, s mt nhit ca kim loi tng ln. Khi m tng (cao hn 5 - 6% ) trong
nhng k h gia cc ht s c n-c m t do, lm bc hi s n-c m ny
phi tiu hao mt l-ng nhit kh ln ca kim loi lng.
Nhng cht ph cch nhit lm gim bt s thot nhit ca kim loi, do
lm cho in y khun tt hn v lm mt hin t-ng khp. Nhng cht ph
l phn, bt thch anh, mui than (b hng), bt than ci dng cho cc vt c
gang, etan hexaclo cho cc vt c nhm, mui kh axtylen cho cc vt c
bng hp kim magi.
Bng ct sinh ra do rt khun trng thi m, mt phn hi n-c thot ra
u hi v rnh thng hi, nh-ng phn ln hi n-c s ng-ng t li trn nhng
ht ct cn ngui. V th m ca vng ny tng ln mnh vi chiu su nht
nh v bn gim thp so vi lp bn trong. Khi b nung nng mt thi im
nht nh trn lp b mt s hnh thnh vt nt tch khi khi khun. Kim loi
lng s chui vo sau khi ng cng to nn khuyt tt c tr-ng (bng ct). C
72
th khc phc bng ct bng cch cho vo hn hp lm khun nhng cht dnh
hu c chy v chy -c (than , than bn, bitum, nha ) c tc dng lm gim
ng sut lp b mt khun. Cng c th lm vng b mt khun bng nhng
cht sn khun cho thm vo vi chiu su nht nh.
Chy dnh ct l s lin kt vng chc ca hn hp lm khun, rut vi b
mt vt c do kt qu ca cc qu trnh nhit hc, c hc v ho l xy ra trong
giai on rt kim loi, ng cng v lm ngui vt c. C hai dng chy dnh
ct: chy dnh ct c hc v chy dnh ct ho hc.
Chy dnh ct c hc to thnh do kt qu ca hin t-ng kim loi lng chy
vo chim ch cc l nh trong khun, to ln mt lp cc ht ct b kim loi ca
vt c lin kt li gy kh khn cho vic lm sch vt c. ngn nga s
chy dnh ct c hc, khun v rut -c sn nhng loi sn c bit lm
gim xp ca lp b mt ca khun, rut; hn hp khun -c cho thm cht
to kh. Kh to ln trong cc l nh ca khun, rut mt p lc ngn cn kim
loi thm vo. Th d khi c gang ng-i ta cho thm vo hn hp than , l
cht s phn hu ra kh CO v CO
2
ngn cn s thm gang lng vo hn hp lm
khun, rut.
Chy dnh ct ho hc xut hin do kt qu ca cc qu trnh ho l xy ra
khi vt c ng v ngui. Trong tr-ng hp ny cc ht ct trong lp chy dnh
-c lin kt khng phi bng kim loi ng cng, m bng nhng hp cht ho
hc phc tp - sn phm ca s tc dng qua li gia cc xt kim loi vi vt liu
lm khun, rut. Khi tc dng qua li vi cc ht ct, st xit to ra nhng hp
cht lng d chy v di ng c th thm su vo trong khun, th d st silicat,
mangan silicat:
Fe + 1/2O
2
FeO; 2FeO + 2SiO
2
2FeO. SiO
2

Mn + 1/2O
2
MnO; 2MnO + 2SiO
2
2MnO SiO
2
.
Tu theo l-ng xit kim loi m lp chy dnh c cu to tinh th rt kh
tch khi b mt vt c. ngn nga s to thnh chy dnh ct ho hc trn
b mt vt c thp ng-i ta sn ln b mt khun, rut nhng loi sn c
chu nhit cao, c tnh tr ho hc trn c s crmit (qung st-crm) vzircn
73
(ZrSiO
4
), cn i vi vt c gang v hp kim mu th dng cc loi sn cha
phn ch.
Cng dng ca nhng vt liu ph lm khun l:
1) Lm tng nhanh cc qu trnh ho-l khi ch bin hn hp;
2) Nng cao tnh do ca hn hp v tng c-ng s lin kt gia cc ht ca
hn hp khi sy, ngha l ngn nga cho khun, rut khng b nt n;
3) Lm tt thm tnh thng kh ca khun v rut;
4) Lm cho hn hp c tnh chng chy dnh ct v chng oxi ho;
5) Lm tt thm tnh ln;
6) Lm cho khun v rut c kh nng tch nhit theo yu cu.
1.4.1.Vt liu chng chy dnh ct
i vi nhng vt c ln bng thp ng-i ta cho thm vo hn hp ct mt
lm khun, rut nhng cht chng chy dnh sau:
1) 15-30% bt thch anh (94,5% SiO
2
);
2) 25% ct Zircn;
3) Khong 15% phn ch trng c vng nhit ho n 1800
0
C.
Bt thch anh lm gim xp ca lp b mt hn hp lm khun. Ct
Zircn v phn ch trng lm tng tnh chu la. Khi c gang ng-i ta cho thm
bt than vo hn hp lm khun. Trong qu trnh rt khun bt than s chy,
cc cht bc CO, CO
2
lm thnh mt lp kh nm gia hn hp v kim loi lng.
Ngoi ra CO trong khun to mi tr-ng hon nguyn ngn cn s to thnh
oxit kim loi l nhng xt to kh nng cho s thm -t cc ht ct v thm kim
loi vo cc l khun. lm cht ph gia chng chy dnh ct ng-i ta dng
loi than m khi chy to ra trn 30% cht bc v d-i 11% tro, l-ng l-u
hunh trong than khng qu 2%, m khng qu 12%. Khi sy khng -c
nhit sy than ln cao qu 120
o
C, v nh- vy s lm mt i mt phn cht
bc. Cc ht v bi than c ht gn vi ct lm khun s khng lm gim
thng kh ca hn hp. tn nh v l-ng than cho vo hn hp ph thuc vo
chiu dy thnh vt c. C th chn theo bng 1. 15.
74
Bng 1. 15. L-ng than cho vo hn hp lm khun
Chiu dy thnh vt c
(mm)
L-ng than
( % trng l-ng )
N
0
Ry
( tn nh )
3 - 5
5 - 10
10 - 25
25 - 50
> 50
0
3
3 - 4
4 - 5
6 - 8
-
0063
016
02
0315
Ngoi than dng lm cht chng chy dnh ct ng-i ta cn s dng du
mazut, nha cy, bitum, than ci, plistirol v than cc. Mazut dng lm cht
ph gia chng chy dnh ct khi c gang v cc hp kim ng trong khun t-i.
tro ca mazut thp nn hn hp pha trn ra s bn lu hn, thng kh tt
hn. Song mazt c kh nng sinh kh cao hn nn ch cho vo hn hp mt
l-ng hn ch (1-1,5%).
Bt vt liu chu la cao cng -c dng lm cht ph chng chy dnh ct
khi c trong khun mu chy. Nhng vt liu ny -c ch bin thnh cht sn
chng chy dnh v bt nho. Cc loi bt th-ng dng nh- bt samt, bt
crmit, manhzit, crm - manhzit...
1.4.2. Vt liu ph c tc dng bo v
Magi nu chy rt d b bc chy mnh lit. Cho nn khi rt cc hp kim
Magi cn phi to ra mi tr-ng bo v trong khun v rut ngn tr s xi ho
vt c.
Trong tr-ng hp ny, nhng vt liu ph cho thm vo khun, rut li ng
vai tr quan trng bo v vt c khng b chy. Nhng cht thm bo v ny
khi tc dng qua li vi kim loi lng nhit cao s b phn hu, to ra mt
lp kh c tnh tr gia kim loi v thnh khun, rut ngn tr s xy ho vt c.
Thnh phn cht cho thm bo v khi c hp kim magi -c trnh by trong
bng 1. 16.
75
Bng 1. 16. Thnh phn cht thm bo v khi c hp kim magi
Cht cho thm Thnh phn Hn hp
L-ng cho
vo, %
Cht thm loi
florua
Khng t hn 61,5% flo,
22,5% amninitrt,
4,5 -5,5% Bo
Hn hp lm khun 4 - 8
L-u hunh hoa Khng t hn 98% S Hn hp lm rut 2
Axit borc Khng t hn 99% axit
borc
Hn hp lm khun
v rut
d-i 0,3
BM Ur CO(NH
2
)
2
58 -62%,
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
.18H
2
O 24 -
26%, H
3
BO
3
14 - 16%.
Hn hp lm khun 4 - 6
1.4.3. Vt liu ph c tnh cht nhit- l c bit
m bo cho vt c khng b lm co, r xp, nt hoc bin dng, ng-i
ta phi lm cho kim loi lng trong khun ng rn tun t c h-ng v pha
u ngt. Vic s dng vt liu c kh nng tch nhit ln v vt liu c tnh cch
nhit -c s dng lm khun l nhm mc ch lm cho vt c ng c h-ng.
Kh nng tch nhit ca hn hp gim bng cch cho thm nhng cht chy -c
vo lm tng xp, gim dn nhit , v trng l-ng ring ca hn hp.
Nhng cht l: mn c-a i vi cc hn hp lm khun c gang, thp;
aming nung kt, thch cao i vi hp kim nhm. Hn hp c kh nng tch
nhit thp th-ng dng bc cc m gi nhit cho cc u ngt. Mun lm tng
kh nng tch nhit ca hn hp lm khun, rut, ng-i ta cho thm bi kim loi
hay phoi gang vo, khi dn nhit v trng l-ng ring ca hn hp s
tng ln. L-ng bi cho thm vo khng nn qu 20%. C th thay bi v phoi gang
bng crm-manhzit. Hn hp c kh nng tch nhit cao th-ng dng thay st
ngui lm cho vt c ng c h-ng.

76
1.4.4. Cht xc tc, ng rn
Cht ng rn c kh nng lm cho hn hp tr nn ng rn nhanh v khng
cn gia nhit. Khi s ng rn mang c tnh ca cht xc tc th cht ng rn
gi l cht xc tc. Th d, cc axit hu c v v c l nhng cht xc tc trong
hn hp lm khun cng ngui vi nhng cht dnh kt l nh-.
Theo c tnh cng ngh cc cht xc tc ca hn hp cng ngui -c chia
lm hai nhm: vi hn hp cng ngui c chu k cng ngui bnh th-ng (20-30
pht) v hn hp c chu k cng ngui ngn (30-40 giy n mt vi pht).
nhn -c cht xc tc vi chu k ng cng ngn ng-i ta th-ng tng
nng axit sufuaric trong dung dch kh n-c. Nhng cht xc tc lm cho
hn hp cng nhanh th-ng dng cho sn xut ln ch to cc rut trn my nm
ct.
Cc cht ng rn dng lm hn hp lm khun, rut nh-: Prpilen cacbonnat,
Bicrmatkali (K
2
Cr
2
O
7
), CrO
3
, CO
2
, fer silic... Cc cht xc tc dng cho hn hp c
chu k cng ngui bnh th-ng -c dng nh-: H
3
PO
4
, benzolsunfua axit, cloruast,
... Trong sn xut ng-i ta cn dng cc cht xc tc ng cng cho hn hp lm
rut -c nung nng v ng cng ngay trong hp rut nh-: - ; - ; M-1;
M; axt-xalic (COOH. COOH).
1.4.5. Cht gim nht
Cht gim nht -c dng nhm mc ch nng cao tnh chy long ca nh
t-ng, hn hp ct - t st v tnh hot ho ca bt t st.
Th d, cht gim nht X -c ch to t nha formalin, natri sulfit v xt n
da, n -c dng dng dung dch n-c xt gim nht ca nh t-ng t st, nng
cao tnh chy long ca hn hp ct - t st. Cht dng bt mu nu xm l sn
phm ca than li-nht tc dng vi dung dch xt n da cng dng nng cao tnh
chy long ca t st v hn hp ct - t st. Cht igetan dng bt nho v kzil dng
lng dng gim nht ca nh t-ng t st v nng cao tnh hot ho ca bt t
st .
1.4.6. Cht to bt
L loi cht c hot tnh b mt, c tc dng lm gim sc cng b mt ca cht lng
v c kh nng to bt lm cho ct c tnh linh ng, dng pha ch hn hp ct lng t
ng cng. Trong hn hp lm khun t ng cng dng bt nho m ng-i ta c th rt
77
vo hm khun -c phi c cht to bt. Cht to bt ny th-ng dng l cc axit hu
c, axit sulfua hoc mui ca cc axit . Nhng cht to bt ny t-ng tc vi thu tinh
lng to mui - x phng natri bao u b mt cc ht ct rt nhanh chng v to bt.
Th d cht to bt KHP -c dng trong cc hn hp lm khun vi cc cht dnh
kt khc nhau nh- thy tinh lng, xi mng, v cht dnh kt . Cc cht to bt -
v HPB cng dng trong hn hp lm khun t ng cng dng bt nho v tr-c
khi dng chng -c khuy trn rt u.
1.4.7. Cht tng thi gian sng ca hn hp lm khun
Thi gian sng ca hn hp l thi gian ch i cho php di nht tnh t lc
trn xong ti khi em lm khun, qu thi gian ny hn hp kh ri lm khun
s km bn hoc khng dnh na. Nh- vy, trong qu trnh lm khun hn hp
phi gi -c tnh cht ban u trong mt thi gian nht nh nh- tnh do, tnh
chy long... C nh- vy cht l-ng khun mi m bo, gim chi ph, d c kh
ho v t ng ho trong qa trnh sn xut.
duy tr v nng cao tnh cng ngh ca hn hp lm khun ng-i ta
th-ng cho vo hn hp cc cht nh- xt n da (NaOH), Magi clorua (MgCl
2
),
Canxi clorua (CaCl
2
). Xt n da c tnh ht m mnh trong khng kh nn -c
dng lm cht ph cho hn hp ct - n-c thu tinh. Xt n da vi nng 10
15% trong n-c cho vo hn hp ct n-c thu tinh khong 1,0 1,5% trng
l-ng hn hp. MgCl
2
v CaCl
2
cng c tnh cht ht m mnh khi ngoi
khng kh nn -c dng lm cht ph cho hn hp ct - t st v va sa
khun.
1.4.8. Cht ho tan (dung mi)
Trong sn xut c ng-i ta dng cht ho tan to mi tr-ng phn tn
cho cht sn chng chy dnh khi b lng, cht ho tan cn dng ch to cht
dnh kt do nhit dng lng. Cht ho tan c th gm nhiu thnh phn hay mt
thnh phn. Th d, cht ho tan hu c mt thnh phn nh- r-u izprpin ho
tan -c nha, du, m; r-u furin ha tan n-c, dung mi hu c; axtn ho
tan -c nhiu cht hu c; du ho ho tan bitum, kanifol; tylaxtat ho tan
-c du, m...
78
ho tan cht dnh kt ca sn chng chy dnh ct ng-i ta dng cht
ho tan nhiu thnh phn gm axtn (22%), benzel -1(12%), r-u etyl
(66%).
1.4.9. Cht n nh huyn ph
Cht n nh huyn ph c tr-ng n ln to nn dung dch keo trng
thi lng, n lm cho nht ca mi tr-ng phn tn tng. Trong sn xut c
cht n nh huyn ph c tc dng lm tng bn vng ca lp sn khun. Th
d, t st lm khun l cht n nh lp sn chng chy dnh; polivinylbutiran l
cht n nh ch to sn chng chy dnh kh nhanh...
1.4.10. Cht ph thm lm tng tnh do, tnh ln ca khun, rut
Khi ng rn vt c co li do s co th tch, ngn cn s nt v hay cong
vnh do s co ny ng-i ta cho vo hn hp lm khun nhng cht hu c c si,
th (than bn, mn c-a). Tu theo thnh phn m cht thm vo ny th-ng dao
ng trong khong 10 - 20% theo th tch hay n 5% theo khi l-ng.
1.4.11. Nhng cht thm c bit
Nhng cht thm ny cho vo hn hp lm khun, rut cung cp cho
chng nhng tnh cht c bit. Th d, i vi hn hp sy bng dng in cao
tn th-ng cho thm cc cht phn ch, mui n (NaCl), axit boric v phosphoric
lm tng dn in v tc nung nng. gim nhit ng cng ca hn
hp ng-i ta cho thm mui n hoc n 1% etylen glicol.















79
Ch-ng 2
Hn hp lm khun
Hn hp lm khun (rut) l mt tp hp cc ht ri rc m trong vt liu
c bn (ch yu) -c gi l vt liu nn c tnh chu nhit tt, gi cho khun
bn cn thit khi chu tc dng t-ng h vi kim loi lng v cc cht dnh c
tc dng lin kt cc ht nn li thnh khi c hnh dng nht nh.
lm khun hn hp phi qua khu ch bin nhm t cc tnh cht cn
cho quy trnh cng ngh lm khun. Quy trnh cng ngh ch bin hn hp lm
khun, rut bao gm cc nguyn cng sau y:
1) Chun b vt liu mi v cc cht thm;
2) X l cc hn hp dng ri;
3) o trn cc vt liu chun b;
4) hn hp v nh ti n tr-c khi mang n ch lm khun.
Chun b vt liu mi gm sy v sng ct thch anh, sy v p nghin t
st. sy ct ng-i ta dng nhng thit b c bit. Cc l sy kiu tang quay
nm ngang, thit b sy ct trong dng khng kh nng trong qu trnh vn
chuyn chng. t st sy kh phi qua khu p v nghin nh v sng. t
st c th cho vo hn hp dng dung dch nh t-ng. Mun vy phi em ho
t st thnh va sau cho vo my khuy, cho thm n-c -c dung dch
nh t-ng 30 - 50% (tnh theo t st kh). Nh t-ng ny -c -a vo hn hp
lm khun khi ch bin hn hp thay cho bt t st. Nhng cht thm c bit
nh- than , nha -ng phi -c nghin nh trong cc my nghin bi ri sng.
Thch anh dng bt v cc cht dnh hu c khng phi x l s b tr-c khi
dng. B giy nu nhp dng rn tr-c khi dng phi ho vi n-c n mt
1,27 1,3 g/cm
3
.
X l cc hn hp dng ri. Hn hp -c r t hm khun sau khi vt c
ngui phi qua khu ti sinh s b nhm khi phc cc tnh cht cng ngh. Tt
c cc hn hp dng ri u phi qua phn ly t tnh tch cc ht kim loi bn
to ra khi rt, cc mc v cc phn kim loi khc. Hn hp dng ri qua my
nghin lm v cc cc. Sau khi phn ly t tnh hn hp -c sng v chuyn n
my trn hn hp.
Qu trnh o trn vt liu lm khun theo quy -c c th chia lm 2 giai on:
1) o trn cc thnh phn ca hn hp lm khun, rut;
80
2) Bao ph cc ht ct bng lp t st, va hay cht dnh.
Tu theo ch m cc giai on ny c th thc hin ng thi hay ni tip
tun t.
Khi o trn hn hp, cc cht hp thnh va chm nhau v chuyn ng mt
cch hn lon. Qu trnh chuyn ng cng nh- qu o ca chng tun theo
quy lut xc sut. Thi gian lm ng u thnh phn khi o trn cc vt liu
hp thnh dng kh nh- ct v t st l lu nht. l do cc vt liu hp thnh
c phn tn khc nhau nn ngay trong qu trnh o trn cng ng thi xy
ra qu trnh phn lp. Khi o trn ct v t st m, s phn lp khng xy ra v
t st s ph ln cc ht ct, mt phn bao quanh chng. Trong tr-ng hp ny
nng t st -c ng u mt cch t-ng i nhanh hn. Trong giai on
o trn ch mt phn nh t st bao ly b mt cc ht to nn mi tip xc
gia cc ht lm cho hn hp c bn khng cao. S bao ph cc ht ct tip
tc xy ra trong qu trnh m cht nh ti nhiu ln. Tc qu trnh bao ph
ph thuc vo tnh cht c l ca vt liu hp thnh, c cu lm vic ca my
trn, s ln m cht nh ti hn hp.
Do kt qu ca giai on th nht b mt cc ht ct to thnh gel c t chc
dng mixen, bao gm mi tr-ng phn tn ( n-c ) v cc vt th phn cc ( cc
ht t st ). T chc mixen ny b n-c phn tn lm bo ho, sau khi bo ho
xong quanh ht s hnh thnh mt lp mng bn vng, n hi lin kt cc ht li
vi nhau.
S lin kt ct khi dng cc cht dnh hu c cng xy ra theo hai giai on.
giai on th nht to thnh t chc mixen ca lp mng bc, cn giai on th hai
l s ng cng ca gel vi s mt l-ng d- ca mi tr-ng lng phn tn. S mt ny
c th km theo s ph v mt s mi lin kt ca ht mixen v to thnh nhng mi
lin kt dng khng gian mi vo lc kt thc qu trnh ng cng ca gel. Song s
mt l-ng d- cht lng phn tn ny th-ng xy ra trong khi sy.
Mun m bo -c cc tnh cht cng ngh ca hn hp lm khun vi mt
l-ng ti thiu t st hay cht dnh khc th phi ch n nhng iu kin ho
l ca s t-ng tc gia ct v cht dnh. Th d, trong giai on u ca s lin
kt, khi chun b cc hn hp ct - t st cn to ra trn mt ct mt lp in
tch m - lp n-c cng. V th khi o trn u tin cho n-c vo ct kh, tip
mi cho t st to thnh mt lp gel xung quanh cc ht to iu kin
81
lin kt vng chc hn. Tr-ng hp hn hp c bt thch anh th phi cho n vo
cng vi ct o trn vi n-c. Nu cho cc vt liu hp thnh ca hn hp
vo my trn theo th t ng-c li (ct - t st - n-c) th trong qu trnh o
trn gia ct v t st c th xy ra s phn lp, cc tp hp t st s khng b
ph v nn khi cho n-c vo li lm cn tr s to thnh gel.
Thng th-ng th hn hp lm khun, rut dng n 50 - 90% cc hn hp
ct c, nhng hn hp ny sau khi ti sinh s b c cho thm ct mi, t st v
cc cht thm c bit.
Khi chun b hn hp lm khun, rut c dng hn hp ct c th th t cht
liu vo my trn c khc hn so vi th t chun b cc hn hp ch bao gm
cc vt liu mi. Hn hp ct c, ct mi, t st, n-c v cc cht thm c bit
cc nh my khc nhau cho vo my trn theo th t hon ton khc nhau.
Khi chun b cc hn hp kh nhanh cha n-c thu tinh th u tin cho ct,
n-c, t st vo o trn khong 2 - 3 pht, sau cho xt (NaOH) vo o trn
hn hp trong 3 pht , tip n cho n-c thu tinh vo li o trn thm 10 - 15
pht na. Nu trong thnh phn hn hp c mazut th phi cho mazt vo sau
cng v o trn thm 5 pht. Cn phi gi hn hp vi gi ng u ho tnh
cht.
2.1. i c-ng v phn loi hn hp lm khun
Cht l-ng v gi thnh vt c ph thuc vo s la chn ng thnh phn
v tnh cht cng ngh ca hn hp lm khun. Khi chn thnh phn hn hp lm
khun phi tnh n:
- Dng kim loi rt vo v nhng iu kin tc dng qua li ca kim loivi khun;
- phc tp v tnh quan trng ca vt c;
- Nhng vt liu gc cn thit hin c;
- Quy m lot sn phm ca sn xut;
- Cng ngh ch to v rp khun;
- Gi thnh vt c.
Nhng tnh cht cng ngh ca khun do hn hp lm khun quyt nh. Theo
dng kim loi rt vo, cc hn hp -c chia lm ba nhm: hn hp lm khun c
thp, hn hp lm khun c gang v hn hp lm khun c cc hp kim mu. S
82
phn chia ny cn c vo nhit rt kim loi, i vi thp l 1480 - 1540
0
C, gang l
1380 - 1420
0
C, v cc hp kim mu th thp hn 1100
0
C.
Khng ph thuc vo kim loi rt vo khun cc hn hp lm khun -c
phn chia nh- sau:
1) Theo tnh cht s dng hn hp -c chia thnh hn hp lm khun mt
loi (hn hp lm khun ng nht), hn hp ct mt (ct o) v hn hp ct
m;
2) Theo trng thi ca khun tr-c khi rt hn hp chia ra: hn hp dng cho
khun rt trng thi m v hn hp dng cho khun rt trng thi kh.
3) Tu theo loi ct em s dng m chia ra: hn hp t nhin v hn hp
tng hp.
Nu ton b khun -c ch to bng mt loi hn hp th hn hp ny gi
l hn hp mt loi. Hn hp mt loi th-ng dng lm khun bng my
trong sn xut hng lot. Thng th-ng hn hp mt loi -c ch to t cc loi
ct c chu la, bn nhit ho cao nht v cc loi t st c kh nng dnh
kt cao nht m bo tui th ca hn hp. Mi ln pha trn ng-i ta cho
thm vt liu ti sinh vo v phi m bo bn, thng kh ca hn hp nm
trong gii hn qui nh.
Hn hp ct mt dng trong sn xut hng lot hay n chic. Tu theo chiu
dy ca thnh vt c, chung quanh mu -c ph mt lp hn hp ct mt dy 15 -
20mm. Hn hp ct mt tip xc trc tip vi kim loi lng, chu tc dng nhit v
ho - l ln nht. Ng-i ta -a vo hn hp ny mt l-ng vt liu mi lm tng
cc tnh cht cng ngh ca n, m bo cht l-ng vt c vi b mt sch nhn,
khng c ct dnh v khuyt tt bn trong. Hn hp ct mt -c dng ch to cc
vt c ln bng thp v gang, vt c quan trng c khi l-ng trung bnh, v dng
trong tr-ng hp nu s dng hn hp mt loi s gy ph phm ln.
Hn hp ct m -c ph ln trn hn hp ct mt nhm lp kn phn cn li
ca khun. Cng ngh ch yu ca hn hp ct m l m bo bn trong iu
kin thng kh cao. Hn hp ct m -c chun b t cc hn hp dng ri.
Hn hp t nhin. Trong thin nhin c th gp loi ct cha mt l-ng t
st m ch cn sau khi lm m v o trn chng c th dng lm hn hp lm
khun -c. Nhng hn hp dng loi ct nh- th gi l cc hn hp t nhin.
83
Chng -c dng ch yu ch to vt c hp kim mu v cc vt c nh
bng gang. Hn hp t nhin th-ng c chu la v thng kh thp.
Hn hp tng hp l hn hp m trong t st -c cho vo dng mt
cht thm c lp. Ng-i ta pha trn hn hp tng hp c tnh n loi kim loi
rt vo khun v trng l-ng vt c, ph-ng php lm khun v quy m lot
sn phm ca sn xut. Trn thc t ng dng rng ri nhng hn hp ny v
chng c tnh cht cng ngh cao, ch to n gin v d dng, gi -c thnh
phn v cht l-ng hn hp khng i.
i vi khun kh nn dng ct to c thng kh ln. b mt vt
c p khun -c sn loi sn chu la, v trnh b nt khi sy nn dng
loi t st gy m khng dng loi t st bo. Thm cc cht dnh hu c,
nht l cc cht c s, s lm gim s nt n ca khun, khun tr nn mm, d
ln v d p v.
Hn hp lm khun qua sy kh b mt th-ng l hn hp ct mt v -c
chun b trn c s ca cc cht dnh ng cng nhanh nh- KT, C , C v
n-c thu tinh. Cc khun c thp nn dng n-c thu tinh, cn khun c
gang cn cho n vo cng vi bt than v cc cht dnh hu c khc lm
gim s chy dnh ct.
Khi lm khun t-i, bn, thng kh, m ca hn hp c ngha
quan trng. Nn c gng t -c bn, thng kh theo yu cu vi
l-ng t st t nht gim m. Th-ng dng nhng loi t st bo chu
la v bentlit c kh nng kt dnh cao nht trng thi m. Dng cc loi
bentlit kt hp vi cc cht thm tinh bt c th ch to -c hn hp lm
khun c m 1,8 - 2,5% gi l cc hn hp c m thp. Nn dng hn
hp ny lm khun bng ph-ng php p. Hin nay i khi ng-i ta thay n-c
trong cc hn hp bng cc cht ho tan hu c nh- tilenglicol, du my. Khi
nhn b mt vt c tng ln r rt. Mt trong nhng thnh phn ch yu
ca hn hp lm khun t-i l cc cht thm chng chy dnh ct.
2.2 Tnh cht cng ngh ca hn hp lm khun
Nhng tnh cht cng ngh quan trng nht ca hn hp lm khun lun
lun -c xc nh v kim tra l m, thng kh, bn trng thi m
v trng thi kh (i vi cc rut v khun qua sy tr-c khi rt).
84
Cc tnh cht cng ngh cn li nh- sinh kh, tnh to hnh, tnh ht m,
bn nhit cao, tnh ln, tnh dnh bm, p v,v.v... th-ng -c nh
ra khi chn thnh phn hn hp lm khun v sau -c kim tra nh k.
m l mt trong nhng yu t ch yu nht quyt nh cc tnh cht ca
hn hp v cht l-ng vt c. bn, t trng, thng kh ca hn hp thay
i theo m (hnh 2. 1), v cc vt lin kt dnh (t st, n-c b giy, dextrin,
n-c thu tinh v nhng cht khc) cng thay i tnh cht ca mnh theo m.
m hp l nht chn theo bn cc i trng thi m.


Hnh 2. 1.
S thay i ca cc thng s
cc mu chun theo m w%.
1 - bn o; 2 - thng kh K;
3 - t trng o.

Khong thay i m ca nhng hn hp dng trong sn xut nm trong
gii hn 2 - 8%.
m cao hay thp u nh h-ng n qu trnh lm vic ca cc thit b
cng ngh, ca c cu ong liu, v cu my lm khun, do lm thay i
cht ca khun. m tng l nguyn nhn ca r x, r ct, xp, r kh, sai lch
kch th-c v cc khuyt tt khc.
thng kh ca hn hp xc nh bng ph-ng php chun th-ng
khng ging vi thng kh ca hn hp trong khun c ang -c rt
kim loi lng. V khi b nung nng, nht ca ca cc cht kh cng nh-
th tch ca chng s tng ln v cc cht kh sinh ra trong khun c c
thnh phn khc vi thnh phn ca khng kh. thng kh ca khun
trn thc t lun lun nh hn thng kh xc nh bng ph-ng php
chun. thng kh ca hn hp phi -c xc nh cho nhng iu kin
c th ca sn xut c.
85
i vi cc hn hp lm khun khc nhau, l-ng kh sinh ra trong mt
n v thi gian cng khc nhau. Kh nng sinh kh ca hn hp lm
khun, rut -c xc nh bng ph-ng php thc nghim trn nhng thit
b c bit.
bn ca hn hp ct - t st trng thi m ph thuc vo thnh
phn ht ca ct, m, l-ng t st v kh nng dnh kt ca n, ng
thi cng ph thuc vo m cht. Tng m W trong hn hp ln qu
m hp l s lm cho bn o ca hn hp gim xung.
Mng t st to nn bn ca hn hp. Trong thnh phn ca mng
ny ngoi n-c v t st cn c cc cht chng chy dnh ct (than , bt
thch anh), cc cht dnh hu c v nhng cht rn l sn phm phn hu
ca t st v cht dnh nhit cao. Nhng cht rn ny c tnh tr so vi
n-c, s tch t ca chng trong hn hp s lm gim bn, thng kh v cc
tnh cht chng chy dnh ct. S gim l-ng t st ng thi vi s gim m
c nh h-ng tt n cc tnh cht cng ngh ca hn hp lm khun. Nhng hn
hp do, t m c th t -c bng cc ph-ng php sau:
- Dng t st mnmrilonit c phn tn ln thay th t st kaolinit
- Dng kt hp t st mnmrilonit vi mt s cc cht dnh khc c kh
nng to thnh gel trong n-c c nht cao.
- Hot tnh ho n-c i vo trong thnh phn ca lp mng t st bng cch
cho thm cc cht hot tnh b mt.
Tnh do ca hn hp xut hin trong gii hn nht nh ca m,
ngoi nhng gii hn nht nh hn hp khng dng lm khun -c.
Khong c tc dng ca tnh do ph thuc vo thnh phn hn hp cng
nh- vo cc ph-ng php m cht. Ng-i ta nh gi tnh do theo tnh
nn -c, tnh to hnh, tnh vn ri, dnh nht, do v tnh chy (tnh
di ng).
Tnh nn -c c tr-ng cho kh nng nn cht -c ca hn hp (gim th
tch ca mnh) d-i tc dng ca lc bn ngoi hay bn thn trng l-ng. Tnh
nn -c ph thuc vo bn v nht ca lp mng cht dnh ti nhng ch
tip xc vi cc ht. Khi gim bn, nht th cng m cht hn hp cng
gim. Khi cng bn nn nh- nhau cng m cht hn hp ct - du nh hn
cng m cht hn hp ct - t st t 8 - 10 ln.
86
Tnh vn ri ca hn hp nh h-ng n s treo liu ca hn hp trong
cc bunke, n s in y v phn b u ca hn hp khi vo hm
khun, n cht l-ng v thi gian o trn trong my trn. Tnh vn ri
lin quan n tnh ng cc - kh nng to thnh nhng cc bn chc ca
hn hp.
Tnh vn ri v tnh ng cc ph thuc vo bn mi lin kt cc ht
nhng ch tip xc. Nh c bn thp trng thi m m cc hn hp lm rut
dng cht dnh l du, nha tng hp, n-c thu tinh khng b ng cc. Cc hn
hp lm khun dng t st th ng-c li, b ng cc rt mnh do bn v
nht cao ca lp mng t st bao quanh cc ht. V vy hn hp nn c ng
cc thp nht v vn ri tt.
Tnh chy ( tnh di ng ). Theo l thuyt v s chy ca cc vt thc
th tnh chy l kh nng chy ca vt liu, ngha l b bin dng khng
thun nghch d-i tc dng ca lc t vo. Tnh chy cao c cc hn hp
c m thp trn c s bentnit cng vi cc cht thm bitum, cc cht
dnh KO, KBC , n-c b giy v.v... ng sut, m ti xut hin s bin
dng khng thun nghch -c xc nh bng iu kin chy, cn tc
bin dng ti thi im chy tun theo quy lut chy. iu kin chy v qui
lut chy l hai nh lut bin dng c bn ca cc vt thc. Tnh chy l
mt tnh cht cng ngh ca hn hp, n ph thuc vo trng thi ng sut
v xut hin khi c iu kin chy.
iu kin chy ca hn hp lm khun -c xc nh theo nh lut Culng.
t = K + o tg
o
1
= o
3
tg
2
(45
0
+
2

) + K tg(45
0
+
2

) (2. 1)
Trong :
o
1
v o
3
l ng sut chnh ln nht v nh nht,
K - lc bm,
- gc ma st trong hn hp.
Theo iu kin chy (2. 1) th ng sut tr-t ti hn o
1
ph thuc vo lc bm K
ca cc phn t hn hp v vo p sut thng gc o
3
theo din tch tr-t do tg(45
0
+
2

)
87
xc nh. Lun lun c th to -c trng thi ng sut nh- th iu kin chy c th
thc hin -c v vt th c th b bin dng do.
Tnh dnh bm ca hn hp trn b mt mu tng ln cng vi s tng m, tng
cht ca khun, s h- hng dn ca b mt mu, s gim ht ca ct v cng vi s
tng chnh lch nhit ca mu v hn hp. Tnh dnh bm ca hn hp sinh ra do
l-ng n-c t do v lin kt yu tha d- trong hn hp. V th ng-i ta lm gim tnh
dnh bm bng cch gim m, -a vo hn hp nhng cht hu c lin kt vi n-c t
do v bng nhng bin php cng ngh nhm lm gim lc lin kt gia hn hp v b
mu. Nhng bin php cng ngh l:
1. Rc hoc phun theo chu k ln b mt mu nhng cht ngn cch khng
thm -t n-c. Th d, phun xng trn vi phn ch, mazt v du khong cht.
2. Nung nng b mu n 40
0
C cn tr s ng-ng t ca n-c trn b mt mu.
3. Sa cn thn v nh bng b mt mu.
Cng cn phi thy rng, khi rt kim loi lng vo khun nhit cao,
bn, cng v cc tnh cht khc ca lp b mt khun thay i. N lin quan
n s gin n lp b mt, s chy cc cht hu c sinh kh, dnh kt hn hp.
l nhng nguyn nhn gy ra cc khuyt tt vt c.
2.3 Hn hp ct - t st
Hn hp ct - t st dng lm khun ch to nhng vt c bng thp cc bon
c khi l-ng nh v trung bnh. Nhng vt c thnh mng khi l-ng d-i 500
kg th-ng c trong khun t-i (khun m). Cn nhng vt c quan trng v
nng hn th c trong khun kh. Hn hp ct - t st cng cn -c dng
lm rut cho vt c, so vi hn hp ct - t st lm khun th thnh phn khc
nhau khng nhiu. nng cao tnh ln ca rut v kh nng ph rut ng-i ta
cho thm mt s cht nh- mn c-a vo v cc cht dnh kt ngm n-c nng
cao bn trng thi kh.
2.3.1. Hn hp lm khun t-i khng ho cng
Hn hp lm khun t-i th-ng -c dng sn xut khun trn dy
truyn t ng bng my dn, my nm ct v c bng tay. m cht
ca hn hp ph thuc vo ph-ng php m cht. Hn hp mt loi vi
bn cao nht trng thi m -c dng lm khun c bng ph-ng
88
php p trn dy truyn t ng lm khun khng hm. bn ca khun
khng hm cn gi -c kch th-c khun d-i tc dng ca p sut
tnh kim loi trong thi gian rt kim loi lng v c trong qa trnh vn
chuyn.
m bo bn, thng kh v cc tnh cht cng ngh khc ca hn
hp cn phi chn vt liu ph hp. Thnh phn chnh ca hn hp l ct thch
anh -c lm giu hay ct thch anh loi 1K; 2K v 3K, hoc nhm ct cha
l-ng t st khng qu 2%.
i vi hn hp lm khun m m cht bng ph-ng php p ng-i ta
th-ng dng bt t st bentlit. Tt nht dng t st bentlit natri s m bo
-c tnh kt dnh cao trng thi m v lu hn. chng chy dnh ct cho vt
c bng gang th-ng dng cht thm l bt than hoc polistirol. gim tnh
d v ca khun p ng-i ta cho thm tinh bt vo hn hp, cn tng tnh do
cho thm -ng mt hay dextrin.
Sau mi ln rt khun thnh phn ti -u ca hn hp b thay i. m
bo tnh cng ngh ca hn hp ng-i ta phi b sung vt liu mi vo cng vi
hn hp c sau khi s ch.
L-ng t st cho vo hn hp ph thuc vo yu cu bn. i vi vt
c nh l-ng t st cho vo khong 5 - 7%, vt c trung bnh 7 - 9%. Thnh
phn t st trong hn hp mt loi dng cho dy truyn t ng ho vo khong
10 -13% tnh theo trng l-ng.
Hn hp mt loi lm khun bng my c m cao ( 4,5 6,0 ) v
m cht ln. Ngoi ra hn hp c th cha mt l-ng ln thnh phn t st
khng hot tnh, nh- vy thng kh c gim so vi dm khun bng tay.
Hn hp dng lm khun trn my hay bng tay th-ng dng loi ct khng giu
thch anh v t st loi r tin hn so vi hn hp lm khun trn dy truyn t ng.
t st cho vo hn hp tt nht dng huyn ph. Thnh phn ca hn hp ct - t
st lm khun cho vt c thp -c trnh by trn bng 2. 1. Cn thnh phn hn hp
lm khun ct - t st dng cho vt c hp kim mu -c trnh by trn bng 2. 2.
i vi vt c bng hp kim magi cn phi chng s xi ho hp kim lng
nm trong khun, ng-i ta cho thm vo hn hp nhng cht bo v (axit boric,
bt l-u hunh, v cc cht cha flo).

89
2.3.2. Hn hp lm khun kh
Nhng vt c ln v phc tp yu cu cht l-ng cao hn ng-i ta phi dng hn
hp ct - t st lm khun sy kh. Sau khi sy bn ca khun -c nng cao.
i vi vt c c khi l-ng nh hn 1 tn dng ct thch anh nhm 02; cn vt
c c khi l-ng trn 1 tn dng ct nhm 04 v 0315. Hn hp lm khun kh
th-ng dng t st kaolinit s t -c bn cao sau khi sy v bn nhit ho
hc. gi -c bn ca khun cao sau khi sy ng-i ta cho vo cc cht
dnh kt ngm n-c nh- CC , , KBC. nng cao tnh ln v thng kh
ca hn hp ng-i ta cho vo thm cc cht nh- mn c-a, than bn. loi tr
kh nng chy dnh ct ng-i ta phi sn lp sn chng chy dnh ct. Hn hp
ct mt trn c s ct - t st dng lm khun kh -c trnh by trn bng 2. 3.
c thp, trong thnh phn hn hp ct mt ng-i ta dng vt liu chu
la thay ct thch anh. Vt liu ny c tnh chng chy dnh ct cao. Tuy nhin
vic thay ct thch anh bng vt liu chu la cao phi tht hp l, khi m dng
lp sn chng chy dnh khng khc phc -c. c nhng chi tit ln v
phc tp bng thp hp kim cao phi dng hn hp Zircni lm khun (bng
2. 4).
2.3.3. Hn hp ct - t st m
Hn hp ct - t st m c cht l-ng km hn so vi hn hp ct mt
-c ch bin t hn hp ct dng ri c cho thm 5 10% hn hp mi. Hn
hp ct m khng tip xc trc tip vi kim loi lng c nhit cao, nn khng
chu tc ng ca nhit ln lm. thng kh ca hn hp ct m khng
-c nh hn hn hp ct mt trnh tt r kh trong vt c. Khi c chi tit
thnh mng hn hp ct m phi c tnh ln tt trnh nt. Gii hn bn nn
trng thi m ca hn hp ct m dng cho khun lm bng my v tay cn t:
- Khun t-i c gang l 25 - 30 KN/m
2
;
- Khun kh c gang l 35 - 45 KN/m
2
;
- Khun t-i c thp l 30 - 40 KN/m
2
;
- Khun kh c thp l 30 - 40 KN/m
2
;
Hn hp ct c ca li v ct o c cha cc cht dnh kt c tnh axt v cc
cht xc tc. Khi dng hn hp ct c ny lm hn hp ct m bn s gim
v t st b tr ho. V vy cn phi kim tra pH v khi phc cc tnh cht
ca hn hp.

90


Bng 2. 1. Hn hp ct - t st lm khun ti c thp.
Thnh phn, % khi lng c tnh k thut ca hn hp
K
h

i

l

n
g

v

c
,

K
g
,

k
h

n
g


d

i

C
h
i

u

d

y

t
h

n
h

v

c
,

m
m
,

k
h

n
g

q
u

Hn hp
ct c
Ct thch
anh
t st
*
Cn
Sunfit
Loi ct
m
%
thng
kh, v.
Gii hn
bn nn
trng
thi m,
MPa
Hn hp ct mt
100


500

500


25


25

50


8040


7540

6040


16,553


20,551,4

33,551,0


36,5
(810)

48
(812)
6 8,5
(1113)

s0,5


s0,5

s0,5


K016A
K02A
K02
K02
K02A
K02A
K0135

3,54,5


4,05,0

4,55,5


80100


100120

100130


0,030,0
5


0,040,0
6

0,050,0
7


Hn hp mt loi
100 - 9290 6,58,0 (810) 1,52,0
K016
K02
3,04,5 80100
0,030,0
5

* Trong ngoc l hm lng t st chung.






91


Bng 2. 2. Hn hp ct - t st lm khun c hp kim mu

Thnh phn, % theo khi lng c tnh k thut ca hn hp
Vt liu
c
Hn hp
Hn hp
ct c
Vt liu
mi
Mazut
Hp
cht
flo
m
%

thng
kh,v.
t st,
%
Gii hn
bn nn
trng thi
m, MPa
Mt loi 9288,5 710 11,5 Hp kim
ng
Ct mt 8040 19,559 0,51,0
30 812
Mt loi 9290 810
4,55,5
810
Hp kim
nhm
Ct mt 8060 2040
-
45
20
812
0,030,05
N
0
1 9585 515 59 0,060,12
5,06,5 2040
N
0
2 9085 1015 48 0,060,08
Hp kim
magi
N
0
3 8982 1015
-
-
4,56,0 3070
-
0,040,08
Ghi ch : - Vt c bng hp kim ng dng ct 016, 01A; bng hp kim nhm
dng ct 01A; bng hp kim magi dng ct 01A, 0063 (hn hp N
0
1 v N
0
2) v 025;
016A; 01A (hn hp N
0
3).
- Hn hp lm khun N
0
3 cho thm t 13% .









92


Bng 2. 3 : Hn hp ct mt lm khun kh trn c s ct - t st.
Thnh phn hn hp, % theo khi lng c tnh ca hn hp
Khi l-
ng vt
c,
Tn
Chi
u
dy
thn
h vt
c,
mm
Hn
hp
ct c
Ct thch
anh
t
st
Vt liu
mi

hoc

Mn
ca
Thnh phn
ht
Lng
cha
t st

thng
kh, v.
Gii hn bn
trng thi
m, MPa
m, %
Vt c gang
<0,1 <25 70440 27457 02A;0315A 12414 60480 0,05040,080 6,047,0
0,1 25 60435 37462
3
02A;0315 12416 804100 0,05040,080 6,048,0
<2 <30 60450 28440 02A;0315 12414 0,05040,065
2415 <50
- -
38450
10412
04A;0315 14416
70
10430 <60
50440
47 20 04A;0315
0,06540,080
7,048,0
10450 60 20 43442 445
-
-
13
04A;0315
- -
0,1540,25 12416
Vt c thp
<5 50 15,5450 449 <0,5 02A 12414 704100 5,047,0
<10 50
80440
100 - 80
0,0840,12
80 80
-
-
0315
12415
50 0,05540,065
6,047,0
10430
80
80440
12,5445,5 449
-
1,542,4 244 02A;0315 12414 704100 0,03540,06 5,047,0
Vt c ng
- - 80460 - - 20440 - - 016A 10415 /30 0,0440,06 5,046,0
Vt c nhm
- - 80460 - - 19,5439 0,541,0 - 01A 8412 /20 0,0440,06 5,046,0







93



Bng 2. 4: Hn hp lm khun Zircni.
Thnh phn % theo trng lng c tnh ca hn hp
Cht thm Hn
hp
Zircni
Ct thch
anh
1K02
t
st
CC C KBC
thng
kh, v.
m,
%
Gii hn bn
trng thi
m, MPa
1
2
3
100
72
100
-
28
-
2,6
2,6
2,5
2,3
2,9
-
-
-
2,3
2,5
3,7
-
40
50
404130
1,842,2
2,643,0
3,045,0
0,01240,015
0,01640,020
0,03040,045



Ghi ch: L-ng n-c cho vo n m theo yu cu.
















94
2.3.4 Quy trnh chun b hn hp ct - t st
Quy trnh cng ngh chun b hn hp ct - t st gm cc thao tc ni tip
nhau sau khi chun b v ch bin vt liu u vo: ong liu, o trn liu,
hn hp v nh ti hn hp tr-c khi -a n ch lm khun.
Trong ngnh c th-ng dng t st 3 dng: bt, nho v lng ( huyn
ph ). Cch chun b ba dng ny c khc nhau.
Chun b t st dng bt: t st khai thc t m v phi kh v nghin
th ti c cc 4 25 mm, -a sy 150
o
C cho ti khi m cn li 5 8% nu
l t st th-ng, vi t st bentnt m cn li phi cao hn ( khong 12% ).
t st sy xong cho vo thit b nghin v ry qua ry s 0315.
Chun b t st nho: cho t st cc sy kh vo my trn, pha 40
70% n-c ( tnh theo trng l-ng t st ) trn u.
Chun b t st huyn ph: cho t st cc sy kh vo thng cha pha
n-c theo t l 1/2 1/4, khong 2 3 gi cho t st ht no n-c. Dng thit
b khuy khuy to nn mt khi cht lng ng nht dng huyn ph c khi
l-ng ring t 1,15 1,40 g/cm
3
.
Nguyn liu mi khai thc v th-ng khng ph hp vi yu cu v c ht,
m, sch v. v..., cn phi qua ch bin nh- nghin, sng phn loi, sy.
Nguyn liu thu hi t sn xut c chu tc dng ca nhit cao nn b
thay i: t st b samt ho, ct b v vn thnh bi, cht ph chy thnh tro,
hn hp ln inh, vn gang v. v... Mun dng li phi qua ch bin nh- sng, ra,
x l ho hc gi chung l ti sinh ct c. Ch bin li hn hp ct c sau mt ln
c l mt vic lm c ngha kinh t k thut ln cn -c thc hin th-ng
xuyn.
trn liu ng-i ta c th dng my trn theo tng m hay o trn lin
tc. Trn liu trn my theo tng m c cng sut khng ln lm. Thit b th-ng
dng trn hn hp ct - t st l my trn con ln. Thi gian v th t np vt
liu vo my l hai yu t c nh h-ng ln n tnh bn v tnh thng kh ca
hn hp. i vi hn hp ct t st, mun t st to thnh lp mng bao ph
quanh ht ct, hn hp phi -c nho trn v ch st k.
Th t cho vt liu vo my trn nh- sau: u tin cho hn hp ct c, ct
mi, bt t st v bt than vo. Cc thnh phn liu kh -c o trn t 1 -3
95
pht. Sau cho liu lng vo (n-c, nh t-ng t st). Nu c thm cc cht
dnh kt vo hn hp ct - t st th cho vo sau cng. Cch trn ny n gin
nh-ng bi nhiu, mun khc phc phi dng cch trn -t v bi chnh l bt t
st.
Th t trn -t nh- sau: lc u trn cht ph + n-c, sau cho t st trn
u v cho ct vo sau cng. Cch trn ny va hn ch -c bi va m bo
cho t st phn b u.
Thi gian o trn hn hp ct - t st lm khun t-i -c trnh by trn
bng 2. 5. Trong dy truyn sn xut t ng ho, qu trnh cht liu, thi gian
o trn -c t theo ch-ng trnh. Sau khi nh ti, hn hp -c -a n
thng cha trn my lm khun, thng ny c h thng t ng ong hn hp
cho vo khun m cht.
Bng 2. 5. Thi gian o trn hn hp lm khun t-i [ pht].
My o trn kiu con ln
Loi hn hp
Trc con ln thng ng Trc con ln nm ngang
Hn hp mt loi
8 5
5 3

5 , 2 2
2 5 , 1

Hn hp ct mt
13 10
8 5

3 2
5 , 2 2 , 1

Hn hp ct m 2,5 - 4 1 - 1,2
Ghi ch: Trong hn hp mt loi v hn hp ct mt t s ng vi hn hp
c gii hn bn nn trng thi m < 70 KN/m
2
; mu s < 200 KN/m
2
.

2.3.5 Hn hp lm khun bn vnh cu
Khun bn vnh cu l khun gi -c bn v kch th-c sau khi c
-c mt s l-ng nht nh vt c bng khun . Hn hp lm khun bn
vnh cu gm cc ht c bn c h s n nhit thp v cht dnh kt v c c
bn nhit cao. Hn hp lm khun xong phi -c em sy t t ln n nhit
300 - 350
0
C. bn v cng vng ca khun ph thuc vo khi l-ng v
96
hnh dng vt c, ph thuc vo cht l-ng sa khun sau mi ln c. Khun
c th dng c -c n 50 sn phm hoc ln hn th nu khng b hng do
s co ngt vt c. Thnh phn lm khun bn vnh cu -c trnh by trn bng
2. 6.
Bng 2. 6. Thnh phn hn hp lm khun bn vnh cu, % theo trng l-ng
Hn hp
Thnh phn
1 2 3 4
Bt sa mt 25 41 25 20
Ct thch anh 23 25 25 -
Bt than cc - - 25 -
t st Kaolinit 18,5 15 25 40
Hn hp samt s ch 33,5 19 - 40
N-c (ngoi 100%) 8-9 6-8 7 6-8

2.3.6 Hn hp pht nhit v hn hp cch nhit
Hn hp pht nhit -c dng hai dng: dng do m v dng bt kh.
Hn hp pht nhit dng do dng trt ln u ngt hay m gi nhit ca vt
c. Thnh phn ca hn hp pht nhit c th ly theo bng 2. 7.
Bng 2. 7. Thnh phn hn hp pht nhit, % theo trng l-ng
Thnh phn % theo trng l-ng
Bt nhm 10
Fr silic hm l-ng 75% 13
G st 62
Bt samt 8
t st chu la 7
97
m bo bn trng thi kh ng-i ta cho thm 3 -5% CC c mt
1250 - 1270 g/dm
3
v 1% n-c.
tng hiu sut pht nhit ng-i ta cho thm mui nitrat xem bng 2. 8.
Bng 2. 8.
Thnh phn % theo trng l-ng
Bt nhm 20
Qung st 20
Nitrat natri 10
Ct thch anh 50
N-c thu tinh (mt 1450-1500 g/dm
3
) 10
N-c 1-2
Ghi ch: N-c v thu tinh lng cho vo vi l-ng trn 100%.
Nhit bc chy ca hn hp trn 710 - 780
0
C, m 5 - 6%. Gii hn bn
nn trng thi m t 13 - 20 KN/m
2
.
Hn hp pht nhit dng bt c thnh phn trong bng 2. 9.
Bng 2. 9.
Thnh phn % theo trng l-ng
Silicocanxi 35
Fr silic hm l-ng 75% 25
Mui nitrat k thut 8
G st 32
Dng hn hp pht nhit s lm tng tc dng ca u ngt v nng cao cht
l-ng c ln 2 -4%.
98
Hn hp cch nhit c tc dng lm chm s ng rn mt s phn trn vt
c v u ngt. N khng sinh nhit khi nung nng nh-ng c dn nhit thp
v kh nng tch nhit km nn khng lm ngui hp kim lng. Dng hn hp
cch nhit trt ln u ngt c th nng cht l-ng vt c ln ti 70%. Thnh
phn v tnh cht ca hn hp cch nhit -c trnh by trn bng 2. 10.
2.4. Hn hp lm khun, rut ng rn khng qua nung nng
lm khun, rut ng rn khng cn dng n l sy ng-i ta c th p
dng cc ph-ng php sau: Hn hp dng kh CO
2
ng rn, hn hp ng
rn t trng thi bt nho, hn hp t ng rn dng do, hn hp ng rn
ngui.
2.4.1 Hn hp ng rn dng kh CO
2
Hn hp ng rn dng kh CO
2
trong thnh phn c n-c thu tinh l cht
dnh kt. S ng rn ca hn hp xy ra khi thi kh CO
2
vo. Phn ng ho hc
xy ra khng thun nghch to ra mi lin kt gel v hn hp tr nn bn vng.
Qu trnh phn hu natri silict v to thnh gel axit silic theo phn ng sau:
Na
2
O. nSiO
2
+ CO
2
+ mH
2
O Na
2
CO
3
+ nSiO
2
.mH
2
O.
Nu -c sy nng tip theo th axit silic to thnh natri silict bn vng v
kt qu hn hp tr nn bn vng hn.
Ct dng cho hn hp ny l loi 1K hoc 2K thuc nhm ht 0315, 02 hoc
ct c phn tn ln. Hm l-ng t st trong ct khng ng k trnh s
lin kt ca t st vi n-c thu tinh. Trong nhiu hn hp ct - n-c thu tinh
ng-i ta cho thm t st vo nng cao bn trng thi m v kh nng ph
rut sau khi rt khun. Th-ng ng-i ta cho thm vo hn hp xt n da iu
chnh m un ca n-c thu tinh. Gi tr m un xc nh tnh chy long ca
hn hp: mun cng cao th tnh chy long cng km. lm rut v khun
c ln v c bit l lm khun bng d-ng gt th-ng dng n-c thu tinh c
mun nh 2,0 - 2,3. Xt n da cho vo hn hp dng dung dch n-c vi nng
10 - 20 %. Hn hp ct mt v rut trn c s n-c thy tinh lm vt liu dnh
kt v dng kh CO
2
ho cng -c trnh by trn bng 2. 11 v bng 2. 12. S
khc nhau gia hai loi hn hp ny ch l hn hp lm rut cn cho thm
nhng cht c tc dng d ph rut sau khi rt c.
99



Bng 2. 10 : Hn hp cch nhit do


Hn
hp
Vermiculit
Mn
c-a
t
st
chu
la
Caolin
Bt
g
Bt
aming
N-c
thu
tinh
H s dn nhit
trng thi kh
W
m.K
H s tch
nhit
W.C
0,5

m
2
.K
1
2
3
4
5
55465
42
25
-
-
-
-
-
18
58
8
-
5
20
20
-
8
-
-
-
204
30
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
20
-
-
-
2
2
0,00340,116
0,11640,140
0,11640,140
0,174
0,209
1744209
2094279
2094258
279
-







100


Bng 2. 11: Hn hp lm rut ng rn nhanh dng kh CO
2

Thnh phn hn hp, % trng l-ng Tnh cht c l
Gii hn bn, MPa
N
0

hn
hp
Mc ch s
dng ca hn
hp
Ct
thch
anh
t
st
N-c
thu
tinh
Dung
dch
10%
NaOH
Ma-zt

thng
kh,
v.
Nn trng
thi m
Ko sau
khi sy
Ko sau khi
thi CO
2
.
m %.
1
Lm rut
ph-ng php
c kh ho cho
vt c thp v
gang.
100 - 45,5 0,51,5 0,5 120 0,0040,007 11,5 0,20,3 30
2
Lm rut c
tnh ln cao
cho vt c
thp, gang v
hp kim mu.
9497 36 4,56 0,51,5 - 80 0,0120,03 0,81,2 0,10,25 34,5
3
Lm rut c
tnh d ph
cho vt c
thp
100 - 45 1,0 - 80 0,0050,007 0,5 0,180,22 3,54,2
4
Lm rut c
tnh d ph
cho vt c
gang.
100 - 5 - - 120 0,0100,015 0,50,8 0,150,2 2,83,0
5
Lm rut c
tnh d ph
cho vt c
thp v gang.
5070 - 56 0,51,5 0,5 80 0,0120,025 0,81,0 0,20,3 3,54,5

Ghi ch : 1- Ngoi thnh phn cho trong bng, hn hp N
0
2: 1,5% mn
c-a, 3% bxit; hn hp N
0
4: 5% bt aming; hn hp N
0
5: 3050% hn hp ct c.
2- N-c thu tinh, dung dch NaOH, mn c-a, bt aming, bxit
v mazt cho vo ngoi 100%.

101

Bng 2. 12 : Hn hp ct mt ng rn nhanh dng kh CO
2

Thnh phn hn hp, % theo trng l-ng Tnh cht c - l
Gii hn bn, Mpa
Vt
c
Hn
hp
ct c
Ct
thch
anh
Bt
thch
anh
t
st
N-
c
thu

tinh
*
Dung
dch
NaOH
10%*
Tha
n
*
Ma
zt
*

th
ng
kh,
v.
Nn
Ko
sau
sy
Ko
sau
thi
CO
2


m,%
Nh
bng
gang
3050 4765 - 35 46 11,5 46 0,5 80 0,0220,030 0,5 0,2 34
Thp
yu
cu
cht
l-ng
b mt
cao
- 8189 1015 14 46 11,5 - 0,5 70 0,0200,040 0,6 0,2 34,5
Thp
v
gang
2130 6774 - 35 46 1,5 - 0,5 80 0,0200,035 0,6 0,2 34
Hp
kim
mu
3050 4765 - 35 46 11,5 - 0,5 50 0,0200,040 0,6 0,2 34

Ghi ch : * Cho vo ngoi 100%.











102
chng bm dnh ln mt mu ng-i ta dng mazut bi ln b mt mu.
Hn hp lm khun ct n-c thu tinh th-ng -c chun b trn my trn con
ln trc ng. u tin cho thnh phn liu kh vo v o trn 2 3 pht. Sau
cho dung dch NaOH vo tip tc o trn 2 - 3 pht na, ri cho n-c thu
tinh vo. Thi gian chun b hn hp ct n-c thu tinh tt c l 20 pht. Nu
trong thnh phn hn hp cn cho thm cht d ph rut th cht thm ny
phi cho vo sau ct v tr-c khi cho cc cht lng vo, c nh- vy cc ht mi
-c ph u cht dnh kt ln b mt.
Nh-c im ln nht ca hn hp ct - n-c thu tinh l kh ph rut, bi v
bn ca hn hp cao c lin quan n qu trnh nung nng khi rt hp kim
lng vo (hnh 2. 2). im cc i th nht ca bn hn hp ng vi khong
nhit t nhit phng n 200
0
C.


Hnh 2. 2.
Cng cn thit ph mu lm
bng hn hp ct n-c thu tinh.
1 - Hn hp sy 200
0
C.
2 - Hn hp dng kh CO
2
.

Tip tc nung nng, hn hp gim bn l do xut hin nhng vt nt trn lp
mng gel axit silic v lp ny mt m. im cc tiu th nht ng vi nhit t 400
- 800
0
C. nhit trn 800
0
C to thnh cng tinh d chy ( 21,6% Na
2
O v 73%SiO
2
)
do vy khi ngui cc ht ct s lin kt thnh khi cng cn tr s ph rut.
gim bn d- tha ny cn phi gim l-ng cng tinh d chy (cht ho
cng) trong hn hp, tc l gim l-ng n-c thu tinh n 4 -5% v dng cc cht thm
kh bn.
Cht thm kh bn -c chia thnh hai loi: hu c (A) v v c (). Trong
mi loi gm ba nhm. c tnh phn hu nhit cu cht thm hu c ph thuc
vo s nhm. S nhm cng tng th cng gim s to kh v tng l-ng
pirocacbon. Hn hp c thm cht kh bn -c trnh by trn bng 2. 13.
103
Bng 2. 13. Cht thm kh bn v thnh phn hn hp ct n-c thu tinh
d ph.
Thnh phn hn hp
Nhm

Cht thm kh bn
Thnh phn
Hm l-ng,
% theo
trngl-ng
Hn hp c thm cht kh bn loi A
B r-u sulfit vi =
1200g/dm
3
. Xt n da
s ch n pH 10 - 12
Ct thch anh
t st
Ngoi 100%: n-c thy tinh M 2,4
b r-u sulfit
98
2
6,0
0,1- 1,2
Hyrxyl (20%
hyrla v 80% n-c
thu tinh)
Ct thch anh
Hyrxyl
100
6






1

V ht h-ng d-ng
Ct thch anh
N-c thy tinh
Dung dch xt n da
V ht h-ng d-ng nghin nh
100
5
1
1-2
Nha than
Hn hp trn c s n-c thu tinh *
Nha than
100
2-3
Nha cy
Hn hp trn c s n-c thu tinh *
Nha cy
100
2-3



2
Dung dch bitum
trong xng
Hn hp trn c s n-c thu tinh *
Dung dch bitum trong xng
100
2-3
104


Nha punve baklit
Ct K010, K016
t st
N-c thu tinh
Dung dch xt n da
Nha punve baklit
100
0,6
5,0
1,5
1,0


Nha do nhit
Ct thch anh
N-c thu tinh
Nng 20-65% nha do nhit
trong dung mi
100
0,5-6
1-5
Plistirol
[-CH
2
CH(C
6
H
5
)-]
n
Hn hp trn c s n-c thu tinh *
Polistirol
100
1



3
Naptalin C
10
H
8

(long no)
Hn hp trn c s n-c thu tinh*
Naptalin
100
1
Ghi ch:
* Hn hp trn c s n-c thu tinh gm: ct thch anh 100%, cho thm ( tnh theo
% trng l-ng ) n-c thu tinh 5 - 6,5%; 0,5 - 2,0% dung dch xt n da c nng
10 - 20%

Hn hp c thm cht kh bn loi

t st nung
800-900
0
C
Ct thch anh
t st qua nung
Dung dch xt n da
N-c thu tinh
81,2 - 84,5
8 - 11
1,3 - 1,5
6,0 - 6,5






1


Hyroxt nhm
Ct thch anh
N-c thu tinh
Dung dch xt n da
t st
Hyroxit nhm
100
4,3
1,0
2,0
1,9
105
Bentlit Hn hp trn c s n-c thu tinh
Bentlit
100
2,4

X l cao Hn hp trn c s n-c thu tinh
X l cao
100
10 - 15
X fr crm Hn hp trn c s n-c thu tinh
X fr crm
100
0,5-7



2


Phosphorit
Ct
N-c thu tinh
Mazut
N-c
Phosphorit
100
6,5
0,5
1,0
3,0
Bt aming Hn hp trn c s n-c thu tinh
Bt aming
100
3-5



3

Vecmiculit
Ct 1K016A, K02
N-c thu tinh
Dung dch bitum trong xng (1:1)
Vecmiculit
100
6,5-7
2-2,5
7-10
Tc dng ca cht thm kh bn v c trong hn hp ct n-c thu tinh ch
nhit trn 800
0
C. Tnh d ph ca hn hp tr nn tt hn khi dng n-c
thu tinh c m un 4 - 4,5. Mun vy phi dng HCl chuyn ~ 18% kim v
mui clorua natri.
ri ca hn hp ct - n-c thu tinh dng kh CO
2
v c bit nung nng
ho cng rt thp, gn vi ri ca hn hp ct - du. nhit cao ri
ca hn hp ct - n-c thu tinh tng ln 2 - 3 ln, trong khi hn hp ct - du
khi nung nng mt bn.

2.4.2 Hn hp t ng rn dng do ()
Hn hp ct - n-c thu tinh dng kh CO
2
s ng rn xy ra do tc dng
ca CO
2
vi thu tinh lng. Cn s ng rn ca hn hp do ny l do tc dng
ca cht ng rn vi cht dnh kt.
Trong hn hp ng rn dng do (HCC) cht dnh kt l n-c thu tinh; cc
hyrt tinh th; v lignsunfonat.
106
Hn hp ng rn dng do (HCC) trn c s cht dnh kt l n-c thu tinh
c quy trnh cng ngh chun b hn hp t-ng t nh- hn hp ct - n-c thu
tinh dng kh CO
2
ng rn. Cht ng rn cho vo o trn v -a n ch
lm khun ngay sau . ng rn hn hp ct - n-c thu tinh ng-i ta dng
vt liu v c c phn tn cao v cc te hu c lng.
Qu trnh chun b hn hp c hai giai on. Giai on th nht chun b hn
hp trn c s ct - n-c thu tinh (khng c cht ng rn) dng my trn con
ln trc ng. Th t cho liu vo my trn ging nh- trn hn hp dng kh
CO
2
. Giai on hai thc hin trn my trn gung xon c, hn hp ct - n-c
thu tinh -c trn u vi cht ng rn ri chuyn n ch lm khun hay rut.
Hn hp ng rn dng do dng lm hn hp ct mt, phn cn li ca hm
khun c th dng hn hp ct m. Nu dng hn hp ny lm rut cn phi cho
thm cht gim bn, th-ng dng nht l x fer crm ( bng 2. 14 ) v bt fer silic. Th
d, Nht th-ng s dng hn hp c cht ng rn l fer silic c thnh phn sau:
6,5% n-c thu tinh c mt 1300 g/dm
3
, mun 2 v 2% bt fer silic cha 75% Si,
cn li l ct.
lm khun c nhng vt c ln bng thp cht ng rn dng cho hn
hp ny l ste axit cacbonic.
Hn hp ng rn dng do dng xi mng. Hn hp ny th-ng dng c
cc vt c ln v nng. Thnh phn n gin nht ca hn hp ny gm ct
thch anh, xi mng pooclng v n-c. i khi ng-i ta dng hn hp ct c thay
mt phn ct mi (bng 2. 15). Thi gian ng rn ca hn hp ngoi khng kh
t 24 - 72 gi, thi gian ng rn ph thuc vo kch th-c khun, nhit o
trn.
Qu trnh ng rn xi mng xy ra do s lng cc hyrt tinh th t dung
dch n-c qu bo ho v to nn khung tinh th bn vng. Nn dng Na
2
CO
3

ch bn hn hp, bi v Na
2
CO
3
vi n-c to ra hyrt tinh th c thnh phn
thay i Na
2
CO
3
x nH
2
O dng lm cht dnh kt. Thnh phn ti -u ca hn hp
tnh theo trng l-ng l: Ct thch anh 94 - 95%; Na
2
CO
3
5 - 6%, trn 100% cho
cc cht CC 3 - 4% v n-c 4 - 5%. Hn hp ny c th dng lm khun c
hp kim en v hp kim mu.
107
Bng 2. 14. Hn hp ng rn do (HCC) c cht x fer crm.

Thnh phn hn hp, % theo th tch

Vt
c

Hn
hp
Ct
thch
anh
Ct ti
sinh
t
st
Bt
than

N-c
thu
tinh
Dung
dch
NaOH,
mt
1300g/dm
3

X fer
crm
Ln
(lm
khun
trn
h)
1 46 - 47 46 - 47 4 - 5 2,5 5,7 0,4 - 0,8 1 - 1,2
Trung
bnh
(lm
khun
bng
my)
2 46 - 47 46 - 47 4 - 5 2,5 5,7 0,4 - 0,8 2,5 - 3
Trung
bnh v
ln
(lm
khun
bng
my
theo
dy
truyn)
3 93,5 - 3,4 -
4,5
2,5 5,7 0,4 - 0,8 2,6 -3,4
Nh-
trn
4 97,5 - - 2,5 5,7 0,4 - 0,8 3,8 -4,6
Ghi ch: N-c thu tinh, dung dch xt n da v x fer crm cho vo ngoi
100%.


108
Bng 2. 15. Hn hp xi mng cho vt c ln v nng

Thnh phn,% theo trng l-ng Tnh cht sau khi
ng cng ngoi
khng kh 15 -
20
0
C, sau 10 h



Vt c

Ct
1K 0315A

Ct
1K 02A

Hn
hp
ct
c

Xi mng
pooclng

thng
kh. .v.
Gii hn
bn nn
MPa

Thi
gian
ng
rn
(gi)
88 - 90 - - 10 - 12 350 0,5 - 0,6 50 - 70 - Bng
thp rt
nng v
phc
tp

- 61 - 62 30 8 - 9 300 0,3 - 0,4 48 - Thp
ch to
my
nng

41 - 42 - 50 8 - 9 300 0,3 - 0,4 36

- Gang
c khi
l-ng
ln,
nng
trn
1 tn

- 30 - 32 60 8 - 10 200 0,3 - 0,4 50 - 70 - Bng
Brng
c khi
l-ng
ln,
nng
trn
1 tn

109
2.4.3. Hn hp bt nho t ng rn ( HCC )
Dng hn hp ny lm khun hay rut khng cn phi m cht, ng-i ta rt
trc tip hn hp bt nho ny vo hm khun hay hp rut. lm tng tnh
chy long ca hn hp ng-i ta cho thm cc cht hot tnh b mt ( HAB ) c
kh nng sinh ra cc bt nh. Cc bt ny lm gim lc ma st gia cc ht v
chng c kh nng d dch chuyn do tc dng ca lc trng tr-ng.
Ct mi c th thay mt phn bng ct ti sinh, vi l-ng t st trong n
khng v-t qu 1%. L-ng t st cao v phn bi c trong ct s lm gim tnh
chy long ng k ca hn hp v km theo s ht m ln.
Hn hp bt nho c n-c thu tinh. Nhit ca ct phi khng -c v-t
qu 30
0
C. Nu nhit cao hn s lm cho tnh chy long ca hn hp v tnh
bn ca bt gim, ri cao ln.
Cht ng rn dng cho hn hp ny l x fer crm. Cn cht to bt th-ng
dng l: C - PAC, HPB v cc cht AB khc... iu chnh tnh bn vng ca
bt ng-i ta dng cc cht n nh hay cht kh bt. Nhit gia cc ma trong
nm thay i ln cng nh h-ng n tnh chy long, thi gian ng cng ca
hn hp v tnh bn vng ca bt. n nh tnh cht ca hn hp HCC trong
mi tr-ng c nhit thay i ng-i ta phi iu chnh thnh phn hn hp. Ma
h nng cn phi gim cht hot tnh b mt v cht ng rn v tng cht n nh
bt. Hn hp c l-ng bt qu cao cn phi sn khun v rut cn thn. Trng
l-ng ring ca hn hp ng rn bt nho ph thuc vo chiu cao ct p v nm
trong gii hn t 1250 - 1400 kg/m
3
. Hn hp ng rn bt nho c nhiu bt nn
d ph khun, rut hn so vi hn hp ct n-c thu tinh dng kh CO
2
ho
rn v hn hp ng rn dng do ( HCC ). nng cao tnh d ph khun, rut
ca hn hp bt nho ng rn ng-i ta cho thm cc cht hu c kh bn. Nhng
cht thm ny lm xu tnh chy long v bn ca hn hp.
Hn hp bt nho ng rn dng xi mng. Nh-c im ln nht ca hn hp
ny l qu trnh ng rn ca hn hp trong thit b ko di v qu trnh ho bn
chm. Nu l-ng xi mng dng trong hn hp ln n 8 - 10% th phi em
khun, rut vo l sy. tng c-ng qu trnh ng rn ca hn hp ng-i ta
dng cht lm tng tc ho rn ca xi mng nh-: alumint, cacbonnt v
hxamtalftfat natri. Cc cht ny phi em nghin nh cng vi xi mng.
Thnh phn ca hn hp -c trnh by trong bng 2. 16.
110
Hn hp bt nho ng rn c men sunfit ( ). Thnh phn c bn
ca hn hp ny l ct thch anh 1K0135. Tnh -u vit ca hn hp ny l
cht dnh kt r, khng c hi. Dch men sunfit trong hn hp va c tc
dng dnh kt va c tc dng to bt. Ph thuc vo thnh phn c bn ca
dch men m hiu sut to bt -c xp theo th t sau: Na > NH
4
> Ca-Na >
Ca.
Cc tp cht c trong cht kh bt nh h-ng n bn vng ca bt
trong hn hp dng dch men. Nu dng hn hp ct c th khng -c dng
hn hp ct - n-c thu tinh. Hn hp ct - n-c thu tinh chim 7-10% s lm
cho hn hp bt nho khng ho rn -c bng men sunfit. Thnh phn hn hp
bt nho dng dch men sunfit -c trnh by trong bng 2. 17.
2.5. Hn hp ct - nha ng rn ngui ( XTC )
Hn hp ct - nha ng rn ngui (XTC) -c ch bin trn c s ct thch
anh c hm l-ng t st khng ln hn 0,5% v m 0,3 - 0,5%. m cao s
lm chm qu trnh ng rn ca hn hp. trnh s trung ho cc b cht xc
tc axit, pH ca ct khng -c v-t qu 7. Nhit ca ct phi gi trong
khong t 18 - 30
0
C. nhit trn 30
0
C thi gian sng ca hn hp gim
xung rt nhanh, cn nhit thp hn 18
0
C s lm chm qu trnh ng rn
ca hn hp. Hn hp ct - nha ng rn ngui rt c li cho vic lm rut. Do
gi thnh cht dnh kt cao v kh ti sinh hn hp, nn vic dng hn hp ct -
nha ng rn ngui lm khun ch thc s kinh t khi t l khi l-ng ca
khun trn khi l-ng kim loi rt c khng v-t qu 3:1.
2.5.1. Hn hp ng rn ngui trn c s nha cacbamt
Thnh phn c bn ca hn hp l ct thch anh 1K02A/ vi nha cacbamit
loi Ku-. Hm l-ng cc cht nha cho thm vo -c trnh by trong bng
2.18.
2.5.2. Hn hp ng rn ngui trn c s nha cacbamit - furan
Hn hp trn c s cc loi nha ny (xem bng 2. 19, 2. 20) -c dng
c cc vt c bng gang. Nu tng hm l-ng r-u furil th bn nhit v tt
nhin l bn ca vt liu tng. ng thi cng lm tng thi gian ng cng
ca rut.
111


Bng 2. 16. Thnh phn hn hp bt nho ng rn dng xi mng vi cht hot
tnh ng rn.


Thnh phn c bn Cc cht hot ho ng rn
Hn
hp
Ct
thch
anh
Xi mng
Pooclng
Cht to
bt
N-c
Magi
clorua
Nhm
ax tat
Kali
ccbo-
nat
Aluminat
natri
Xt
n
da
N-c
mt
Canxi
xit
Cht
hot
ha
phc
hp
*
1
2
3
4
5
90
92,6
92,6
100
100
10,0
7,4
7,4
8,0
9,0
0,1
0,15
0,18
0,18
0,2
0,1
-
-
-
9
3 5
-
0,5
1,0
-
-
-
0,5
0,5
-
-
1,5 2
-
-
-
-
0,6 0,9
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0,2
-
-
-
-
-
3
-
-
-
-
0,6
-
-
-
2
-

Ghi ch:
*
Cht hot ho phc hp l sn phm thiu kt gia ferit v aluminat
natri, canxi silict v nhm silict vi b mt 3500cm
2
/g



112



Bng 2. 17. Thnh phn hn hp bt nho ng rn dng dch men Sunfit.


Cht thm
*
ngoi 100%
% theo trng l-ng
thng kh, v.
Hn
hp

N-c
thu
tinh
-


X fer
crm
Dung
dch
10%
alhyrit
crm
Axit
sunfuric
Cht n
nh -
7
Sau 2 gi
Sau 24
gi
1
2
3
6
6
7,07,5
-
-
2,02,5
0,4
0,4
-
-
-
0,40,6
-
-
0,60,7
1,0
1,0
-
-
0,2
-
0,05
0,05
-
-
-
90120
200
200
-
Ghi ch : * Thnh phn c bn l ct thch anh 1K0315 (100%).














113
Bng 2. 18. Hn hp ng rn ngui trn c s cacbamt loi Ku-

Cc cht thm, ngoi 100% theo trng l-ng
N
0
Hn
hp
Nha Ku -
(M19 - 62,
- ,
)
Axit octoftfo
nng
45 -50%

Clorua st
Cht ng rn tc
dng tng hp
1 3,0 - 5,0 0,9 - 1,5 - -
2 3,0 - 5,0 - 0,3 - 0,8 -
3 2,5 - 3,5 - - 0,6 - 1,5

Bng 2. 19. XTC trn c s nha cacbamit-furan.
Cc cht thm ngoi 100%
theo trng l-ng
N
0

Hn
hp C - 40
Axit octoftfo
t trng
1560-1570


Vt c
1 - 0,6
2 1,9 - 2,0 1,1
Sn xut lot nh bng gang, khi l-ng
rut s 40kg
3 1,9 - 2,0 0,8 Sn xut lot trung bnh bng gang, khi
l-ng rut s 250kg
4 1,9 - 2,0 0,6
5 - 1,1
Sn xut n chic vt c to, khi l-ng
rut s 1500kg
6 - 1,2 - 1,5
7 - 1,3 - 1,5
Sn xut lot trung bnh bng gang
Ghi ch: 1). Ngoi thnh phn -c lit k trong bng hn hp N
0
- 1; 5; 6 v
7 cn cha cht thm t-ng ng l: 2,3 - 2,5% C-20; 1,5-1,7% C-70, 2,0%
Ku107 v 2,5% Ku-90.
2) m ca hn hp 0,3 - 0,5%.
114
Phn ln hn hp trn c s nha cacbamit-furan vi chu k ng cng
trung bnh -c s dng trong sn xut n chic hay sn xut lot nh, n cho
php l-u gi rut trn thit b trong khong thi gian t 30 - 40 pht.
Bng 2. 20. XTC trn c s nha cacbamit-furan

Cht thm ngoi 100% theo trng l-ng N
0

Hn
hp

Furitol -
8

Furitol -
107

Furitol -
125

KCu -1
Nng
70% dung
dch axit
Octoftfo
trong n-c
Nng
70% dung
dch axit
Benzel
sunfat trong
n-c
1 2,0 - 2,5 - - - - 0,6 - 0,8
2 - 2,0 - - 0,7 - 0,8 -
3 - 2,0 - - - 0,6 - 0,8
4 - - 2,0 - 1,0 -
5 - - - 2,4 - 2,5 0,6 - 0,7 -
Ghi ch: Dng ct thch anh 1K02 A/

2.5.3. XTC trn c s nha fnolformalhit.
Hn hp ng rn ngui trn c s nha fenolformalhit dng sn xut vt c
gang v thp. Tc ng rn ca hn hp trn c s nha Ou -1 rt nhanh nu dng
cht xc tc khan (khng c n-c). Nhng hn hp ng rn dng nha Ou-1 c cho
thm silan (mc 112-23) v cht xc tc khan HT s ng rn sau thi gian 30 - 40 giy.
Hn hp ny lm rut nh rt c li trong sn xut lot ln c gang v thp. Thnh
phn ca cht dnh kt v cht xc tc -c trnh by trong bng 2. 21.
2.5.4. XTC trn c s nha fnol - furan
XTC trn c s nha fnol-furan dng lm rut nhng vt c ln bng
gang v thp. Thnh phn c bn ca hn hp l ct thch anh K02 hoc K016.
Ngoi nha fnol-furan v cc cht xc tc cn c cc cht iu chnh thi
gian ng rn nh- Silan 112- 23, A M-9.
115
Bng 2. 21. XTC trn c s nha fnol-formalhit
Cht dnh kt v cht xc tc
N
0
Hn
hp

Ou -1

Cu -3042
CK hoc
HTCK
(65-85%
trong
n-c)
CK
( 75%
trong
n-c)

CKM
Thi
gian
sng ca
hn hp
( pht )

Thi
gian
ng rn
trong
hm
khun
(pht)
1 2,0-2,5 - 1,2 - 1,4 - - 8-9 35-40
2 - 2,0 - 2,5 - 0,9-1,6 - 5-8 40
3 2,0 - - - 1,5 6-10 s 30-40 s
Ghi ch: Ct thch anh 100%. Cht dnh kt v cht xc tc cho vo trn
100%
Hn hp trn c s nha fnol-furan c sinh kh thp (7-12cm
3
/g) v
thng kh cao (250-280 .v.). Cc hn hp tnh theo % trng l-ng:
Hn hp N
0
1: Nha uu-1uMM ( 2,0 - 2,5% ); dung dch CK hoc HTCK
nng 65 - 80% trong n-c (0,4 - 0,7%).
Hn hp N
0
2: Nha uu-1u (2,0 - 2,5%); dung dch CK hoc HTCK nng
65-80% trong n-c (0,6 - 0,9% ).
Hn hp N
0
3: Nha uu-1C (2,5% ); dung dch XCK nng 64% trong
n-c (1,6% ).
Hn hp N
0
4: Nha uu-1u (2,5%); cht xc tc CKM, HBT hoc HBT
(1,4-1,6%); AIM-9 (0,5-1,0%); Silan 112-23 (0,2-0,4% ).
Cc hn hp N
0
1; 2; 3 dng lm rut vi phc tp t cp II n cp V,
trong sn xut n chic hay sn xut lot nh cho vt c bng gang hay thp.
Hn hp N
0
4 dng lm rut cho vt c thp hay gang trong sn xut lot ln
hay hng khi. o trn thnh phn ca hn hp theo th t sau: u tin cho
cht xc tc vo ct o trn sau mt pht mi cho nha vo. Nu cho nha vo
ct o trn tr-c sau mi cho cht xc tc th thi gian sng ca hn hp gim
rt nhanh.
116
2.6. Hn hp lm rut ng rn qua sy
Ngoi nhng thnh phn hn hp cp trong mc 2.4 v 2.5 lm
khun, rut cho cc vt c, ng-i ta cn dng cc hn hp ng rn qua sy
lm rut. Ph thuc vo mc phc tp ca rut m ng-i ta chn thnh phn
hn hp cho ph hp. Hn hp lm rut ng rn qua sy -c chia ra thnh cc
nhm sau: Hn hp ct-du; hn hp dng cht dnh kt tng hp khng c n-c
(khan); hn hp dng cht dnh kt c n-c; hn hp ct - t st.
Thnh phn hn hp lm rut ct- t st so vi hn hp ct-t st lm
khun kh khc nhau cht t. Vi mc ch nng cao tnh ln v kh nng ph
khun ng-i ta cho thm cc cht gim bn v mt s cht dnh kt c n-c
nng cao bn kh. Hn hp ct-t st th-ng dng lm rut c phc
tp cp IV, cp V trong vt c thp, gang v hp kim mu.
2.6.1. Hn hp ct-du
ch bin hn hp ct-du lm rut ng-i ta dng ct thch anh vi cht
dnh kt l du thc vt, 4IY, OXM v CC . Hn hp -c trn u trn my
trn con ln hay my trn cnh qut. Trnh t cho liu vo o trn l: Ct, n-c,
cht dnh kt. Nhit sy 200 - 220
0
C. sinh kh ca hn hp ct-du t 10 -
12 cm
3
/g.
Cc cht dnh kt trong thnh phn hn hp ct-du (tr OXM )u t, cho
nn chng dn dn -c thay th bi cc cht dnh kt tng hp. Thnh phn hn
hp -c trnh by trong bng 2. 22.
2.6.2. Hn hp lm rut trn c s cht dnh kt tng hp khan
lm rut trn c s cht dnh kt tng hp khan ng-i ta dng ct thch
anh 1K02 ; 1K016. Cht dnh kt dng cho hn hp loi ny l KO, YCK-1.
Hn hp c tnh chy cao trng thi ch-a ng rn v d m cht bng ph-ng
php thi ct, cho nn -c ng dng tt trong sn xut lot ln. nng cao tc
sy rut lm bng cht dnh kt KO nn cho thm 0,5% Natri nitrt ( NaNO
3
)
hoc 0,1% clorua amn. Cht dnh kt YCK-1 lin kt tt vi C lm tng
bn ca hn hp trng thi m v nng cao nhit sy rut ln 240-250
0
C.
Trnh t cht liu cho vo my trn nh- sau: ct, t st, C sau l cht
dnh kt khng c du. sinh kh ca hn hp cha 3% KO l 6 cm
3
/g, cn hn
hp cha cht dnh kt YCK-1 l 8-9 cm
3
/g. Kh nng ht m ca hn hp khng
117
ln hn 0,3% trong thi gian 2 ngy ngoi khng kh. Thnh phn hn hp
lm rut trn c s cht dnh kt tng hp khan -c trnh by trong bng 2. 23.

Bng 2. 22. Hn hp lm rut ct du

Cc cht thm cho vo ct thch anh
(ngoi 100% ) theo trng l-ng %.
Cht dnh kt

N
0
Hn
hp
Du thc
vt hay
du trng
hp
4IY
OXM CC

Hm
l-ng
t st
%.

m
%.


thng
kh, .v.
Lm rut c phc tp cp I
1 1,5 - 2,5 - - -
s 1,0
1 - 3 130-150
2 - 1,5 - 2,5 - -
s 2,0
1 - 3 130-150
3 - 2,5 -3,0 - 1,5 -3,0
s 2,0
2 - 3
>120
4 - - 2,0 -3,0 2,5 - 2 - 3
>140
Lm rut c phc tp cp II
5

- 2,0 - 4,0 - 2,0- 3,0 2,0 -
5,0
2 - 4
>100

2.6.3. Hn hp lm rut trn c s cht dnh kt cha n-c
Trong thnh phn hn hp lm rut, cc cht dnh kt cha n-c dng kt
hp vi n-c hoc vi cht dnh kt khan cho vo nng cao tnh cng ngh. V
d, cht dnh kt KBC-2, KB dng kt hp vi t st, CC hoc C, cn
tng nhanh qu trnh sy rut ng-i ta cho thm vo hn hp mui Nitrt.
Thnh phn ca hn hp lm rut trn c s cht dnh kt kh nhanh -c
trnh by trong bng 2. 24.

118
Bng 2. 23. Hn hp lm rut trn c s cht dnh kt tng hp khan KO v CK 1

Cht thm cho vo ct thch anh ( ngoi 100%)
KO CK-1 CC ,C Tu
N
0
Hn
hp
% theo trng l-ng

m %

thng
kh .v.
1
**
3,1- 3,9 - 1,9 - 2,3 - 1,8 - 2,3
> 100
2 - 3 3 - 2,5 - 3.0 > 75
3 - 3 - 3 1,2 - 1,5 > 100
4 - 3 1,5 1,5 2,0 - 2,5 > 90
Ghi ch: ** Cha 0,2 0,4 % du ho.
Bng 2. 24
Thnh phn % theo trng l-ng
Cht thm ngoi 100%

N
0
Hn
hp

Ct
Hn
hp ti
sinh
Bt
thch
anh
KB;
KBC-2
Nitrt C
Dung dch
mazt trong du
ho
1 71 29 - 3,5 0,3 5 -
2 93 - 7 2,5 0,35 3 0,5
3 90 - - 2,3 - 2,7 0,5
4 80 17 - 3 - 2 -
5 - 33,1 - 3,5 - 2,5 -
6 - 50 - 2 - 1,5 -
Ghi ch: Hn hp N
0
1 v 5 c 0,5% mazut v 1,5% ht aming.
Hn hp N
0
3 c 10% ct -t st, 7% bt thch anh.
Hn hp N
0
4 c 3% t st.
Hn hp N
0
5 c 66,9% ct thch anh 1K02A.
Hn hp N
0
6 c 50% ct 2K0135.
119

Ch-ng 3
Cht sn khun, va trt, keo dn v cht
rc
m bo cht l-ng khun c cng nh- cht l-ng vt c t tiu
chun k thut v m bo quy trnh k thut khi rp khun, ghp ni rut ng-i
ta phi s dng cc cht sn khun, va trt, keo dn v cht rc.
3.1. Cng dng ca cht sn khun
Khun v rut ch to xong th-ng phi sn, trt mt lp vt liu trnh
khuyt tt chy dnh ct. Cht sn khun -c sn ln b mt khun hay rut vi
mc ch nhm tng bn b mt, gim tnh b ti ca khun v rut; m bo
b mt vt c nhn p hay hp kim ho lp b mt vt c theo mong mun.
Ni tm li cng dng ca cht sn khun l:
1) Tng bn b mt v trnh cho khun (rut) khi b st l;
2) m bo bng b mt ca vt c khng cn gia cng;
3) Trnh chy dnh ct;
4) m bo cho lp b mt vt c c nhng tnh cht theo yu cu (sn hp
kim ho b mt ).
Cc cht sn khun phi c nhng tnh cht sau:
a) C nhit nng chy cao khng b bin mm khi tip xc vi kim
loi lng.
b) Khng to ra hp cht d chy khi cht sn tip xc vi kim loi c.
c) Khng b bin i thnh phn trong qu trnh ch bin, ct gi, qut ln
b mt khun, rut tr-c khi rt c.
d) C kh nng rc ph tt v c nht nht nh khng to thnh nhng
vt chy (git) trn b mt sau khi sn.
e) Lp sn qut ln b mt khun, rut khng b nt, v khi sy.
g) Khng trc thnh lp khi b mt khun, rut.
h) Khng cha nhng tp cht c hi v nhng thnh phn t, him.
120
i)Kh nng sinh kh thp nhit cao trnh to ra r khi trong vt c.
k) D nghin thnh ht mn (bi ).
Mun ch to cht sn khun c th no phi bit -c tnh cht ca hp
kim c, khi l-ng phi v cch ch to khun.
Ngoi cc cht sn khun ng-i ta cn dng cc loi h, va m cng dng
cng t-ng t nh- sn, nh-ng cng ngh qut ln mt khun, rut li khc.
Khun rut -c sn ph bng bm phun, nhng hay dng chi lng qut, cn h
va v c hn nn phi qut bng chi lng hoc bng bay trt, c khi bng tay.
H va cn dng trt kn cc mp ni khi gn rut. Rut -c gn ni bng
cc loi keo c bit, cc loi keo ny khng nhng phi ni vng chc rut li
vi nhau m cn phi c kh nng sinh kh nh nht.
3.2. Thnh phn ca cht sn khun, va trt
Cc cht sn khun v h va cng ging nh- hn hp lm khun, rut gm
nhng thnh phn ht, cht dnh v nhng cht thm c bit.
3.2.1. Thnh phn ht
Thnh phn ht ca cc cht sn c th l vt liu nng chy, khng nng
chy v khuch tn.
Vt liu khng nng chy th-ng l cc hp cht v c bn ho hc nhit
cao v c hot tnh yu vi kim loi rt vo. lm cc vt liu nh- vy ng-i
ta th-ng dng bt thch anh, crmit, crmmanhzit, corun, ziricon. Vt liu
khng nng chy cng c th c ngun gc hu c: than ci, than , than cc,
antraxit, graphit.
Nhng vt liu nng chy l nhng loi tr dung, x hp kim fer c tc dng
ho hc mnh vi kim loi rt vo. Chng th-ng -c dng dng sn qut hay
va trt ln b mt khun hay rut hp kim ho b mt vt c bng ph-ng
php hn p. Lp h va trn b mt khun, rut s nng chy nh nhit ca
kim loi, v sau khi ng s hn gn vo b mt vt c. Nhng cht trong thnh
phn ca sn hay h va to thnh dung dch vi kim loi vt c. Th-ng vi
mc ch ng-i ta hay dng cc loi hp kim fer cha cc bon cao. Nhng
vt liu nng chy cng c th cho vo trong thnh phn ca cc cht sn, h va
chng chy dnh ct.
121
Vt liu khuch tn cho vo trong thnh phn ca cc cht sn v h va
cng nhm mc ch hp kim ho b mt vt c. Nhng vt liu ny phi cha
nguyn t hp kim c kh nng to thnh dung dch rn vi kim loi vt c v v
th cn phi c bn knh nguyn t nh. Nhng nguyn t thuc loi ny gm c:
cacbon, telua, bo, l-u hunh. Cc bon cho vo sn dng than ci, telua cho vo
sn dng bt qua sng s 005, l-u hunh cho vo dng l-u hunh hoa
(dng bt tinh khit ).
3.2.2. Cht thm dnh kt
Cc cht thm dnh kt trong cc cht sn th-ng dng t st hay cc loi
cht dnh ho tan trong n-c nh- n-c b giy, polivinilbutiran, n-c thu tinh,
extrin, mt -ng. t st cho vo sn ngn nga s tch lp ca sn. Song
nu l-ng t st cho vo qu nhiu th s lm cho sn b rn nt; tt nht l dng
loi t st mnmrilnit (bentlit) kt hp vi cc cht dnh ho tan trong n-c.
i vi cht sn kh nhanh th-ng dng cho khun ct n-c thu tinh
c thp, cc cht dnh c nha thng, dextrin ho tan trong cn hoc xng. Loi
sn ny pha trn xong phi bo qun cn thn xa la phng chy.
3.2.3. Cc cht thm c bit
Cc cht thm c bit th-ng dng ngn nga s tch lp ca sn.
Nhng cht thm l nhng cht gy nh t-ng nh- 0,1- 0,2% x phng
naptenic hoc 0,1% mui n. C nhng cht thm c bit ngn nga s phn
hu ca sn khi ct gi. Vi mc ch ng-i ta cho thm vo trong sn 0,01-
0,02 % formalin trnh hin t-ng ln men ca sn khi dng n-c mt lm cht
dnh kt.
3.2.4. Cc cht lng ho sn
Ng-i ta th-ng dng n-c ho sn, i vi loi sn kh nhanh th dng
cc cht lng d bay hi nh- te, xng, axton. nht ca sn, kh nng thm
vo cc l rng trn b mt khun ca n ph thuc vo l-ng n-c. L-ng n-c
so vi khi l-ng cc thnh phn kh th-ng chim t 50 n 200%. Khi thm
trn100% n-c so vi cc thnh phn kh s xy ra hin t-ng sn phn lp.
L-ng n-c cho vo sn -c kim tra theo t trng ca sn trng thi lng
nh t trng k.
122
3.3. Cc loi sn khun
3.3.1. Sn tng bn
i vi khun v rut b mt c b ti cao cn phi sn mt lp sn
lm tng bn b mt. Sn tng bn th-ng gm cc dung dch n-c ca cc
cht dnh hu c nh- extrin, n-c b giy, keo pectin, mt -ng v mt s cht
khc (bng 3. 1 ). Khi sn khun, rut nhng cht sn ny s thm vo mt
su no trong lp b mt v lin kt chc cc ht ct li vi nhau.
Bng 3. 1 .Thnh phn cc loi sn tng bn, % trng l-ng.
Cc loi
sn
N-c b
giy
Keo peclin Dextrin N-c Trng l-ng
ring ca sn
g/cm
3
1 25 - - 75 1,1
2 - 25 - 75 1,1
3 - - 10 90 1,08

3.3.2.Sn lm tng bng b mt vt c
Cc loi sn lm tng bng b mt vt c th-ng dng khi c cc hp
kim nhm v magi. Sn bao gm cc cht c kh nng lm gim nhm (
sn si) ca b mt khun, rut v ngn cn s thm ca kim loi lng v cc l
khun.
i vi cc loi sn dng cho rut c cc vt c bng hp kim magi,
ng-i ta cn cho thm cc cht chng oxy ho. Thnh phn ca mt s loi sn
ny -c trnh by trong bng 3. 2. Cc loi sn N
0
1 v N
0
2 dng cho cc vt c
bng hp kim nhm. Sn Kp-1dng cho cc rut khi c cc vt c bng hp
kim magi, nhng rut ny khng -c sy nhit cao qu 180
0
C. Sn Kp-2
v Kp-3 dng cho cc rut ca cc vt c bng hp kim magi, khi sy phi
nung n nhit 220 - 250
0
C.
Cch pha trn sn n-c nh- sau: em cc cht kh trn tr-c 2- 4 pht, sau
mi cho cht dnh trng thi lng v n-c vo trn cho n khi thnh bt
123
nho, thi gian trn t 8 - 48 h. Cho bt nho vo thng sch bo qun, khi
dng th pha thm n-c n t trng cn thit, th-ng l t 1,1 - 1,08.
Nu c dng mt th phi cho formalin vo vi t l 1% trnh ln men. Khi
sn phi qut 2 - 3 ln , ch hay b chy dnh ct phi sn dy hn. Sau khi qut
sn xong phi hong kh t nht l 4 gi tr ln.

Bng 3. 2. Thnh phn cc loi sn lm tng bng b mt vt c bng
hp kim Al v Mg,% trng l-ng.
Loi
sn
N-c
thu
tinh
Bt talk Bentnit
Cht
thm
Florua
Axit
boric
Cht
dnh M
N-c
N
0
1 10 20 - - - - 70
N
0
2 - 27 3 - - - 70
Kp-1 - 7-10 - 18 20 - - 70 - 75
Kp-2 - 7-10 - - 3 - 10 - 80 - 85
Kp-3 - - - - 3 - 5 20 75 - 77

3.3.3. Cc loi sn v va chng chy dnh ct
Cc loi sn v va ny dng sn v trt ln khun, rut khi c gang v
thp. u tin ng-i ta ch to thnh va, sau em va pha thnh sn. Dng
va I -1, I - 2, I - 3 pha thnh sn sn khun v rut cho cho vt c
gang, cn dng va CT-1, CT-2, CT-3 pha thnh sn sn khun, rut cc vt
c bng thp (bng 3. 3).
Khi lm khun v rut bng cc hn hp n-c thu tinh trn mt vt c s
c ct chy dnh. khc phc tnh trng nn dng thnh phn va v sn c
bit trong bng 3. 4.
Chu k ch to khun rut s rt ngn nu dng cc loi sn t kh (sn kh
nhanh) xem bng 3. 5.
124
Cch pha trn sn t kh nh- sau: nghin nha thng, cho cn hoc xng vo
ho tan, sau cho dextrin, bt thch anh hoc bt magzit vo khuy k. Sn
pha trn xong phi bo qun cn thn xa la phng chy.
Bng 3. 3. Thnh phn cc loi va, % trng l-ng.
Thnh phn ht Cht dnh
K
hiu
va
Bt
thch
anh
Phn
ch en
Bentnit Dextrin
N-c
b giy

N-c
Khi
l-ng
ring
g/cm
3

I -1 - 60 3,5 3,5 - 33 1,4 - 1,45
I - 2
I - 3 - 58,5 2,5 - 10 28 -
CT-1 70,5 - 3,0 1,5 - 25 1,6 - 1,65
CT-2
CT-3 70,0 - 3,0 - 10 17 1,6 - 1,65
Bng 3. 4. Thnh phn sn v va i vi khun v rut lm bng hn hp n-c
thu tinh
Thnh phn ht Cht thm dnh kt
Loi
va
Phn
ch
en
Phn
ch
trng
Bt
Ziricon
Bt
thch
anh

Bentnit
N-c
b
giy
Dung
dch n-c
cn -ng

N-c
1 43,5 15,0 - - 3,5 10,0 - 28,0
2 43,5 - - - 3,5 10,0 - 13,0
3 - - 90 - 2 8 - 30,0
4 - - - 60 1,0 - 39,0 -
5 27,0 13,0 - - 2,5 7,5 - 50,0
125
Bng 3. 5. Cht sn kh nhanh cho khun ct - n-c thu tinh.
Loai sn
Cn
hoc
xng
Nha
thng
extrin
Bt
thch
anh
Bt
magzit
Cng dng
Sn bt
thch anh
50 4 - 6 3 45 sn khun v
rut c thp
cacbon
Sn bt
magzit
50 4 - 6 - - 45 sn khun v
rut c thp
Mangan cao
Cc loi sn trn c s phn ch dng cho cc vt c gang v hp kim ng.
i vi vt c thp ng-i ta thay phn ch bng bt ziricon.
Trong tr-ng hp khi cc l rng ca vt c v cc phn ca n -c to
thnh bng cc rut cn phi c nhn b mt cao th ng-i ta dng va thay
sn. Dng tay xoa trt va ln mt rut. Nhng loi va trt khng cha
n-c ny th-ng gm c phn ch trng, c 4 phn phn ch trng trn vi mt
phn n-c kim sunfit hay du thc vt. Sau khi xoa trt, rut -c em sy
nhit 220-240
0
C.
Nn dng cc loi va khng cha du c thnh phn theo khi l-ng nh-
sau: 50% bt talk, 36% bt sa mt hoc 35% phn ch trng, 15% t st. Bt ny
em ho vi n-c c 1kg hn hp kh cho 0,5 lt n-c. Sau khi xoa trt loi va
ny, em rut i sy nhit 110-150
0
C trong 15 - 20 pht.
Khi trt nn mit mnh, chiu dy trt tu ch v tu yu cu song thng
th-ng t 5 -7 mm. Tu kch th-c ch trt, tr-c khi trt c th co bt lp ct
ch khun v rut cn trt. Sau khi trt xong li qut ln mt lp sn ri em
hong kh t nhin sau em sy theo quy trnh cng ngh.
Thnh phn cht trt chng chy dnh ct xem bng 3. 6. Cch pha trn nh-
sau: Ct ziricni, crmit, magzit cho vo tr-c, sau mi cho cht dnh kt
lng v n-c vo sau trn u trong 10 20 pht. trnh hin t-ng ln men c
th cho formalin vo vi t l 1% n-c mt.
126
3.4. Keo dn v matit
Cc loi keo dn th-ng dn rut vo khun hoc dn cc phn rut li
vi nhau, thnh phn bao gm cc cht dnh ho tan trong n-c, t st bentnit
hay bt thch anh. Ng-i ta th-ng dng cc loi keo c thnh phn sau:
1) Keo sunfit: 50 phn (theo khi l-ng) n-c b giy ( mt 1,28 - 1,30
g/cm
3
), 50 phn t st kaolinit v 20 phn n-c; bn ko t ca loi keo ny
khng -c d-i 686 KN/m
2
( 7 kg/cm
2
).
2) Keo dextrin: 40% dextrin v 60% t st em trn vi n-c (100 phn bt
theo khi l-ng trn vi 65 phn n-c).
3) 50% bt thch anh v 50% n-c b giy ( mt 1,3 g/cm
3
).
Bng 3. 6. Cc cht trt chng chy dnh ct
Cht chu la Cht dnh kt
Loi cht
trt
Vt liu % Vt liu %
Cng dng
Cht trt
ziricni
Ct
Ziricni
100 t st
N-c b giy
N-c
5
5
4-5
Cht trt
magzit
Ct
magzit
100 Mt
N-c
2-4
va phi
Cht trt
crmit
Ct
crmit
100 Bentnit
Mt
N-c
2
6
va phi
Lm cht trt
khun cho
nhng vt c
to, dy c ct
p kim loi
lng cao.
gn ni cc rut kh ng-i ta dng keo c thnh phn gm: 1kg dextrin
ho trong 1 lt n-c nng (60-70
0
C ). Sau rut em sy qua nhit 160-
180
0
C. b mt rut ch gn, dn -c nhn ng-i ta trt cc mi gn bng
cc loi ma tt. Khi lm rut c gang v hp kim ng ng-i ta dng loi ma
tt gm: 65% ct 2K063, 20% phn ch trng v 15% t st kaolinit qua sng N
0

016. Sau khi o trn c 1 kg bt loi ny li cho thm 0,3 lt n-c; tng
127
do i khi ng-i ta cho thm 0,5% (theo khi l-ng) bt x phng. Khi lm rut
c thp th-ng dng loi ma tt gm: 40% t st kaolinit, 30% bt thch anh v
30% ct thch anh . Bt ny em trn vi 2% n-c b giy ( mt 1,3 g/cm
3
) v
13% n-c.
Khi lm rut c hp kim nhm dng ma tt gm: 63-70% bt talk, 36-
38% ct H01, 1-2% dextrin, cho thm 1-2% n-c b giy ( mt 1,3g/cm
3
) trn
gii hn 100% v 30-40% n-c. i vi vt c bng hp kim magi ng-i ta
cho thm vo matt 3 - 6% axit boric lm cht bo v.
3.5. Cht rc khun
Cht rc khun dng lm gim s dnh bm ca hn hp lm khun hay rut
vo b mt mu hay hp rut khi lm khun. Yu cu ch yu i vi cc cht
rc ph l chng khng b n-c hay mt loi cht dnh no thm -t. Ngoi ra
cc cht rc ph cn phi to thnh mt lp bm vng chc khng b ph hu trn
mt mu, do lm cho hn hp khng dnh vo mt mu. Cht rc ph cn phi
to -c mt lp chim din tch rng nht nh-ng li tiu hao bt rc t nht.
Tnh cht ny gi l kh nng rc ph. Khi chn bt rc ph cho bt c hn hp
no cng cn phi bit n c b n-c hay cht dnh nm trong thnh phn hn
hp thm -t khng.
thm -t ca bt rc ph -c kim tra bng cch sau: Ly mt mu
chun t hn hp c m 7-8%. Trn mt mnh giy lc ph mt lp bt ph
ri t mu ln trn, trn mu t qu cn 200g, tt c em t vo bnh ht m
trong 30 pht. Trong thi gian nu giy lc khng b m -t th chng t bt
rc ph khng c tnh ht m.
Kim tra kh nng rc ph ng-i ta ly 0,1 - 0,3g bt em rc ln trn mt
n-c thnh mt mng c chiu dy ca mt phn t- ht bt rc ( hnh 3. 1 ).
Ng-i ta rt n-c lc vo chu sao cho mc n-c cao hn mp chu mt cht.
em phn b cht rc ph bng cch x dch hai thanh bng vt liu phi kim loi
-c xoa parafin theo thnh chu ( khng nhc khi thnh chu). X dch hai
thanh li gn, ra xa cho n khi t -c lp mng bt u n, kn, khng c
ch nt, gy hay np nhn v c b mt phn b trn mt n-c ln nht. o din
128
tch mt chu gia hai thanh ta -c kh nng rc ph ca cht rc ph, tnh bng
cm
2
/g.
lm cht rc ph khun ng-i ta dng bt licpi mt loi bt ca cc
mm thch tng kh, l loi nguyn liu him. V th ng-i ta hay dng bt rc
ph gm 100 phn (theo trng l-ng) bt hoa v 3 phn starin hoc dng bt
samt. Bt hoa em nung nng n 90-100
0
C ri cho thm starin nng chy
vo. Sau quy trn cho n khi no mi ht hoa u -c bao ph mt
mng mng starin. Lm khun c gang ng-i ta dng bt than ci hay phn ch
trng lm bt rc ph.













Hnh 3. 1. S kim tra kh nng rc ph ca cht bt
cht rc bm chc vo b mt mu hay hp rut, tr-c khi rc nn dng
n-c giy hoc mt pha vi n-c (theo t l 2:1 hoc 1:1 ) phun ln nhng ch
cn rc.
Trong thc t chng dnh bm hn hp vo mu, ng-i ta cn dng hn
hp du la vi grapht hoc du hn hp gm 50% madt v 50% du ho, nung
nng mu ( ging nh- sy g ) ri bi hn hp du chng thm n-c vo mu.










129
Ti liu tham kho
7. GS-TSKH Phm Vn Khi Gia cng c kh - Nh xut bn Gio dc
1998.
8. GS -TSKH Phm Vn Khi Bo co kho st th tr-ng c Vit Nam
Tr-ng HBK H Ni 1995.
9. Phm Quang Lc K thut c Nh xut bn thanh nin 2000.
10. I.U. XTPANOV, V.I. XMNOV - Nhng vt liu lm khun Nguyn Th
dch - Nh xut bn KH&KT 1975
11. Tuyn tp bo co Sm sn 89 Hi ngh chuyn than antraxit c gang.
Vt liu lm khun Vit nam.
12. .. ..
1982
13. ..
. 1983.