Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 21242130

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy and Buildings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

Battery energy storage systems: Assessment for small-scale renewable energy integration
Nirmal-Kumar C. Nair , Niraj Garimella
Power Systems Group, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, The University of Auckland, 38 Princes Street, Science Centre, Auckland 1142, New Zealand

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
Concerns arising due to the variability and intermittency of renewable energy sources while integrating with the power grid can be mitigated to an extent by incorporating a storage element within the renewable energy harnessing system. Thus, battery energy storage systems (BESS) are likely to have a signicant impact in the small-scale integration of renewable energy sources into commercial building and residential dwelling. These storage technologies not only enable improvements in consumption levels from renewable energy sources but also provide a range of technical and monetary benets. This paper provides a modelling framework to be able to quantify the associated benets of renewable resource integration followed by an overview of various small-scale energy storage technologies. A simple, practical and comprehensive assessment of battery energy storage technologies for small-scale renewable applications based on their technical merit and economic feasibility is presented. Software such as Simulink and HOMER provides the platforms for technical and economic assessments of the battery technologies respectively. 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 15 January 2010 Accepted 4 July 2010 Keywords: Battery technologies Energy storage Renewable energy integration

1. Introduction Small-scale implementation of renewable energy systems in the form of micro-wind turbines or photovoltaic (PV) installations coupled with energy storage systems provide the ability to supply power to commercial buildings and/or residential dwellings while offsetting grid consumption. These systems have shown to provide a reliable supply in existing or planned buildings at places with or without a grid connection, conserve energy due to involvement of consumers in their own electricity supply [1], lower electricity cost, allow greater use of cleaner more efcient base-load generators and relieve stress on the electric transmission and distribution system [2]. The importance of energy storage and power management has been increasing due to a greater emphasis being placed by many countries on electrical production from renewable sources [3]. Increasing penetration of renewable sources has caused concerns over inconsistency of supplies; these inconsistencies in supply due to intermittency of weather conditions or diurnal variations can be mitigated to a certain extent by provision of backup from energy storage systems [4]. Energy storage systems allow uctuating renewable energy sources to be as stable as conventional systems [5] and also provide a means to decouple generation of electricity from its use [6], minimising supply and demand related issues.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +64 9 373 7599x89523; fax: +64 9 373 7461. E-mail address: N.Nair@auckland.ac.nz (N.-K.C. Nair). 0378-7788/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.07.002

Implementation of future intelligent grid technologies such as smart grids, smart metering, smart pricing, peak load curtailment, demand-side management, will quite possibly deliver on the goals of regulators and policy makers, but may create a sense of uncertainty for consumers with regards to the price of power. While consumers will have control over their power consumption, decide when to purchase power and how much they consume, utilities may decide peak and off-peak prices and increase them during power shortages [7]. Effective energy management systems that incorporate storage elements allow consumers to shift electricity purchases to reduce peak electric demand, hence lower electricity costs, and/or respond to a utility request to cut power consumption [2], thus adding value to intelligent grid technologies and minimising cost-related uncertainty. This paper is arranged as follows. Section 2 outlines the need for renewable energy integration and the associated benets. The role of government organisations and Green Building Councils to support and promote energy efciency, energy conservation and use of renewable sources of energy is emphasised. Section 3 provides an overview of energy storage technologies in relation to small-scale renewable energy integration. Technical capability and economic viability of battery energy storage systems for small-scale integration of renewable energy sources are assessed and discussed in Section 4. Software such as Simulink and National Renewable Energy Laboratorys (NREL) HOMER provides the means to assess technical and economic feasibility respectively. Future opportunities of battery energy storage systems are discussed in Section 5 and conclusions are drawn in Section 6.

N.-K.C. Nair, N. Garimella / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 21242130

2125

2. Small-scale renewable energy integration Integration of renewable energy sources as per [8] involves integrating in a system any energy resource that naturally regenerates over a short period of time. In an environment where energy demand increases each year with a growth in population and economy, making use of sources that are naturally replenished may satisfy or even reduce this demand. Examples of sources of energy that t the criteria of natural regeneration are wind and solar energy. While it is widely accepted that the aforementioned sources cause minimal or no harm to the environment, they are affected by seasonal and diurnal variations. A call for practical applications of energy storage systems is partly due to the constraints in incorporation of renewable forms of energy i.e., due to the variable and intermittent nature of their output [9]. The need for renewable energy integration from an environmental perspective and the role of energy storage systems to provide monetary benets is highlighted in this section. The role of government organisations and Green Building Councils in supporting renewable energy initiatives is discussed. 2.1. Environmental factors The need for incorporation of a renewable energy portfolio for electricity generation can be attributed to depletion of fossil fuel resources, unprecedented growth in energy demand, global warming, local pollution and uctuating prices of fossil fuels [10,11]. Growth in carbon dioxide emissions can largely be attributed to increases associated with electric power generation and transportation fuel use [12]. Drawing on nite sources of energy for electricity generation will become too expensive and contribute to environmental damage. According to a report released by the Energy Information Administration in 2009 [13], coal-red generation accounted for 41% of world electricity supply in 2006 i.e. coal continues to fuel the largest share of worldwide electric power production. This level of use is unsustainable and could be altered signicantly when programmes by governments around the globe to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are put into practice. Several alternative no or low emission technologies that currently are commercially proven or under development could be used to replace some coal-red generation, if a cost, either implicit or explicit, were applied to carbon dioxide emissions [13]. Renewable energy solutions have the ability to increase supply security while having the lowest environmental effect of all energy sources [8]. Gradual shift in electricity production from coal and other unsustainable fossil fuel based generation facilities to more sustainable means of energy sources will not only help nations enhance their supply security but also provide an effective solution in the struggle to prevent climate change. 2.2. Monetary concerns The most common and proven application of energy storage devices in a commercial context has been to provide backup supply for critical loads. While energy storage devices are predominantly used for this purpose, they can also be used to lower electricity costs by purchasing electricity during off-peak periods, storing it when prices are low and using it during high-demand periods [2]. In a larger scheme, network savings and short-term growth requirements can be achieved by deferring construction and upgrades of generation, transmission and distribution facilities by enabling innovative peak load management by commercial and residential customers [14]. Smart grids, smart metering, smart pricing including real-time pricing, installation of smart devices and in-home energy manage-

ment systems, peak load curtailment, demand-side management and distributed generation are areas in which electric utilities in the US and globally are investing in [15]. Smart meters, in particular, will place information and control in the hands of consumers and will enable individuals with domestic and commercial units to manage their own consumption patterns while saving energy, reducing costs [7] and minimising carbon emissions [16]. While smart meters provide a range of benets such as measurement of where and when energy was consumed, ease of billing, reduced carbon emissions and reduce the need to build new power plants, they give utilities the ability to increase peak and off-peak prices during power shortages [7]. Micro-wind generation and PV systems installed without energy storage systems are implemented considering a reliable grid connection is always available. Although a grid connection might provide a sense of security with regards to supply issues, the price for using grid-electricity might be subject to volatility dependant on the electricity market scenario. Rising costs of power can be leveraged to a certain extent by investments made in storage devices. This will not only allow for reliable incorporation of cleaner energy sources but also provide a certain form of insurance from a continually evolving electricity market. 2.3. Government involvement Several countries are focussing on integration of renewable energy sources into their electric transmission and distribution system. Governments of Australia, UK and New Zealand have set targets of 20%, 3035% of electricity generation by 2020 and 90% of electricity generation by 2025 respectively from renewable sources [17]. A Senate committee in the US has approved a comprehensive energy package that would require 15% of electricity generated by 2021 by utilities to come from renewable sources. Governments around the world have set up organisations and initiatives to support and promote use of renewable sources of energy. Initiatives from government agencies such as Department of Energy (DOE, USA), Energy Efciency and Conservation Authority (EECA, New Zealand), Ofce of the Renewable Energy Regulator (ORER, Australia) and other government agencies aim to reduce carbon emissions and emissions of other air pollutants by encouraging increased use of renewable energy and other clean distributed generation, encouraging, supporting and promoting energy efciency and energy conservation and by supporting achievement of renewable portfolio standards for renewable energy and energy efciency. Emission trading schemes initiated by governments around the world to curb emissions of pollutants are likely to have a large impact on industries that tend to have higher levels of greenhouse gas emissions. Utilities whose generation is dependent on coal or other fossil fuels will have to increase their emission allowance by purchasing more credits when compared to utilities that have cleaner generation sources. Cost increases associated with purchasing credits to offset emissions will be factored into prices set by wholesalers and these will affect consumers directly or indirectly. As mentioned in the previous sub-section, incorporation of smart metering and other grid technologies will add to the volatility of the price of power. Renewable energy technologies incorporated along with energy storage systems for small-scale consumers will serve as insurance against unexpected price rises and unforeseen environment-related policy changes. 2.4. Green Building Councils Green Building Councils (GBCs) are non-prot industry organisations that are dedicated to drive adoption of green building practices through sustainable design and construction. Standards

2126

N.-K.C. Nair, N. Garimella / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 21242130

for best practice are set through adaptation of Green Star rating tools. For example, The New Zealand Green Building Councils (NZGBC) Green Star rating tool, a comprehensive, national voluntary environmental rating scheme, evaluates attributes and performance of NZs buildings using a suit of rating tool kits developed to be applicable to each building type and function [18]. In accordance with the Green Star rating scheme implemented by NZGBC, buildings are rated in several different categories ranging from use energy, water, materials, etc. The Energy category consists of a credit titled ENE-2 which pertains to greenhouse gas emissions. Points are awarded for this credit where it is estimated that greenhouse gas emissions are signicantly lower than standard buildings. Further points are awarded where non-combustible renewable energy is generated onsite and this provides more than 5% of the total energy used by the building. This provides an opportunity to include energy storage systems and maximise benets by utilising cleaner energy sources and also capitalising on lower electricity costs. 3. Energy storage technologies Electricity can be stored by converting it into another form such as potential, kinetic or chemical energy. Electrical energy storage technologies include the following types of storage media: Batteries Flow batteries Fuel cells Flywheels Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) Super capacitors Compressed air energy storage (CAES) Pumped hydro

their high energy densities, maturity of technology and relative ease of use, are discussed and their advantages and disadvantages are summarised in the following sub-sections. Four types of battery energy storage technologies discussed in this paper are: lead-acid, nickel cadmium, nickel metal hydride and lithium ion. 3.1. Lead-acid The lead-acid battery is the oldest and most mature technology that has been used for electrical energy storage and is currently a front-runner for use in distributed generation application. With a US rechargeable battery market share of 79% in 2008, lead-acid batteries head rechargeable battery sales due to the tried and true nature of this technology. Deep-cycle lead-acid batteries are ideal for small-cycle renewable energy integration applications; these batteries can be discharged repeatedly by as much as 80% of their capacity [8] and hence are suited for grid connected systems where users sell power back to the grid through net metering. With low investment costs, lowest self-discharge of all rechargeable battery systems, and relatively ease of maintenance, they provide a cost-competitive and proven solution to a range of storage requirements. Drawbacks of this technology include limited cycle life, poor performance at low and high ambient temperatures, failure due to deep and continuous cycling, and environmentally unfriendly lead content and acid electrolyte which result in a large eco-footprint [8,9,11,20,23]. 3.2. Nickel cadmium (NiCd) Nickel cadmium batteries are a robust and proven alternative to lead-acid batteries and rank alongside them in terms of their maturity [20,24]. Longer cycle life, higher energy densities and low maintenance requirements highlight superiority of NiCd batteries in comparison with lead-acid batteries. NiCd batteries offer many advantages in PV applications and factors such as their cycling ability, durability, long life and reliability make them ideal for operating under adverse conditions [25]. NiCd batteries can supply excellent pulsed power due to their low equivalent series resistance (ESR) but are large, contain toxic heavy metals and suffer from severe self-discharge [3,22]. Notwithstanding this, NiCd batteries are a competitive replacement for lead-acid batteries due to their ability to supply continuous power for long durations and also for their use in applications which require instantaneous power. 3.3. Nickel metal hydride (NiMH) Nickel metal hydride batteries are a feasible alternative to NiCd batteries due to their improved performance and environmental advantage. In comparison to lead-acid and NiCd batteries, NiMH is environmentally friendly due to the lack of toxic substances such as cadmium, lead or mercury [26]. Energy density of NiMH cells is 2530% better than high performance nickel cadmium cells [27]. Although NiMH batteries have superior specic energy when compared to lead-acid and NiCd batteries, they are largely inferior to rechargeable Li-ion batteries [28]. NiMH batteries also suffer from severe self-discharge, making them inefcient for long-term energy storage. With a lot fewer drawbacks than lead-acid and NiCd batteries, higher energy density, longer minimal environmental impact and lower costs when compared to Li-ion technology, NiMH batteries are possible front-runners for renewable energy integration applications. 3.4. Lithium ion (Li-ion) Although the use of lithium-ion batteries currently is predominant in the portable electronics market, their use for automotive

Energy storage technologies discussed in this paper relate to small-scale renewable energy integration i.e., PV and/or micro-wind turbines installations for commercial buildings and residential dwellings. Technologies such CAES and pumped hydro are not suited for small-scale renewable energy systems due to the sheer size of such installations and the costs associated and hence are more suited to utility scale storage applications. SMES and super capacitors are high-power devices that have very high efciencies and can withstand several cycles without appreciable loss of energy storage capacity [3,19]. SMES and super capacitors are not discussed in this paper due to high implementation costs and the relative infancy in technologies. Kinetic energy storage systems such as ywheel energy storage operate by storing kinetic energy in a rotating cylinder which is supported by magnetic bearings and operates in a vacuum to eliminate frictional loss [3,20]. Flywheel technology is best suited to short duration, high-power discharges and hence is well established in the critical load and UPS market [20]. Even though ywheels have a great cycling capacity, they tend to have high friction losses [14] and incur a large cost for installation and maintenance [3]. Alongside ywheels, fuel cells and ow batteries are two technologies vying for a spot as energy storage devices in renewable energy systems. According to [10], hybrid photovoltaichydrogen/fuel cell energy systems are popular as energy production systems due to the fact that they are clean, environmentally friendly, modular and independent from fossil fuels. Flow batteries characteristics comprise of high power, decoupled power and energy ratings, low self-discharge and low efciencies when compared to other forms of storage technologies [21,22]. While ywheels, fuel cells and ow batteries are suitable for small-scale renewable energy integration, this paper does not focus on these technologies. Battery energy storage technologies, with

N.-K.C. Nair, N. Garimella / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 21242130

2127

Fig. 1. Simulink model of a simple stand-alone photovoltaic system.

and renewable energy storage applications is very plausible in the not-so-distant future. Li-ion batteries achieve energy storage efciencies of close to 100% and have the highest energy density [3] when compared to the three types of batteries discussed in previous sections. Drawbacks of this technology include high investment costs and complicated charge management systems due to closely dened operational limits [2,20]. With the greatest scope for development of future applications in a wide range of energy storage applications, much of the research and development work is aimed at reducing the capital cost of Li-ion batteries and further improving performance of this technology; global investment in Li-ion research and development estimated at over $1 billion annually will likely ensure just that and lead to broader use of this technology [2]. 4. Battery assessment using Simulink In this section, technical characteristics of batteries in a photovoltaic system are assessed in a simple but comprehensive manner using MATLAB based Simulink. Fig. 1 presents a straightforward stand-alone photovoltaic system containing a PV module, battery and switched load, replicated using standard Simulink blocks and custom designed function blocks. The battery shown in Fig. 1 is represented by a generic function block obtained from the SimPowerSystems toolbox in Simulink. This function block has the capability to model four different battery chemistries discussed in Section 3. The chargedischarge characteristics are modelled based on parameters related to the battery type and can be modied to suit different nominal values. The battery function block in this model is considered to operate under ideal conditions and hence losses relating to ambient temperature and internal resistance are assumed to be minimal. Batteries chosen for the assessment are based on the capacity ratings of generic models. The PV module function block in the model shown in Fig. 1 titled PV Module was obtained from [29] and has irradiation (W/m2 ) and voltage, Vpv (V), as its inputs and current, Ipv (A), and power, Ppv (W), as outputs. One limitation of this particular function block is that it does not take the effect of ambient temperature on the PV module into consideration. Parameters entered for the module are based on

a standard 75 W solar panel. The function block titled Irradiation Data 1519 Aug 08 contains raw solar irradiation data collected on a minute-by-minute basis from a weather station in St. Heliers, Auckland [30] over a period of ve days from 15th to 19th of August 2008; this data serves as the input into the PV module function. The load is modelled using a series of step functions combined to replicate a 12 V 50 W halogen lamp operating for 11 h turning on at 7.00 p.m. and turning off at 4.00 a.m. the following morning. The PV module is disconnected if the batterys state-of-charge reaches 80% and the load is disconnected if the batterys state-of-charge drops to 20%, hence avoiding over-charging and deep-discharge of the battery respectively. Voltage proles from simulation results for all four battery types are shown in Fig. 2. The battery is assumed to be at 70% state-ofcharge at the initial stage of the simulation. No charge controllers are taken into account for this simulation, keeping the focus solely on voltage performance of the battery. With an unstable voltage plateau over a good depth-of-discharge, the lead-acid battery drops below the 12 V nominal voltage and struggles to maintain this under load conditions. NiCd and NiMH batteries reach values well above their nominal voltage level of 12 V and continue to remain at that level despite erratic weather conditions. The Li-ion battery appears to have the most stable voltage plateau when compared to all the other batteries and also manages to maintain values well above its nominal voltage level of 11.1 V. An experimental setup containing a 12 V 80Ah deep-cycle leadacid battery, a 75 W solar module, an Outback MX60 charge controller, a SunSaver-6 solar controller and a 12 V 50 W DC halogen lamp load, is used for comparison of battery voltage characteristics. Fig. 3 illustrates a comparison of voltage proles of the 12 V leadacid battery modelled in the setup shown in Fig. 1 (related voltage prole shown in Fig. 2) and the above-mentioned 12 V 80 Ah deepdischarge lead-acid battery. The modelled results contain 7200 data points, i.e. minute-by-minute readings for 5 days (15th19th August 2008) whereas the data obtained from the experimental setup during the same period contains 6099 data points. This can be attributed to the fact that the computer used to log the voltage data is restarted twice a day and data-logging is disabled during this period. Voltage prole of the experimental data is offset to align with the data obtained from the modelled setup.

2128

N.-K.C. Nair, N. Garimella / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 21242130

Fig. 2. Comparison of voltage proles of battery energy storage systems.

The trend followed by the modelled results is very similar to that of the experimental data, inclusive of weather variations. The voltage level for the experimental setup barely dropped below an average of 12 V due to the presence of a charge controller and solar controller; they function together to maintain the voltage level and the results demonstrate this to a certain extent. The modelled results do not incorporate a charge controller and solar controller, hence the voltage levels appear to rise and fall as per the weather conditions. In spite of the simplicity of the modelled setup, the results obtained closely align with those of the experimental setup and hence proves the validity of the battery incorporated PV setup. The characteristics of all four battery types can be compared with the aid of the model that has been discussed and validated in this section. In a new simulation, the batteries are assumed to be at zero state-of-charge during the start and results are obtained by inputting irradiation values from the 18th of August, 2008. Table 1 summarises the characteristics of all four batteries. The values show that the lead-acid battery does not reach its nominal voltage at any point of the day. The NiCd battery outperforms the lead-acid battery by reaching its nominal voltage, but falls behind the NiMH and Li-ion batteries. NiMH and Li-ion batteries appear to reach their nominal voltage from zero state-of-charge with ease. Since

there were no restrictions set on the upper voltage limit for this simulation, batteries exceeded their nominal voltage. The maximum power values shown in Table 1 are the peak output power measurements. Batteries that exceeded their nominal voltage also provided the highest instantaneous power measurement. Clearly, NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion batteries performed above their peak due to their high voltage levels while the lead-acid battery underperformed in comparison due to its inability to reach its nominal voltage. 5. HOMER analysis In this section, HOMER, a computer model developed by National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL) and distributed by HOMER energy, is used to demonstrate the economic and technical feasibility of a stand-alone PV system comprising of batteries discussed in previous sections. Optimisation and sensitivity analysis algorithms used by HOMER allow for evaluation of economic and technical feasibility of technology options and account for uncertainty in technology costs, energy resource availability and other variables. A simple yet comprehensive assessment of a stand-alone photovoltaic system using HOMER includes a 75 W solar panel and batteries discussed in previous sections as model components. The

Fig. 3. Modelled and experimental results of a photovoltaic system containing a 12 V lead-acid battery.

N.-K.C. Nair, N. Garimella / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 21242130 Table 1 Simulink modelling results. Battery type Lead-acid NiCd NiMH Li-ion Nominal voltage (V) 12 12 12 11.1 Capacity rating (Ah) 80 80 80 78 Nominal discharge current (A) 16 16 16 33.91 Time to reach nominal voltage (s) 10,646 8780 9673 Peak measured voltage (V) 11.57 13.04 13.65 11.77

2129

Maximum power (W) 49.29 59.23 62.67 55.27

load is a 12 V 50 W DC halogen lamp which operates in the same manner as described in Section 4. The model is kept simple and excludes charge controllers and solar controllers hence keeping the assessment focused solely on the cost of the batteries with the exception of the solar panel cost. The costs of the components in US$ are as follows: Solar panel, 75 W: $695 Lead-acid battery, 12 V 80 Ah: $196 NiCd battery, 12 V 80 Ah: $760 NiMH battery, 12 V 80 Ah: $608 Li-ion battery, 11.1 V 78 Ah: $741

Results of simulations with all four battery types are compiled in Table 2. Criteria for economic assessment include initial capital cost ($) of the component, which is the total installed cost of that component at the beginning of the project; operating cost ($/Yr), which is the annual cost of operating and maintaining that component; and cost of energy (COE) ($), which is dened by the average cost per kWh of useful electrical energy produced by the system [31]. Note that the suggested PV array size is 4 times the size of the specied 75 W module. HOMER optimises the PV array size to ensure minimisation of unmet electrical load. The results obtained are based on the assumption that the 99.9% of the load requirements are met with the stand-alone PV system. From the results in Table 2, it can be noted that initial capital costs of NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion batteries are signicantly higher than that of the lead-acid battery, which has the lowest initial capital cost in comparison. The NiCd battery appears to be the most expensive in terms of all the criteria; NiMH and Li-ion batteries are not signicantly cost-effective than NiCd in terms of initial capital costs. Although, it appears that the NiMH battery has a competitive edge over the likes of the NiCd and Li-ion battery in relation to initial capital costs. The lowest operating cost for Li-ion batteries can be attributed to the fact that this technology has the lowest maintenance requirements of all; this is also reected in its COE. 6. Discussion Assessment of battery technologies as an integral component of a renewable energy harnessing technology, such as PV systems, helps demonstrate their capability for small-scale integration. While the performance of some battery technologies is technically apt, the economics of installing, running and maintaining that technology may not be feasible. Based on the results obtained from techno-economic assessments in Sections 4 and 5, the characteristics of each battery technology, advantageous or otherwise, are made apparent.
Table 2 HOMER modelling results. Factors PV (kW) Number of batteries Initial capital ($) Operating cost ($/year) Cost of energy ($/kWh) Lead-acid 0.3 1 2976 131 2.069 NiCd 0.3 1 3540 145 2.399 NiMH 0.3 1 3388 135 2.279 Li-ion 0.3 1 3521 80 2.065

Results illustrated and tabulated in Section 4 indicate that the NiMH battery is a strong contender for small-scale renewable energy integration applications. The NiMH battery appears to reach its maximum peak voltage more rapidly than other battery technologies; not only does it have the highest instantaneous power values when compared to the rest but it is a cost-competitive solution excluding the lead-acid battery. Performance of the leadacid battery is under par, but due to global investment in this mature technology, low initial costs can be maintained, hence giving users an inexpensive option. The NiCd battery underperformed marginally in comparison with the NiMH battery technically. Cost of NiCd technology is sure to entice users to look in to an economical and better performing alternative, which is provided by the NiMH battery. Li-ion batteries have the greatest potential to breakthrough in to the renewable energy sector, with its high energy density, stable voltage plateau and fast voltage response. The amount of money being invested globally is sure to rene this technology even further and bring production costs down, ultimately making it a very viable option for consumers. Results obtained in Sections 4 and 5 correlate with results of a similar experiment demonstrated in [32], where the same battery storage systems were used in a much different setup and environment. In electricity markets where consumers will be charged according to when and how they consume electricity, energy storage options will play a crucial role in allowing consumers gain control over their energy consumption patterns. Volatility of power costs can be mitigated to a certain extent by consumers being more aware of their consumption patterns and also by using technology to assist in thoughtful, efcient and economical usage of power. Investment in energy storage technologies globally is likely to reduce initial capital costs for consumers looking to incorporate storage options within their renewable energy systems. Global investment in improving technology can also assist in lowering costs of operating and maintaining small-scale renewable energy systems. Not only will small-scale renewable energy systems allow users to generate their own electricity and potentially ensure energy cost savings, but also ensure effective usage or renewable energy sources; hence assisting government and private environmental organisations take a small but signicant step closer to achieving a desirable renewable portfolio, minimising environmental harm and encouraging sustainability in design and engineering.

7. Conclusions Battery energy storage technologies have been discussed and assessed from a technical and economic perspective. Results obtained from simulations using Simulink and HOMER indicate that NiMH batteries have the highest potential for development in small-scale renewable energy integration applications provided initial capital costs for this technology are lowered. A high initial capital cost is the main hindrance to use of NiCd batteries in renewable energy applications, whose performance is moderately at par with NiMH batteries. In spite of a poor technical performance, affordability and availability are two factors leading to dominant use of lead-acid batteries in renewable energy systems. The potential for Li-ion batteries to dominate the renewable energy market

2130

N.-K.C. Nair, N. Garimella / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 21242130 [10] E. Cetin, et al., Electrical analysis of a hybrid photovoltaic-hydrogen/fuel cell energy system in Denizli, Turkey, Energy and Buildings 41 (9) (2009) 975981. [11] I. Hadjipaschalis, A. Poullikkas, V. Efthimiou, Overview of current and future energy storage technologies for electric power applications, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13 (67) (2009) 15131522. [12] EIA, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases Report, December 2008, Available at: http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/carbon.html (accessed 10.08.09). [13] EIA, International Energy Outlook 2009, May 2009, available at: http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/electricity.html (accessed 10.08.09. [14] H. Ibrahim, A. Ilinca, J. Perron, Energy storage systemscharacteristics and comparisons, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 12 (5) (2008) 12211250. [15] A. Vojdani, Smart integration, IEEE Power and Energy Magazine 6 (6) (2008) 7179. [16] M. Venables, Smart meters make smart consumers, Engineering and Technology 2 (4) (2007) 23. [17] N. Mithraratne, Roof-top wind turbines for microgeneration in urban houses in New Zealand, Energy and Buildings 41 (10) (2009) 10131018. [18] NZGBC, Green Star New Zealand, New Zealand Green Building Council, available at:http://www.nzgbc.org.nz/main/greenstar (accessed 12.8.2009). [19] P.F. Ribeiro, et al., Energy storage systems for advanced power applications, Proceedings of the IEEE 89 (12) (2001) 17441756. [20] J. Baker, New technology and possible advances in energy storage, Energy Policy 36 (12) (2008) 43684373. [21] Prudent Energy, Advantages of Energy Storage Systems, available at: http://www.pdenergy.com/en/technology/energy storage systems/advantages/ advantages.html (accessed 15.08.09). [22] K.C. Divya, J. stergaard, Battery energy storage technology for power systemsAn overview, Electric Power Systems Research 79 (4) (2009) 511520. [23] D.A.J. Rand, et al., Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries, Elsevier, 2004. [24] T. Osaka, M. Datta, Energy Storage Systems in Electronics, CRC Press, 2000. [25] R.M. Herritty, J. Midolo, Nickel cadmium batteries for photovoltaic applications, in: Proceedings of the Annual Battery Conference on Applications and Advances, Long Beach, CA, USA, 1998. [26] J. Dunbar, High performance nickel metal hydride batteries, in: WESCON/94 Idea/Microelectronics Conference Record, Anaheim, CA, USA, 1994. [27] T.R. Crompton, Battery Reference Book, third ed., Oxford, Newnes, 2000. [28] P. Ruetschi, F. Meli, J. Desilvestro, Nickel-metal hydride batteriesthe preferred batteries of the future? Journal of Power Sources 57 (12) (1995) 8591. [29] ECEE Department, University of Colorado, PV Module Simulink Models, available at: http://ecee.colorado.edu/ecen2060/materials/simulink/PV/ PV module model.pdf (accessed 28.04.09). [30] Solar Weather Data, St. Heliers Weather Station, available at: http://www.destin.co.nz/weather/Solar.htm (accessed 22.08.09). [31] NREL, HOMER The Micropower Optimization Model, 2.67 beta ed, 2008. [32] N. Garimella, N.K.C. Nair, Assessment of battery energy storage systems for small-scale renewable energy integration, in: Proceedings of IEEE TENCON, Singapore, 2009.

appears to be very plausible due to global investment and improvements in performance of technology that is already making an impact in the portable electronics eld. Insurance against volatility in power costs, aiding in harnessing and utilising cleaner energy sources and improving performance of renewable energy systems are few of many benets battery energy storage systems have to offer. Employment of battery energy storage technologies within small-scale renewable energy systems, to ensure efciency and cost-effectiveness, will take priority when initial capital costs of storage technologies are driven down due to global investment, policy changes increase volatility of power prices and technological changes affect power consumption patterns. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank John W.R. Gorman and Steven Fox for providing solar irradiation data and lead-acid battery data respectively. The authors also wish to acknowledge the support provided by University of Auckland Research Committee FRDF fund # 3609582/9273 for carrying out this research. References
[1] G.C. Bakos, M. Soursos, N.F. Tsagas, Technoeconomic assessment of a buildingintegrated PV system for electrical energy saving in residential sector, Energy and Buildings 35 (8) (2003) 757762. [2] R. Zogg, et al., Distributed energy storage, ASHRAE Journal 49 (5) (2007) 9094. [3] P.J. Hall, E.J. Bain, Energy-storage technologies and electricity generation, Energy Policy 36 (12) (2008) 43524355. [4] S.A. Khaparde, A. Mukerjee, Infrastructure for sustainable renewable energy in India: a case study of solar PV installation, in: Proceedings of IEEE PES General Meeting, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2008. [5] B. Srensen, Renewable Energy Conversion, Transmission and Storage, Elsevier/Academic Press, Boston, 2007. [6] D. Shively, et al., Energy storage methods for renewable energy integration and grid support, in: Proceedings of IEEE Energy 2030 Conference, Atlanta, GA, USA, 2008. [7] D. Houseman, Smart metering: the holy grail of demand-side energy management? Refocus 6 (5) (2005) 5051. [8] F.A. Farret, M.G. Simes, Integration of Alternative Sources of Energy, WileyInterscience, New York, 2006. [9] R.M. Dell, D.A.J. Rand, Energy storage a key technology for global energy sustainability, Journal of Power Sources 100 (12) (2001) 217.