THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE. Sociology is the systematic study of human society.

. The sociological perspective helps us to see general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals. It also encourages us to realize that society guides our thoughts and deeds - to see the strange in the familiar. Sociology also encourages us to see individuality in social context. For example, Emile Durkheim's research showed that the suicide rate was strongly influenced by the extent to which people were socially integrated with others. Modern scholarship supports this thesis. THE IMPORTANCE OF GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE. Sociologists also strive to see issues in global perspective, defined as the study of the larger world and our society's place in it. Economic Development in Global Perspective. There are three different types of nations in the world. The world's high-income countries are industrialized nations in which most people enjoy material abundance. The world's middle-income countries have limited industrialization and moderate personal income. The world's low-income countries have little industrialization; severe poverty is the rule. Thinking of the population breakdown if the world were a village of one thousand people. Global thinking is an important component of the sociological perspective for three reasons: Societies all over the world are increasingly interconnected, making traditional distinctions between "us" and "them" less and less valid. A global perspective is important because many human problems faced in the United States are far more serious elsewhere. Thinking globally is important because studying other societies is an excellent method of learning more about ourselves. THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE IN EVERYDAY LIFE. Certain situations like the following promote a sociological way of viewing reality. Encountering social diversity. Experiencing social marginality, the state of being excluded from social activity as an "outsider." This is why minorities, women and the elderly, among others, are particularly likely to embrace the sociological perspective. Living through periods of social crisis like the Great Depression or the 1960s. Benefits of the sociological perspective. The sociological perspective helps us assess the truth of commonly held assumptions. It prompts us to assess both the opportunities and the constraints that characterize our lives. It empowers us to participate actively in our society.

It helps us recognize human variety and confront the challenges of living in a diverse world. Applied sociology. Sociology is more than just a discipline for enhancing intellectual growth. Sociology plays a role in shaping public policy and laws. It also provides training for many jobs. THE ORIGINS OF SOCIOLOGY. Early social thought consisted mostly of utopian philosophical speculation. Auguste Comte, the father of sociology, in contrast, felt that the field should be scientific or, as he termed it, positive, meaning a means to understand the world based on science. Comte believed that societies progress through three stages: The theological stage, in which thought was guided by religion. The metaphysical stage, a transitional phase. The scientific or positive stage. Scientific sociology developed because of three major social trends in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: The growth of a factory-based industrial economy. The emergence of great cities in Europe. Political changes, including a rising concern with individual liberty and rights. The French Revolution embraced these ideas. Although pushed into the margins because they lived in a male-dominated society, women such as Harriet Martineau and Jane Addams made important contributions to sociology. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY. A theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related. Theories are based on theoretical paradigms, sets of assumptions that guide thinking and research. There are three major sociological paradigms: The structural-functional paradigm is a framework for building sociological theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. It asserts that our lives are guided by social structures (relatively stable patterns of social behavior). Each social structure has social functions or consequences for the operation of society as a whole. Important figures in the development of this paradigm include Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons. Robert Merton introduced three concepts related to functions: Manifest functions, the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern Latent functions, largely unrecognized and unintended con-sequences and Social dysfunctions, undesirable consequences of a social pattern for societal operation.

 Critical Evaluation: This paradigm is widely used, but also subject to several criticisms: It minimizes the importance of social change. It overlooks divisions based on class, race, ethnicity and gender. The social-conflict paradigm is a framework for building sociological theory based on the assumption that society is characterized by inequalities and conflicts that generate change. Most sociologists who favor the conflict paradigm attempt not only to understand society but also to reduce social inequality. Key figures in this tradition include Karl Marx and W. E. B. DuBois. Critical evaluation: This paradigm has developed rapidly in recent years. It has several weaknesses. It ignores social unity based on interdependence and shared values. Because it is explicitly political, it abandons the goal of scientific objectivity. Like the structural-functional paradigm, it envisions society in terms of broad abstractions. The symbolic-interaction paradigm is a theoretical framework based on the assumption that society is the product of everyday interactions between individuals. The structural-functional and the social-conflict paradigms share a macro-level orientation, meaning that they focus on broad social structures that shape society as a whole. In contrast, symbolic-interactionism has a microlevel orientation; it focuses on patterns of social interaction in specific settings. Max Weber, George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman, George Homans and Peter Blau are important theorists in this tradition. Critical evaluation. Symbolic interactionism attempts to explain more clearly how individuals actually experience society. However, it has two weaknesses: Its micro orientation sometimes results in the error of ignoring the influence of larger social structures. By emphasizing what is unique, it risks overlooking the effects of culture, class, gender, and race.

Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence, information we can verify with our senses Scientific evidence sometimes contradicts commonsense explanations of social behavior The Elements of Science. Concepts, variables, measurement

Concepts are mental constructs that represent some part of the world, inevitably in a simplified form Variables are concepts whose values change from case to case Measurement is the process of determining the value of a variable in a specific case This requires researchers to operationalize variables, which means specifying exactly what one wishes to measure in assigning a value to a variable Statistical measures are used to describing populations as a whole. Three common measures are the mode, mean, and median. The mode is the value that appears most often in a series. Themean is the arithmetic average of a series of numbers. The median is the value midway in a series of numbers arranged in order of magnitude Measurements also require reliability, the quality of consistent measurement, and validity, the quality of measuring precisely what one intends to measure Relationships among variables Cause and effect is a relationship in which change in one variable leads to change in another variable

The independent variable is the one that causes the change The dependent variable is the one that changes Correlation exists when two (or more) variables change together

2 The Basic of Sociological Investigation. Sociological investigation begins with two key requirements:

Spurious correlation means an apparent, although false, association between two (or more) variables caused by some other variable Spurious correlations can be discovered through scientific control, the ability to neutralize the effect of one variable in order to assess relationships among other variables Sociologists strive for objectivity, a state of personal neutrality in conducting research, whenever possible following Max Webers model of value free sociology One way to limit distortion caused by personal values is through replication, repetition of research by others in order to assess its accuracy

Look at the world using a sociological perspective. Be curious and ask questions Sociology is a type of science, a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation

Limitations of scientific sociology

Human behavior is too complex to allow sociologists to predict any individuals actions precisely Because humans respond to their surroundings, the mere presence of a researcher may affect the behavior being studied Social patterns change constantly; what is true in one time or place may not hold in another Because sociologists are part of the social world they study, being value-free when conducting social research is especially difficult

An experiment is a research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions. Typically experiments are explanatory, that is, used to test hypotheses, unverified statements of a relationship between variables. Most experiments are conducted in laboratories and employ experimental and control groups.

The Hawthorne effect is a change in a subjects behavior caused by the awareness of being studied A survey is a research method in which subjects respond to a series of items in a questionnaire or an interview. Survey research is usually descriptive rather than explanatory.

Subjective interpretation is always an important element in sociological analysis Some sociologists argue that the value-free ideal is unattainable because all research is inherently political Research can be contaminated by gender bias in five ways:

Androcentricity, or approaching an issue from the male perspective Overgeneralizing or using data drawn from studying only one sex to support conclusions about human behavior in general Gender blindness or not considering the variable of gender at all Double standards Interference because a subject reacts to the sex of the researcher

Surveys are directed at populations, the people who are the focus of research. Usually we study a sample, a part of a population researchers select to represent the whole. Random sampling is commonly used to be sure that the sample is actually representative of the entire population National Political Surveys. Early political polls were sometimes very inaccurate due to faulty sampling design Surveys may involve questionnaires, a series of written questions a researcher presents to subjects. Questionnaires may be closed-ended or open-ended. Most surveys are self-administered and must be carefully pretested Surveys may also take the form of interviews, a series of questions administered personally by a researcher to respondents Table Reading: An Important Skill Participant observation is a method in which researchers systematically observe people while joining in their routine activities. Participant observation research is descriptive and often exploratory. It is normallyqualitative research, inquiry based on subjective impressions. In contrast, survey methodology, is usually quantitative research, investigation based on the analysis of numerical data Secondary analysis is a research method in which a researcher utilizes data collected by others Interplay of theory and method

Feminist research rejects Webers notion of objectivity in favor of being overtly political Sociologists attempt to follow codes of professional research ethics Conducting Research with Other Cultural/Subcultural Groups

Be careful with terms Realize that cultural values may differ Realize that family dynamics may vary Be aware that attitudes toward time and efficiency may vary Realize that attitudes toward personal space may vary

Deductive logical thought is reasoning that transforms general ideas into specific hypotheses suitable for scientific testing Inductive logical thought is reasoning that builds specific observations into general theory Most sociological research uses both types of thought Putting it all together: Ten steps in sociological investigation

v The Methods of Sociological Research A research method is a systematic plan for conducting research. Four commonly used research methods are:

What is your topic? What have others already learned about the topic? Whatexactlyare your questions? What will you need to carry out research? Are there ethical concerns? What method will you use? How will you record the data? What do the data tell you? What are your conclusions? How can you share what youve learned 3 Society refers to people who interact in a defined territory and share culture. This chapter explores four important theoretical views explaining the nature of human societies. Society and Technology. Gerhard and Jean Lenski focus on sociocultural evolution, the process of change that results from a society gaining new information, particularly technology. This perspective identifies five major stages of societies.

moves the cities. Occupational specialization and cultural diversity increase. The family loses much of its importance and appears in many different forms. In the early stages of industrialization, social inequality increases. Later on, while poverty continues to be a serious problem, most peoples standard of living rises. Demands for political participation also escalate. The Lenskis model can be updated by the addition of a fifth stage of sociocultural evolution,postindustrialism, which is based on technology which supports an information-based economy. In this phase, industrial production declines while occupations that process information using computers expand. Because the pace of social change is extremely rapid in postindustrial society, culture lag often becomes a serious problem. While expanding technology can help to solve many existing social problems, it creates new problems even as it remedies old ones. Society and Conflict. Karl Marxs analysis stresses social conflict, struggle between segments of society over valued resources. Society and Production

Hunting and gathering societies use simple technology for hunting animals and gathering vegetation. Until about ten thousand years ago, all humans were hunter-gatherers; very few are today. At this level of sociocultural evolution, food production is relatively inefficient, groups are small, scattered and usually nomadic. Society is organized around the family, and specialization is minimal, centered chiefly around age and sex. These societies are quite egalitarian and rarely wage war. Horticultural societies employ a technology based on using hand tools to cultivate plants. In very fertile and also in arid regions, pastoralism, technology that supports the domestication of animals, develops instead of horticulture. In either case, these strategies encourage much larger societies to emerge. Material surpluses develop, allowing some people to become full-time specialists in crafts, trade or religion. Social inequality increases. Agrarian societies are based on agriculture, the technology of large-scale farming using ploughs harnessed to animals or more powerful sources of energy. These societies initiated civilization as they invented irrigation, the wheel, writing, numbers, and metallurgy. Agrarian societies can build up enormous food surpluses and grow to an unprecedented size. Occupational specialization increases, money emerges, and social life becomes more individualistic and impersonal. Inequality becomes much more extreme. Religion underlies the expanding power of the state. Industrial societies are based on industrialism, the technology that powers sophisticated machinery with advanced sources of energy. At this stage, societies begin to change quickly. The growth of factories erodes many traditional values, beliefs, and customs. Prosperity and health improve dramatically. Most of the population

Marx divided society into profit-oriented capitalists, people who own factories and other productive enterprises, and the proletariat, people who provide labor necessary to operate factories and other productive enterprises. Marx believed that conflict between these two classes was inevitable. Marxs approach is based on materialism, which asserts that the production of material goods shapes all aspects of society. He considered the economy the infrastructure on which all other social (i.e., institutions, the superstructure,) were based. The institutions of modern societies, he argued, tend to reinforce capitalist domination. According to Marx, most people in modern societies do not pay much attention to social conflict, because they are trapped in false consciousness, explanations of social problems that blame the shortcomings of individuals rather than the flaws of society. Marx argued that early hunting and gathering societies were based on highly egalitarian primitive communism, and that society became less equal as it moved toward modern industrial capitalism dominated by the bourgeoisie class (capitalists). Marx viewed class conflict, antagonism between entire classes over the distribution of wealth and power in society, as inevitable.

In order for conflict to occur, the proletariat must achieve class consciousness, workers recognition of their unity as

a class in opposition to capitalists and, ultimately, to capitalism itself. Then workers must organize themselves and rise in revolution. Internally divided by their competitive search for profits, the capitalists would be unable to unify to effectively resist their revolution. Marx also condemned capitalism for promoting alienation, the experience of isolation resulting from powerlessness. He argued that industrial capitalism alienated workers in four ways:

Personal discipline. Awareness of time. Technical competence. Impersonality. The growth of rational bureaucracy was a key element in the origin of modern society. Weber feared that the rationalization of society carried with it a tendency toward dehumanization or alienation. He was pessimistic about societys ability to escape this trend. Society and Function. For Emile Durkheim, a social fact is a pattern that is rooted in society rather than in the experience of individuals. Society is an elaborate, collective organism, far more than the sum of its parts. It shapes individuals behavior, thought and feeling. The function of a social fact extends beyond its effect on individuals and helps society itself to function as a complex system. People build personalities by internalizing social facts that serve to restrain individual desires. When such restraints are too weak, the result is anomie, a societal condition in which individuals receive little moral guidance. The division of labor, or specialized economic activity, has increased throughout human history.

Alienation from the act of working Alienation from the products of work. Alienation from other workers. Alienation from human potential. Alienation and Industrial Capitalism.

Marx was certain that eventually a socialist revolution would overthrow the capitalist system.

The Rationalization of Society. Max Webers theory stresses the rationalization of society. In contrast to Marxs pessimistic view, his work reflects the idealist perspective that human ideas shape society. To facilitate comparisons, he used ideal types, abstract statements of the essential characteristics of any social phenomenon. Weber wrote that members of preindustrial societies embrace tradition, sentiments and beliefs passed from generation to generation, while industrial societies are characterized by rationality, deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation of the most efficient means to accomplish a particular goal.

The Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism both reflect the rationalization of society,the historical change from tradition to rationality (science) as the dominant mode of human thought. High Technology in Global Perspective. Weber traced the roots of modern rationality to Calvinist Protestantism, which preached predestination and the notion that success in ones calling testified to ones place among the saved. Webers analysis demonstrates the ability of ideas to shape society. Weber identified seven characteristics of rational social organizations:

Traditional societies are characterized by a strong collective conscience or mechanical solidarity, social bonds, based on shared moral sentiments that unite members of preindustrial societies. In modern societies, mechanical solidarity declines and is partially replaced by organic solidarity,social bonds, based on specialization, that unite members of industrial societies. This shift is accompanied by a decline in the level of trust between members of the society. The Information Revolution: What Would Durkheim (and Others) have Thought? Critical Evaluation: Four Visions of Society.

What holds societies together? How have societies changed? Why do societies change? Is Our Society Getting Better or Worse? 5 Ethnography. The first-hand, personal study of local cultural settings is ethnography. It emerged as a research strategy in

Distinctive social institutions. Large-scale organizations. Specialized tasks.

societies with greater cultural uniformity and less social differentiation than are found in large, modern, industrial nations.

The characteristic field techniques of the ethnographer include the following: Direct, firsthand observation of daily behavior, including participant observation, taking part in community life as one studies it. Conversations with varying degrees of formality, structured or unstructured interviewusing an interview schedule or questionnaires. The genealogical method, procedure by which ethnographers discover and record connections of kinship, descent, and marriage, using diagrams and symbols. Detailed work with key consultants about particular areas of community life. In-depth interviewing, often leading to a collection of life histories of particular people (narrators) Discovery of local beliefs and perceptions, which may be compared with the ethnographers own observations and conclusions. Problem-oriented research of many sorts. Longitudinal research, the continuous long-term study of an area or site. Team research, coordinated research by multiple ethnographers.

In proposing anp conducting research, according to the Code, anthropologists should be open about their purposes, potential impacts, and sources of support. A. Responsibility to people and animals 1. The primary ethical obligation of the anthropologist is to the people, species, or materials he or she studies. Potential violation of this obligation can lead to decisions not to undertake, or to discontinue, research. This primary ethical obligation entails: Avoiding harm or wrong Respecting the well-being of humans and nonhuman primates Working to preserve the archaeological, fossil, and historical records Working to achieve a beneficial working relationship for all parties 2. Researchers must respect the safety, dignity, and privacy of the people they study. Also, researchers should avoid harm to the safety, psychological well-being, and survival of the animals or species they study. 3. Researchers should determine in advance whether their hosts wish to remain anonymous or receive recognition. They should make every effort to comply with those wishes. 4. Researchers should obtain the informed consent of the people to be studied and of those whose interests may be affected by the research. Informed consent means that the anthropologist should tell people about the goals and procedures of the research, and gain their consent to be participants. 5. Anthropologists who develop close relationships with individuals (e.g., their cultural consultants) must adhere to the obligations of openness and informed consent. They must also carefully and respectfully negotiate the limits of the relationship. 6. Anthropologists may gain personally from their work. But they must not exploit individuals, groups, animals, or cultural or biological materials. They should recognize their debt to the societies in which they work. They are obliged to reciprocate with the people they study in appropriate ways. B. Responsibility to scholarship and science 1. Anthropologists should expect to encounter ethical dilemmas during their work. 2. Anthropologists are responsible for the integrity and reputation of their discipline, of scholarship, and of science. They should not deceive or knowingly misrepresent. They should not fabricate evidence, falsify, or plagiarize. Nor should they prevent reporting of misconduct, or obstruct the research of others.

Field Work in Archaeological Anthropology.

Typically, archeologists combine both local (excavation) and regional (systematic survey) perspectives. Systematic Survey provides a regional perspective on the archeological record by gathering information on patterns of settlement over a large area. During excavation an archeologist recovers remains by digging through the cultural and natural stratigraphy the layers of deposits that make up an archeological site. Principle of superposition, an undisturbed sequence of strata - the oldest layer is at the bottom. Each successive layer above is younger than the one below. Ethics In writing research grants, in conducting research and in all other professional contexts, ethical issues will inevitably arise. The following are provisions of the Code of Ethics of the American Anthropological Association (AAA) which set certain ethical standards. Its main points about the ethical dimensions of research, teaching and application may be summarized:

Research

3. Researchers should do all they can to preserve opportunities for future field-workers. 4. To the extent possible, researchers should disseminate their findings to the scientific and scholarly community. 5. Anthropologists should consider reasonable requests for access to their data for purposes of research. They should try to preserve their fieldwork data for use by posterity. C. Responsibility to the public 1. Researchers should make their results available to sponsors, students, decision makers, and other nonanthropologists. Anthropologists should consider the social and political implications of their work. They should try to ensure that their work is understood, contextualized properly, and used responsibly. And they should be candid about their qualifications and philosophical or political biases. 2. Anthropologists may move beyond disseminating research results to a position of advocacy. This is an individual decision, rather than an ethical responsibility.

The Components of Culture.

6 Introduction. Cultural differences range from arbitrary conventions to more profound differences. In both cases, culture serves as a peoples survival kit. Animals have instinct. Humans have culture. What Is Culture? Culture consists of the beliefs, values, behavior, and material objects that define a peoples way of life. Culture is a lens by which we view reality, an orientation to the world.

Symbols are defined as anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share culture. The meaning of the same symbols varies from society to society, even within a single society Language is a system of symbols that allows members of a society to communicate with one another Language is the key to cultural transmission, the process by which one generation passes culture to the next The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis holds that people perceive the world through the cultural lens of language Values are culturally defined standards of desirability, goodness and beauty and which serve as broad guidelines for social living. They support beliefs, specific statements that people who share culture hold to be true Social scientists have identified central values in Philippine culture. The Institute of Philippine Culture, for instance, lists three: Social Acceptance (SIR, pakikisama, euphemism, etc.) Reciprocity (utang na loob, e.g.) Socioeconomic mobility (form of material comfort) Values within one society are frequently inconsistent and sometimes conflict with one another Norms are rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members. There are two special types of norms that were identified by William Graham Sumner: Mores, norms that have great moral significance, and Folkways, norms that have less moral significance than mores As we internalize norms, we respond critically to our own behavior through shame or guilt. We become conformists and reproduce society. How do we change? Material culture reflects a societys technology, the knowledge that a society applies to the task of living in a physical environment

Culture has two basic components: nonmaterial culture or the intangible creations of human society, and material culture, the tangible products of human society. Together, these two components describe a peoples way of life. Culture also plays an important role in shaping the human personality. The concept of culture must be distinguished from those of nation or society. Many modern societies are multicultural. Travelers often experience culture shock, personal disorientation that accompanies exposure to an unfamiliar way of life Only humans depend on culture rather than instincts to ensure the survival of their kind. Culture gives us the ability to actively shape the natural environment for ourselves. Humans are generalized animals.

Technology and Culture Gerhard and Jean Lenski focus on sociocultural evolution, a historical change in culture caused by new technology. This perspective identifies five major stages of societies.

Hunting and gathering societies use simple technology for hunting animals and gathering vegetation. Until about ten thousand years ago, all humans were hunter-gatherers; very few are today. At this level of sociocultural evolution, food production is relatively inefficient, groups are small, scattered and usually nomadic. Society is organized around the family, and specialization is minimal, centered chiefly around age and sex. These societies are quite egalitarian and rarely wage war Horticultural societies employ a technology based on using hand tools to cultivate plants. In very fertile and also in arid regions, pastoralism, technology that supports the

domestication of animals, develops instead of horticulture. In either case, these strategies encourage much larger societies to emerge. Material surpluses develop, allowing some people to become full-time specialists in crafts, trade or religion. Social inequality increases Agrarian societies are based on agriculture, the technology of large-scale farming using ploughs harnessed to animals or more powerful sources of energy. These societies initiated civilization as they invented irrigation, the wheel, writing, numbers, and metallurgy. Agrarian societies can build up enormous food surpluses and grow to an unprecedented size. Occupational specialization increases, money emerges, and social life becomes more individualistic and impersonal. Inequality becomes much more extreme. Religion underlies the expanding power of the state Industrial societies are based on industrialism, the technology that powers sophisticated machinery with advanced sources of energy. At this stage, societies begin to change quickly. The growth of factories erodes many traditional values, beliefs, and customs. Prosperity and health improve dramatically. Most of the population moves the cities. Occupational specialization and cultural diversity increase. The family loses much of its importance and appears in many different forms. In the early stages of industrialization, social inequality increases. Later on, while poverty continues to be a serious problem, most peoples standard of living rises. Demands for political participation also escalate Postindustrial societies focus on information technology, i.e. computers and other electronic devices that create, process, store and apply information.

Diffusion, the spread of cultural traits from one cultural system to another Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism Ethnocentrism is the practice of judging another culture by the standards of one own culture Sociologists tend to discourage this practice; instead, they advocate cultural relativism, the practice of judging a culture by its own standards Evidence suggests that a global culture may be emerging Three key factors are promoting this trend: Global communications: the flow of information Global economy: the flow of goods Global migration: the flow of people Three problems with the global culture thesis have emerged: Global culture is much more advanced in some parts of the world than in others Many people cannot afford to participate in the material aspects of a global culture Global culture may suppress or eliminate local culture Different people attribute different meanings to various aspects of the global culture. Theoretical Analysis of Culture

Cultural Diversity

High culture refers to cultural patterns that distinguish a societys elite; in contrast, popular culture designates cultural patterns that are widespread among a societys population. High culture is not inherently superior to popular culture Subcultures are cultural patterns that distinguish some segment of a societys population. They involve not only difference but also hierarchy Countercultures are cultural patterns that strongly oppose accepted culture within a society Cultural change As cultures change, they strive to maintain cultural integration, the close relationship among various elements of a cultural system William Ogburns concept of cultural lag refers to the fact that cultural elements change at different rates, which may disrupt a cultural system Three phenomena promote cultural change: Invention, the process of creating new cultural elements Discovery, recognizing and understanding an idea not fully understood before

The structural-functional paradigm depicts culture as a complex and relatively stable strategy for meeting human needs Cultural universals are traits that are found in every known culture Critical evaluation: Structural-functional analysis has the strength of portraying culture as an integrated system to meet human needs Its weakness is that it stresses a societys dominant cultural pattern while directing less attention to cultural diversity It also minimizes the importance of change The social-conflict paradigm suggests that many cultural traits function to the advantage of some and the disadvantage of others Critical evaluation: Social-conflict analysis recognizes that many elements of a culture maintain inequality and promote the dominance of one group over others It understates the ways in which cultural patterns integrate members of a society The symbolic interactionist paradigm suggests that people create, manintain and modify culture as they go about their daily activities. Postmodernism, and another related perspective called new cultural studies, add popular culture may simulate reality rather than being reality Sociobiology is a theoretical paradigm that explores ways in which biological forces affect human culture. It is grounded in part in Darwins theory of natural selection Critical evaluation: Sociobiology may promote racism and sexism

Research support for this paradigm is limited

Culture and Human Freedom

Culture as constraint Culture as freedom Culture and Structure