PF Project Report

Project Report May 19, 2008
Chapter 1
OVERVIEW
1.1 Introduction to Power System
1.2 CET and CESCO
1.3 Loads in CET
Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 1

1.1 Introduction to Power System
E
lectrical power is a little bit like the air one breathe. One
doesn't really think about it until it is missing. Power is
just "there," meeting ones daily needs, constantly. It is
only during a power failure, when one walks into a dark room
and instinctively hits the useless light switch, that one realizes
how important power is in our daily life. Without it, life can get
somewhat cumbersome.
Electric Energy is the most popular form of energy,

because it can be transported easily at high efficiency and
reasonable cost. The power system of today is a complex
interconnected network as shown in fig. 1.
FIGURE 1
A Power System can be subdivided into four major parts:

1) Generation.
2) Transmission and Sub transmission.
3) Distribution.
4) Loads.
Power is generated at generating stations, usually located

away from the actual users. The generated voltage is then
stepped up to a higher voltage for transmission,
as transmission losses are lower at higher voltages. The
transmitted electric power is then stepped down at grid
stations

The modern distribution system begins as the primary

circuit, leaves the sub-station and ends as the secondary
service enters the customer's meter socket. First, the energy
leaves the sub-station in a primary circuit, usually with all three
phases.
The most common type of primary is known as a wye

configuration (so named because of the shape of a "Y".) The
wye configuration includes 3 phases (represented by the three
outer parts of the "Y") and a neutral (represented by the center
of the "Y".) The neutral is grounded both at the substation and
at every power pole. The primary and secondary (low voltage)
neutrals are bonded (connected) together to provide a path to
blow the primary fuse if any fault occurs that allows primary
voltage to enter the secondary lines. An example of this type of
fault would be a primary phase falling across the secondary
lines. Another example would be some type of fault in the
transformer itself.
The other type of primary configuration is known as delta.

This method is older and less common. Delta is so named
because of the shape of the Greek letter delta, a triangle. Delta
has only 3 phases and no neutral. In delta there is only a single
voltage, between two phases (phase to phase), while in wye
there are two voltages, between two phases and between a
phase and neutral (phase to neutral). Wye primary is safer
because if one phase becomes grounded, that is, makes
connection to the ground through a person, tree, or other
object, it should trip out the fused cutout similar to a household
circuit breaker tripping. In delta, if a phase makes connection to
ground it will continue to function normally. It takes two or three
phases to make connection to ground before the fused cutouts
will open the circuit. The voltage for this configuration is usually
4800 volts.
Transformers are sometimes used to step down from 7200

or 7600 volts to 4800 volts or to step up from 4800 volts to
7200 or 7600 volts. When the voltage is stepped up, a neutral
is created by bonding one leg of the 7200/7600 side to ground.
This is commonly used to power single phase underground
services or whole housing developments that are built in 4800

volt delta distribution areas. Step downs are used in areas that
have been upgraded to a 7200/12500Y or 7600/13200Y and the
power company chooses to leave a section as a 4800 volt
setup. Sometimes power companies choose to leave sections of
a distribution grid as 4800 volts because this setup is less likely
to trip fuses or reclosers in heavily wooded areas where trees
come into contact with lines.
For power to be useful in a home or business, it comes off
the transmission grid and is stepped-down to the distribution
grid. This may happen in several phases. The place where the
conversion from "transmission" to "distribution" occurs is in a
power substation. A power substation typically does two or
three things:
• It has transformers that step transmission voltages (in the
tens or hundreds of thousands of volts range) down to
distribution voltages (typically less than 10,000 volts).
• It has a "bus" that can split the distribution power off in
multiple directions.
• It often has circuit breakers and switches so that the
substation can be disconnected from the transmission grid
or separate distribution lines can be disconnected from
the substation when necessary.
It often has circuit breakers and switches so that the

substation can be disconnected from the transmission grid or
separate distribution lines can be disconnected from the
substation when necessary. The primary distribution lines are
usually in the range of 4 to 34.5 KV and supply load in well
defined geographical area. Some small industrial customers are
served directly by the primary feeders.
1.2 CET and CESCO

The Central Electricity Supply Company Of Orissa Limited
(CESCO) is responsible for power supply and distribution to
College of Engineering and Technology (CET), Bhubaneswar.
CESCO was incorporated on 19-11-1997 under the companies
Act, 1956 as a Public Limited Company. Though the Company
received the certificate for commencement of business on 30-
12-1997, it started functioning separately with effect from 26-

11-1998, under the license of GRIDCO, after notification by the

Govt. of Orissa in the official gazette. CESCO received the
Distribution and retail supply license from Orissa Electricity
Regulatory Commission(OERC) to distribute and make retail
supply of electricity in the Central Zone consisting of undivided
Cuttack, Puri and Dhenkanal district with effect from 01-04-
1999 and started functioning under own license from 01-04-
1999.
College of Engineering and

Technology (CET), Bhubaneswar gets
its power supply through three 3-Φ
distribution transformers of following
specifications:
1. TRANSFORMER 1 (Office Block)
KVA rating: 250 KVA
Volts : HV 11000 V
(no load) LV 433 V
Ampere : HV 13.12 A
LV 333.35 A
Frequency: 50 Hz
% Volt Impedance: 4.6 FIGURE 2
Type of Vector Group: DY11
2. TRANSFORMER 2 (Academic Block)

KVA rating: 250 KVA
Volts : HV 11000 V
(no load) LV 433 V
Ampere : HV 13.12 A
LV 333.35 A
Frequency: 50 Hz
% Volt Impedance: 4.6
3. TRANSFORMER 3 (Workshop & Laboratory)

KVA rating: 100 KVA
Volts : HV 11000 V
(no load) LV 433 V
Ampere : HV 5.25 A
LV 133.33 A
Frequency: 50 Hz
% Volt Impedance: 4.5

Loads of power systems are divided into industrial,

commercial, and residential. Very large loads may be served
from the transmission system. Large industrial loads are served
from the sub transmission network. Industrial loads are
composite loads, and induction motors form a high proportion
of these loads. These composite loads are function of voltage
and frequency. Commercial and residential load consist largely
of lighting, heating and cooling. These loads are independent of
frequency and consume negligibly small reactive power.
The various loads of CET come under the category of

commercial loads having a load factor of 50% and an average
duty cycle of 8 hrs a day. The loads are generally ceiling fans,
fluorescent lamps, Computers, air conditioners and other small
loads.
1.3 Loads in CET
T
he transformer 1 (Office Block) 250 KVA supplies power to
the library, administrative office, Syndicate bank,
Mechanical engineering department, Computer science
and engineering department and other classrooms. The loads
connected are given in the following table:
ROOM NO. OF
LOAD TYPE RATING(W) TOTAL(W)
NO. LOAD
101 Ceiling Fan(60watt) 12 720
Fluorescent Lamp(40W) 21 840
Air conditioner(1000w) 8 8000
Computer(120W) 1 120
Xerox machine(1280) 1 1280 10960
Fluorescent Lamp(40W) 16 640 1240
Air conditioner(1000w) 4 4000 4940
Computer(120W) 1 120 400

Syndicate Ceiling Fan(60watt) 2 120

bank
Computer(120W) 5 600 800
C. Fluorescent Lamp(40W) 3 120
Fax machine (150) 1 150 1510
Fax machine (150) 1 150 1510
Fax machine (150) 1 150 1510
Fax machine (150) 1 150 1510
C. Fluorescent Lamp(40W) 8 320 500
116A Ceiling Fan(60watt) 9 540
116B Ceiling Fan(60watt) 7 420
118 C. Fluorescent Lamp(40W) 10 400
119 Fluorescent Lamp(40W) 2 80
Pedestal fan(60watt) 6 360
Projector(200) 1 200 9960
201 Air conditioner(1000w) 19 19000
Ceiling Fan(60watt) 33 1980

Projector(200) 1 200
Xerox machine(1280) 2 2560 25540
English Ceiling Fan(60watt) 6 360
Lab
Computer(120W) 1 120 2360
Computer Ceiling Fan(60watt) 21 1260
Lab
Computer(120W) 128 15360
Corridor Fluorescent Lamp(40W) 17 680 680
Toilet Fluorescent Lamp(40W) 8 320
Incandescent Lamp(100W) 8 800
Exhaust Fan(60W) 4 240
Aqua guard (650W) 1 650 2010
The transformer 2 (Academic Block) 250 KVA supplies power to

the Electrical department, Chemistry and Physics Department,
Instrumentation and Electronics and Information Technology
Departments and various other classrooms. The loads
connected are given in the following table:
NO. OF
ROOM NO LOAD TYPE RATING(W) TOTAL W)
LOAD


Printer(60W) 3 180 2000
corridor Incandescent Lamp(100W) 4 400 400
Electronics
Lab.
Socket(200w) 14 2800 3760
Exam
Dept.
Xerox Machine(1280) 2 2560
Printer(60W) 2 120 5540
Socket
136 A Ceiling Fan(60watt) 6 360
136 B Ceiling Fan(60watt) 7 420
Printer(60W) 1 60 1260
Printer(60W) 1 60 1260
µp Lab. Ceiling Fan(60watt) 8 480
Socket(200w) 12 2400 10360


Exhaust Fan(60W) 4 240 1360
Corridor Incandescent Lamp(100W) 6 600 600
Computer(120W) 6 720 1000
Printer(60W) 1 60 1320
Printer(60W) 1 60
Printer(60W) 1 60
Printer(60W) 2 120
Refrigerator (1000W) 1 1000 2660
Printer(60W) 2 120 1440
Printer(60W) 1 60 1560
123 B Ceiling Fan(60watt) 6 360
123 A Ceiling Fan(60watt) 8 480


Exhaust Fan(60W) 4 240 1360
Printer(60W) 3 180 1180
The transformer 3 (Workshop and Laboratory) 100 KVA supplies

power to the Workshop and Labs. of various departments. The
loads connected are given in the following table:
NO. OF RATING(
ROOM NO. LOAD TYPE TOTAL W)
LOAD W)
BsnlTower Air conditioner(1500w) 2 3000
Socket (1000W) 2 2000
Socket(200W) 5 1000 6080
Electrical Ceiling Fan(60watt) 8 480
lab 1
Power socket(1000W) 10 10000
Socket(200W) 4 800 11760
Electrical Ceiling Fan(60watt) 7 420
lab 2
Socket(200W) 18 360 9140
Civil lab 1 Ceiling Fan(60watt) 5 300
Socket(200W) 5 10000 16780
Civil lab 2 Ceiling Fan(60watt) 4 240

Socket(200W) 8 1600 8240
Mechanical Ceiling Fan(60watt) 4 140
lab 1
Socket (200) 6 1200 1820
lab 2
Socket (200) 6 1200 1640
lab 3
Socket (200) 5 1000 1560
lab 4
Socket (200W) 6 1200
Refrigerator (1000W) 1 1000
Computer (120W) 2 240 3080
Corridor Fluorescent Lamp(40W) 12 480 480
Exhaust Fan(60W) 4 240
Aqua guard (650W) 1 650 1450
Street light Mercury light(250W) 40 10000 10000

Chapter 2
POWER FACTOR
2.1 Real, Reactive & Apparent Power
2.2 Definition of Power Factor
2.3 What is Power Factor?
2.4 Measurement of Power Factor
2.5 Causes of low Power Factor
2.6 Disadvantages of low Power Factor
2.7 Present Scenario in CET

2.1 Real, Reactive & Apparent

Power
R
eactive loads such as inductors and capacitors dissipate
zero power, yet the fact that they drop voltage and draw
current gives the deceptive impression that they actually
do dissipate power. This “phantom power” is called reactive
power, and it is measured in a unit called Volt-Amps-Reactive
(VAR), rather than watts. The mathematical symbol for reactive
power is (unfortunately) the capital letter Q. The actual amount
of power being used, or dissipated, in a circuit is called true
power, and it is measured in watts (symbolized by the capital
letter P, as always). The combination of reactive power and true
power is called apparent power, and it is the product of a
circuit's voltage and current, without reference to phase angle.
Apparent power is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps (VA) and
is symbolized by the capital letter S.
As a rule, true power is a function of a circuit's dissipative

elements, usually resistances (R). Reactive power is a function
of a circuit's reactance (X). Apparent power is a function of a
circuit's total impedance (Z). Since we're dealing with scalar
quantities for power calculation, any complex starting
quantities such as voltage, current, and impedance must be
represented by their polar magnitudes, not by real or imaginary
rectangular components. There are several power equations
relating the three types of power to resistance, reactance, and
impedance (all using scalar quantities):

These three types of power -- true, reactive, and apparent

-- relate to one another in trigonometric form. We call this the
power triangle:
FIGURE 3
2.2 Definition Of Power Factor

T
he power factor of an AC electric power system is
defined as the ratio of the real power to the apparent
power, and is a number between 0 and 1 (frequently
expressed as a percentage, e.g. 0.5 pf = 50% pf).
If φ is the impedance phase angle between the current and

voltage, then the power factor is equal to cos φ, and:
Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by

definition a dimensionless number between 0 and 1. When
power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive,
and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each
cycle. When the power factor is 1, all the energy supplied by
the source is consumed by the load. Power factors are usually
stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase
angle, where leading indicates a negative sign.
If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply,

current and voltage will change polarity in step, the power
factor will be unity (1), and the electrical energy flows in a
single direction across the network in each cycle. Inductive
loads such as transformers and motors (any type of wound coil)
consume reactive power with current waveform lagging the
voltage. Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried
cable generate reactive power with current phase leading the
voltage. Both types of loads will absorb energy during part of
the AC cycle, which is stored in the device's magnetic or
electric field, only to return this energy back to the source
during the rest of the cycle.
2.3 What is Power Factor?

FIGURE 4
T
o understand power factor, visualize a horse pulling a
railroad car down a railroad track as shown in fig. 4.
Because the railroad ties are uneven, the horse must pull
the car from the side of the track. The horse is pulling the
railroad car at an angle to the direction of the car’s travel. The
power required to move the car down the track is the working
(real) power. The effort of the horse is the total (apparent)
power. Because of the angle of the horse’s pull, not all of the
horse’s effort is used to move the car down the track. The car
will not move sideways; therefore, the sideways pull of the
horse is wasted effort or nonworking (reactive) power.
The angle of the horse’s pull is related to power factor,

which is defined as the ratio of real (working) power to
apparent (total) power. If the horse is led closer to the center of
the track, the angle of side pull decreases and the real power
approaches the value of the apparent power. Therefore, the
ratio of real power to apparent power (the power factor)
approaches 1. As the power factor approaches 1, the reactive
(nonworking) power approaches 0.
2.4 Measurement of Power Factor
P
ower factor in a single-phase circuit (or balanced three-
phase circuit) can be measured with the wattmeter-
ammeter-voltmeter method, where the power in watts is
divided by the product of measured voltage and current. The
power factor of a balanced polyphase circuit is the same as that
of any phase. The power factor of an unbalanced polyphase
circuit is not uniquely defined.

FIGURE 5
A direct reading power factor meter can be made with a

moving coil meter of the electrodynamic type as shown in fig.
5, carrying two perpendicular coils on the moving part of the
instrument. The field of the instrument is energized by the
circuit current flow. The two moving coils, A and B, are
connected in parallel with the circuit load. One coil, A, will be
connected through a resistor and the second coil, B, through an
inductor, so that the current in coil B is delayed with respect to
current in A. At unity power factor, the current in A is in phase
with the circuit current, and coil A provides maximum torque,
driving the instrument pointer toward the 1.0 mark on the
scale. At zero power factor, the current in coil B is in phase with
circuit current, and coil B provides torque to drive the pointer
towards 0. At intermediate values of power factor, the torque
provided by the two coils adds and the pointer takes up
intermediate positions.
Another electromechanical instrument is the polarized-

vane type. In this instrument a stationary field coil produces a
rotating magnetic field (connected either directly to polyphase
voltage sources or to a phase-shifting reactor if a single-phase
application). A second stationary field coil carries a current
proportional to current in the circuit. The moving system of the
instrument consists of two vanes which are magnetized by the
current coil. In operation the moving vanes take up a physical
angle equivalent to the electrical angle between the voltage
source and the current source. This type of instrument can be
made to register for currents in both directions, giving a 4-
quadrant display of power factor or phase angle.
Digital instruments can be made that either directly

measure the time lag between voltage and current waveforms
and so calculate the power factor, or by measuring both true
and apparent power in the circuit and calculating the quotient.
The first method is only accurate if voltage and current are

sinusoidal; loads such as rectifiers distort the waveforms from

the sinusoidal shape.
2.5 Cause of Low Power Factor

The various causes of low operating power factor are:
• All AC motor and transformers operate at lagging power
factor. The power factor falls with the decrease in load.
• Arc lamps and electric discharge lamps operate at low
lagging power factor.
• Due to increased supply mains voltage, which usually
occurs during low load periods such as lunch hours, night
hour etc, the magnetizing current of inductive reactance
increases and power factor of the electrical plant comes
down as a whole.
• Industrial heating furnace such as arc and induction
furnaces operates on very lagging power factor.
• The power factor at which motors operate falls due to
improper maintenance and repairs of motors. In repaired
motors, less wire is sometimes used than originally wound
motors, therefore, in such motors leakage of magnetic flux
increases and power factor of the motor decreases.
Reactive power required by inductive loads increases the
amount of apparent power (measured in kVA) in the
distribution system. The increase in reactive and apparent
power causes the power factor to decrease.
Fig. 6 shows the operating power factor of various devices.

FIGURE 6
2.6 Disadvantage of Low Power

Factor
For load P to be supplied at terminal voltage V and at a
power factor cos Φ by a 3 Φ balanced system then load current
is given by:
I=P / (√3VcosΦ)
If V and P are constant the load current I is inversely
proportional to power factor i.e. lower the power factor higher
is the current and vice versa. The higher current due to poor
power factor affects the system and results in the following
disadvantages:
• Rating of generators and transformer are proportional to

their output current, hence inversely proportional to power
factor. Therefore they have to supply the same load at
lower power factor thus leading to de rating of the device.
• Cross sectional area of the bus bar and the contact
surface of switch gear are required to be enlarged for the
same power to be delivered but at low power factor.
• For same power to be transmitted at low power factor
current is high hence conductor size has to be increased
for same current density.
• Energy loss is directly proportional to square of the
current; hence more loss occurs at low power factor.
• Low lagging power factor results in large voltage drop in
generators, transformers, transmission lines and
distributors which results in poor regulation.
• Low lagging power factor results in reduced handling
capacity of all elements of the system.
The significance of power factor lies in the fact that utility

companies supply customers with volt-amperes, but bill them
for watts. Power factors below 1.0 require a utility to generate
more than the minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the
real power (watts). This increases generation and transmission
costs. For example, if the load power factor were as low as 0.7,
the apparent power would be 1.4 times the real power used by

the load. Line current in the circuit would also be 1.4 times the
current required at 1.0 power factor, so the losses in the circuit
would be doubled (since they are proportional to the square of
the current). Alternatively all components of the system such as
generators, conductors, transformers, and switchgear would be
increased in size (and cost) to carry the extra current.
Utilities typically charge additional costs to customers who

have a power factor below some limit, which is typically 0.9 to
0.95. Engineers are often interested in the power factor of a
load as one of the factors that affect the efficiency of power
transmission.
2.7 Present Scenario in CET
T
he present scenario of power consumption in CET for the
electricity bill of month 01/12/2007-31/12/2007 issued by
The Central Electricity Supply Company Of Orissa Limited
(CESCO) is as follows:
Consumption type: commercial
Metering: HV
Maximum Contract Demand: 200 KW
Transformer KVA: 250 KVA
Supply Volt KV: 11 KV
Load Factor: 50%
Required power factor: 90%
Actual power factor: 77%
Fall in power factor: 13%
Three meters have been installed for measuring the KWH,

KVAH, KVARH readings respectively.
METER Last Reading Curr. Mul. Net

Reading Factor Reading
KWH 5408.79 5460.61 600 31092.00
KVAH 7648.41 7715.50 600 40254.00
KVARH 5104.14 5146.19 600 25230.00
RENT CHARGES:
RUPEES

A: KWH charge for 31092 units @3.00x31092

93276.00
B: Demand Charge for 200KW @Rs 50/KW
10000.00
C: low voltage surcharge @0.0% of A+B
0.00
D: P.F incentive@ 0.5% for rise above 95%
0.00
E: Penalty on A+B for 13% fall in P.F
6712.94
F: Electricity Charge A+B+C-D+E
109988.95
G: Delayed payment Surcharge
11.95
H: Meter Rent 0.00
I: Customer Charge 250.00
J: Reconnection Charge
0.00
K: Miscellaneous Charge H+I+J
250.00
Thus our college CET is paying a penalty of Rs 6712.95 for

low power factor of 13%. This low power factor is to be
improved.

Chapter 3
IMPROVEMENT OF POWER
FACTOR
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Methods of Improving Power Factor
3.3 Low Tension Power Capacitors
3.4 Automatic Capacitor Switch
3.5 The Capacitor Unit And Bank Configurations
3.6 Location Of Capacitor banks
3.7 Capacitor Bank Protection
3.8 Harmonics Flow In Electrical systems

3.1 Introduction
S
hunt capacitor banks are used to improve the quality of
the electrical supply and the efficient operation of the
power system. Studies show that a flat voltage profile on
the system can significantly reduce line losses. Shunt capacitor
banks are relatively inexpensive and can be easily installed
anywhere on the network.
This chapter reviews principles of shunt capacitor bank

design for pole mounted substation installation and basic
protection techniques along with special circuit design for
harmonic suppression filers. The protection of shunt capacitor
bank includes:
a) Protection against internal bank faults and faults that
occur inside the capacitor unit.
b) Protection of the bank against system disturbances.
3.2 Methods for improving Power

factor
The power factor can be improved by implementing various
methods
1. Static VAR compensation
2. Synchronous condenser
3. Phase advancer
But in commercial buildings or non industrial consumers

generally adopt the process of static VAR compensation. Static
VAR compensation method is nothing but the usage of static
devices like capacitor banks in parallel with the equipment
operating at lagging power factor such as induction motors,
fluorescent tubes etc. Static capacitors have the advantage of
• Small losses or higher efficiency (about 99.6%),

• Low initial cost,

• Little maintenance owing to the absence of rotating parts
• Easy installation being lighter in weight and
• Capability to operate under ordinary atmospheric
condition.
The main disadvantage of SCB is that its reactive power

output is proportional to the square of the voltage and
consequently when the voltage is low and the system needs
them most, they are the least efficient.
3.3 Low Tension Power Capacitors

These are available in wide range such as mixed dielectric
(MD), metalized poly propylene (MPP) and film foil (FF) type
capacitors are manufactured using the latest automated
production technologies under strict quality control and in
controlled environmental conditions, for a variety of
applications. Their design adds a touch of elegance ton
electrical equipments.
ADVANTAGES OF USING LT POWER CAPACITORS:

• Reduced power costs due to reduction in KVA demand.
• Elimination of power factor penalties.
• Gain in system capacity due to reduction in total current
drawn from the mains.
• Reduction in power losses, increase in efficiency of the
system and consequent reduction in electricity bills.
• Reduction in voltage drop and improved voltage
regulation.
• Engineered solutions using detuned LT power capacitors
can reduce harmonic distortion and risks of harmonic
overloads thus enhancing overall performance and
reliability of induction motors, transformers and other
electrical installations.
FLEXI-BANK KIT:
Flexi bank, our latest user friendly innovation, helps to
form a capacitor bank at site in less than an hour. Flexi bank
kits comprise the following accessories:

• Mounting frame
• Cable termination enclosure
ADVANTAGES OF FLEXI-BANK KIT:

• Wide range of bank output in KVAR.
• Easy maintenance.
• Easy cable termination of aluminum or copper supply

cables.
• Easy electrical checking of individual units in the bank

even when bank is energized.
• Minimizes time required to procure and install capacitor

banks.
• Better electrical availability of capacitor banks.
• Possibility of upgrading KVAR output.
METALLISED POLYPROPELENE DIELECTRIC, SELF-

HEALING TYPE CAPACITOR (M.P.P):
This is low-loss dielectric. This means that the capacitor
runs cool, normally only about 1 degree centigrade above
ambient temperature .The wattage dissipated, would typically
be about less than 0.5 W/KVAR compared with 5 W/KVAR for an
equivalent conventional impregnated paper capacitor. This
offers substantial energy saving in large stations.
SELF HEALING:
The capacitor electrodes of a metalized polypropylene film
capacitor consist of thin layers of metal deposited on to the
polypropylene under high vacuum .An isolated dielectric
breakdown within the capacitor winding is repaired by
vaporization on the metal deposit around the fault area. The
capacitor remains unchanged except for an insignificant
capacitance loss. A capacitor with self healing characteristics is
unlikely to fail in short circuit under normal working conditions.
FOR HEAVY DUTY APPLICATIONS, DOUBLE DIELECTRIC

CAPACITORS:

These meet the demands of heavy duty industrial loads.

These loads are rectifiers, induction furnaces large rolling mills
etc. the basic reason which makes these loads arduous in
nature is that, each load gives rise to high over current or high
over voltage in an irregular manner. Rectifier load or arc
furnace generates harmonic voltages which would impose
continuous and severe over current on capacitor.
In order to build up the correct degree of protection, a
capacitor needs to be given a higher over current and also
higher surge voltage withstands capacity. This dual
consideration has been taken into account to evolve a different
construction of capacitors. The basic cell winding of this M.P.P.
design remains the same as that for a conventional design. This
design of the capacitor has been evolved keeping in mind the
basic simplicity of construction of primary M.P.P. cell and its
superiority in the capital and operating costs. The new design
retains all these features and still raised by about a factor of
over current as also the surge voltage with stand capacity.
ALL POLY-PROPYLENE (A.P.P.):

In this type one layer of plain polypropylene and one layer
of aluminum foil, generally oil filled under vacuum like
conventional impregnated paper capacitor. Elements are made
flat and pressure is given for making stack. In built fuse is given
to each element
MIXED DIELECTRIC TYPE (M.D.):

In this type dielectrics are one layer of paper one layer
plain polypropylene and aluminum foil. M.D. type also requires
to impregnate stack and provided with fuse like A.P.P.

Some of the Salient Features of the Automatic Capacitor Switch
are:
• Current control to be adjusted to minimum 5
amperes with respect to primary load current at .4
KV.
• Two pointers are to be set at meter relay
provided at the control panel according to load
power factor.
• Automatic/manual control.
• Better voltage regulation.

• No unusual voltage rise or drop due to load
variation.
• Better reliability.
BENEFITS OF AUTOMATIC CAPACITOR SWITCH:

• Extra KVA is pumped into the system so capital
investment for this equivalent KVA is conserved.
• Conservation of energy.
• Line loss minimum.
• Efficiency of distribution.
• Less maintenance/manpower/light-weight.
• Easy to mount at the existing pole without

incurring any substantial expenditure.
• Ideal for unmanned.
APPLICATION:
• To compensate reactive components due to
variable load.
• To achieve conservation of energy.
COMPARISON BETWEEN LT SWITCHED AND FIXED

TYPE CAPACITOR CONTROL:
Automatic Capacitor Fixed Type Capacitor

Switch Control
1.Suitable for variable 1. Suitable for fixed load.
load.
2. Automatic Switching 2. Automatic Switching

and smooth control on not possible as it is

power suitable for fixed load.
factor for variable load
can be achieved.
3. Suitable for pole 3. Only substation
mounted type on mounting type and
existing structure involving the
without involving any additional civil
additional civil cost etc. construction.
4. SF-6 Gas filled 4. Maintenance cost
Automatic substantial.
Switch is used and
almost
maintenance free.
5. Light Weight. 5. Heavy Weight.
6. Less down time. 6.More down time.
3.5 The Capacitor Unit And Bank

Configurations
THE CAPACITOR UNIT:
The capacitor unit, Fig. 7 shown on next page, is the

building block of a shunt capacitor bank. The capacitor unit is
made up of individual capacitor elements, arranged in parallel/
series connected groups, within a steel enclosure. The internal
discharge device is a resistor that reduces the unit residual
voltage to 50V or less in 5 min. Capacitor units are available in
a variety of voltage ratings (240 V to 24940 V) and sizes (2.5
KVAR to about 1000 KVAR).
CAPACITOR UNIT CAPABILITIES:
Relay protection of shunt capacitor banks requires some

knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of the capacitor
unit and associated electrical equipment including: individual

capacitor unit, bank switching devices, fuses, voltage and

current sensing devices. Capacitors are intended to be
operated at or below their rated voltage and frequency as they
are very sensitive to these values; the reactive power
generated by a capacitor is proportional to both of them
(KVAR=2∏f V2). The IEEE Standard 18-1992 and Standard 1036-
1992 specify the standard ratings of the capacitors designed for
shunt connection to ac systems and also provide application
guidelines.
FIGURE 7
These standards stipulate that:

1. Capacitor units should be capable of continuous operation up
to 110% of rated terminal rms voltage and a crest voltage not
exceeding 1.2 x √2 of rated rms voltage, including harmonics
but excluding transients. The capacitor should also be able to
carry 135% of nominal current.
2. Capacitors units should not give less than 100% or more
than 115% of rated reactive power at rated sinusoidal voltage
and frequency.
3. Capacitor units should be suitable for continuous operation
at up to 135%of rated reactive power caused by the combined
effects of:
• Voltage in excess of the nameplate rating at fundamental
frequency, but not over 110% of rated rms voltage.

• Harmonic voltages superimposed on the fundamental

frequency.
• Reactive power manufacturing tolerance of up to 115% of

rated reactive power.
BANK CONFIGURATION:
The use of fuses for protecting the capacitor units and it

location (inside the capacitor unit on each element or outside
the unit) is an important subject in the design of SCBs. They
also affect the failure mode of the capacitor unit and influence
the design of the bank protection. Depending on the application
any of the following configurations are suitable for shunt
capacitor banks:
(a) Externally fused

An individual fuse, externally mounted between the
capacitor unit and the capacitor bank fuse bus, typically
protects each capacitor unit. The capacitor unit can be
designed for a relatively high voltage because the external fuse
is capable of interrupting a high-voltage fault. Use of capacitors
with the highest possible voltage rating will result in a
capacitive bank with the fewest number of series groups.
A failure of a capacitor element welds the foils together

and short circuits the other capacitor elements connected in
parallel in the same group. The remaining capacitor elements in
the unit remain in service with a higher voltage across them
than before the failure and an increased in capacitor unit
current. If a second element fails the process repeats itself
resulting in an even higher voltage for the remaining elements.
Successive failures within the same unit will make the fuse to
operate, disconnecting the capacitor unit and indicating the
failed one.

Externally fused SCBs are configured using one or more

series groups of parallel-connected capacitor units per phase
(Fig. 8). The available unbalance signal level decreases as the
number of series groups of capacitors is increased or as the
number of capacitor units in parallel per series group is
increased. However, the KVAR rating of the individual capacitor
unit may need to be smaller because a minimum number of
parallel units are required to allow the bank to remain in service
with one fuse or unit out.
FIGURE 8
(b) Internally fused

Each capacitor element is fused inside the capacitor unit.
The fuse is a simple piece of wire enough to limit the current
and encapsulated in a wrapper able to withstand the heat
produced by the arc. Upon a capacitor element failure, the fuse
removes the affected element only. The other elements,
connected in parallel in the same group, remain in service but
with a slightly higher voltage across them. Fig. 9 illustrates a
typical capacitor bank utilizing internally fused capacitor units.
In general, banks employing internally fused capacitor units are
configured with fewer capacitor units in parallel and more
series groups of units than are used in banks employing
externally fused capacitor units. The capacitor units are
normally large because a complete unit is not expected to fail.

(c) Fuse less shunt capacitor banks

The capacitor units for fuse less capacitor banks are
identical to those for externally fused described above. To form
a bank, capacitor units are connected in series strings between
phase and neutral, shown in Fig. 10. The protection is based on
the capacitor elements (within the unit) failing in a shorted
mode, short- circuiting the group. When the capacitor element
fails it welds and the capacitor unit remains in service. The
voltage across the failed capacitor element is then shared
among all the remaining capacitor element groups in the series.
For example, is there are 6 capacitor units in series and each
unit has 8 element groups in series there is a total of 48
element groups in series. If one capacitor element fails, the
FIGURE 9
element is shortened and the voltage on the remaining

elements is 48/47 or about a 2% increase in the voltage. The
capacitor bank continues in service; however, successive
failures of elements will lead to the removal of the bank. The
fuse less design is not usually applied for system voltages less
than about 34.5 kV. The reason is that there shall be more than
10 elements in series so that the bank does not have to be
removed from service for the failure of one element because
the voltage across the remaining elements would increase by a
factor of about E (E – 1), where E is the number of elements in
the string.

The discharge energy is small because no capacitor units

are connected directly in parallel. Another advantage of fuse
less banks is that the unbalance protection does not have to be
delayed to coordinate with the fuses.
(d) Unfused shunt capacitor Banks

Contrary to the fuse
less configuration, where FIGURE 10
the units are connected
in series, the unfused
shunt capacitor bank
uses a series/parallel
connection of the
capacitor units. The
unfused approach would
normally be used on
banks below 34.5 kV,
where series strings of
capacitor units are not practical, or on higher voltage banks
with modest parallel energy. This design does not require as
many capacitor units in parallel as an externally fused bank.
3.6 Location Of Capacitor Banks

CENTRAL COMPENSATION:
When the main purpose is to reduce reactive power
purchase due to power suppliers tariffs, central compensation
is preferable. Reactive loading conditions within a plant are not
affected if compensation is made on the high voltage side.
When made on the low voltage side, the transformer is
relieved. Cost of installation on the high voltage and low
voltage sides respectively determine where to install the
capacitor.
GROUP COMPENSATION:
Group compensation is preferable to central
compensation if sufficiently large capacitors can be utilized. In
addition to what is obtained at central compensation, load on
cables is reduced and losses decrease. Reduced losses often
make group compensation more profitable than central
compensation. Because of large available group compensation
is suitable for harmonic filters.
INDIVIDUAL COMPENSATION:
The advantage with individual compensation is that
existing switching and protective devices for the machine to be
compensated can also be utilized for switching and protection
of capacitors. The costs are there by limited solely to
purchasing the capacitors. Another advantage is gained by the
capacitor being automatically switched in and out with the load.
However this signifies that individual compensation is solely
motivated for apparatus and machines which have a very good
load factor.
Usually, in a long feeder, receiving end voltage bucks

considerably due to drop and consumers at this is affected.
Therefore, it is essential to install the switched capacitor nearer
to the receiving end of the feeder where the load concentration
is more. Subsequently, the improvement in power factor and
voltage will be experienced by consumers who are connected
after the tapping point of switched capacitor in the system.
However prior to the installation of the switched capacitor at
set location, the power factor, the peak demand and off peak
demand load current should be noted carefully.
3.7 Capacitor Bank Protection

The protection of SCB’s involves:
a) Protection of the bank against faults occurring within
the bank including those inside the capacitor unit.
b) Protection of the bank against system disturbances and
faults.
This paper only discusses relay based protection schemes

that provide alarm to indicate an unbalance within the bank
and initiate a shutdown of the bank in case of faults that may
lead to catastrophic failures. It does not deal with the means
and strategies to protect individual elements or capacitor units.
The protection selected for a capacitor bank depends on bank
configuration, whether or not the capacitor bank is grounded
and the system grounding.

PROTECTION AGAINST INTERNAL BANK FAULTS:
a) Phase to Phase faults

Usually individual phases of a SCB are built on separate
structures where phase to phase faults are unlikely. However,
consider an ungrounded single wye capacitor bank with two
series groups per phase where all three phases are installed
upon a single steel structure. A mid-rack fault between 2
phases as shown in Fig. 11 is possible and will go undetected.
This fault does not cause an unbalance of the neutral voltage
(or neutral current if grounded) as the healthy voltage is
counter balance by the 2 other faulty phase voltages.
The most efficient protection for mid-rack phase to phase faults
is the negative sequence current. Tripping shall be delayed to
coordinate with other relays in the system.
FIGURE 11
b) Faults on capacitor banks

Time over current relays for phase and ground are required to
provide protection for phase and ground faults on the
connecting feeder (or bus work) between the bank bus and the
first capacitor unit. Directional over current relays looking into
the bank are preferred to avoid mal operation of the TOC 51N
for unbalance system faults.
PROTECTION AGAINST SYSTEM DISTURBANCES AND

FAULTS:
The capacitor bank may be subjected to over

voltages resulting from abnormal system operating conditions.
If the system voltage exceeds the capacitor capability the bank
should be removed from service. The removal of the capacitor

bank lowers the voltage in the vicinity of the bank reducing the
overvoltage on other system equipment. Time delayed or
inverse time delayed phase overvoltage relays is used.
SYSTEM OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION:
The capacitor bank may be subjected to over voltages

resulting from abnormal system operating conditions. If the
system voltage exceeds the capacitor capability the bank
should be removed from service. The removal of the capacitor
bank lowers the voltage in the vicinity of the bank reducing the
over voltage on other system equipment. Time delayed or
inverse time relayed phase over voltage relays are used.
RELAYS FOR BANK CLOSING CONTROL:
Once disconnected from the system a shunt capacitor

bank cannot be re-inserted immediately due to the electrical
charge trapped within the capacitor units, otherwise
catastrophic damage to the circuit breaker or switch can occur.
To accelerate the discharge of the bank, each individual
capacitor unit has a resistor to discharge the trapped charges
within 5min. Under voltage or undercurrent relays with timers
are used to detect the bank going out of service and prevent
closing the breaker until the set time has elapsed.
The protection of shunt capacitor banks uses simple, well

known relaying principles such as over voltage, over currents.
However, it requires the protection engineer to have a good
understanding of the capacitor unit, its arrangement and bank
design issues before embarking in its protection.
Unbalance is the most important protection in a shunt

capacitor bank, as it provides fast and effective protection to
assure a long and reliable life for the bank. To accomplish its
goal, unbalance protection requires high degree of sensitivity
that might be difficult to achieve.
3.8 Harmonics Flow In Electrical System

1. WITHOUT CAPACITOR
First consider a plant without capacitors. Non linear loads

on the power system will act as a constant source of harmonic
current. The harmonic current will flow in the direction of lowest
impedance. Since the impedance of the source is small, the
harmonics in general will flow back to the source and the
harmonic voltages that are produced by the flow of harmonic
currents will usually be insufficient to cause any problems inside
the plant Only if the harmonic loads are a high percentage of the
transformer capacity will a situation such as this create harmonic
problems within the plant.
FIGURE 12
2. CAPACITOR INSTALLED
In the plant where power factor correction capacitors are

installed, the normal flow of Harmonics may be modified if
Resonance conditions are set up by the capacitor and
transformer. The Capacitor itself does not generate harmonics.
Depending upon amount of capacitance and location of
connection, the capacitor can create a harmful resonant circuit
with inductive impedance of the system, near to the frequency
of major harmonics present in the system. The resonant
condition will amplify the magnitude of the harmonics flowing
within the plant.

FIGURE 13
HOW CAN HARMONIC PROBLEMS BE

ELIMINATED:
1- Detuning Resonance:
There are number of ways to avoid resonance when
installing capacitors. In large system it may be possible to avoid
resonance by relocating the capacitors in the system and varying
the KVAR output rating of the capacitors. With Automatic
capacitor switching there will be different resonant frequency for
each step. In such cases it is very difficult to avoid resonance.
Solution: Harmonic blocking filter

To avoid resonance, a detuned reactor must be connected
in series with each capacitor such that the capacitor/reactor
combination is inductive at the critical frequencies but
capacitive at fundamental frequency. The percentage of reactor
should be decided carefully to avoid resonance at any other
predominant frequency.

FIGURE 14
2- Harmonic Suppression:
Solution: Harmonic Absorption Filters

Harmonic currents can be significantly reduced in an
electrical system by using a harmonic absorption filter.
Harmonic filter is basically a series combination of capacitor
and reactor tuned to provide low resistance path to the
designated frequency. In theory, the impedance of the filter is
zero at the tuning frequency. Therefore the harmonic current
is absorbed by the filter. This together with the natural
resistance of the circuit means that only a small level of
harmonic current will flow in the network.
FIGURE 15
BENEFITS OF HARMONIC ABSORPTION

FILTER:

There are the following advantages of harmonic filter:

• Reduction in Total Harmonic Distortion.
• Increase in Power factor.
• Reduction in KVA demand
• Reduction in Losses.
• Increase in KVA Demand capacity of Transformer.
HARMONICS EFFECT IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS:
In case of a commercial building the following background of

harmonics can be obtained:
• Neutral wire overheating.
• High unit consumption.
Harmonic analysis showed neutral wire is drawing high level of

third harmonic
The harmonic source is the UPS system. The solution is by
using third harmonic filtering banks. System condition after
installation of capacitor bank:
• No overloading of neutral wire.
• 4% reduction in unit consumption.
Chapter 4
SYSTEM DESIGN, OPTIMIZATION AND
PAY-BACK ANALYSIS
4.1 KVAR To Be Compensated
4.2 Static VAR Capacitors Employed
4.3 Specification Of Capacitor Bank
4.5 Protection And Mountings
4.6 Payback Period Calculation
4.7 Economic Analysis
4.1 KVAR To Be Compensated:

Maximum demand= 200 KW
Current power factor =0.77 (from the bill)
Apparent power S= P / cosφ = 200 / 0.77= 260 KVA
Reactive power Q= S sinφ= 260 x 0.638 =166 KVAR……..(i)
Power factor needs to be improved to cosφ’ = 0.90
Apparent power S’ =P / cosφ’= 200 / 0.90 = 222.2 KVA

Reactive power Q’= S’ sinφ’= 222.2 x 0.4358 = 97 KVAR………

(ii)
From equation (i) and (ii) ,
KVAR to be injected in the supply to improve the power factor
from 0.77 to 0.90 is 166 - 97=69 KVAR.
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
NOMOGRAM FOR CALCULATION OF REQUIRED KVAR

RATING
For our case, maximum Load= 200 KW

Present Power factor= 0.77
Desired Power factor= 0.90
From the NOMOGRAM, the multiplying factor= 0.34
Thus Capacitor rating Required = load x mul. Factor
= 200 x 0.34
= 68 KVAR

4.2 Static VAR Capacitors Employed
Our SVAR capacitors have a long life cycle up to 100000

hrs .Our capacitors are even corona free and are very easy in
handling. As long as their safety precautions are concerned, we
are equipped following safety features:
• Dry type design

• Self healing type
• Over pressure disconnecter
• Non inflammable
• Touch proof terminal
Our product also comprises some striking feature

regarding its mounting application and general environment.
They are:
Mounting
• Reduced cost of mounting

• Mounting can positioned in any way
• Less maintenance
Environment:
• Easy in disposal.
• Non polluting on PCB
• Eco- friendly
4.3 Specification Of Capacitor Bank

Capacitors Bank 20 KVAR@440V, 50Hz 3 Phase
Rs. 15000 (price according to brand, this being the minimum)

Cost
Life cycle 100000 operating hours
Threaded for secure connection. Leak free gasket seals. 10KVA standoff
Terminals
terminal bushings.
Dielectric Fluid Wet cells-Eccol, lll B liquid NFPA classification.
Flash Point +212 C. Fire Point: +260 C
Dielectric Film Polypropylene
COST OF KVAR CAPACITOR BANK = 4 x 15000= Rs.

60000/- only

It has the following specifications-
No of capacitor banks: 4
Microcontroller based control
Minimum switched bank: 1
Operating voltage: 440 volts
Frequency: 50 Hz
To avoid the inrush switching current, reactors are connected in
series with the automatic switch.
Cost: Rs. 45,000 (minimum price available -Trinity Heavy
Electrical)
4.5 Protection And Mountings

Specification:
Air break switches: 0.4KV, 100A
Fuse: HRC fuse
Cost of protection and mountings = Rs. 20,000/- only
Total expenses of the correction device = 60000 + 45000
+ 20000
= Rs. 1,25,000 /-
only

4.6 Payback Period Calculation

Savings in one month = Rs. 6,712
Saving in a year = Rs. 6,712 x 12 = Rs. 80,544
Assuming zero maintenance and depreciation in the first six
months of installation,
Savings = Rs. 6712 x 6 = Rs. 40,272
After six months, maintenance charges is about 1% of total
installation cost= Rs. 1,25,000 x 0.01 = Rs. 1250/- only
Net savings in a month after six months = Rs. 5,462/- only
Hence, number of months required to recover the total pay-
back
= Rs. (1,25,000 - 40272) / Rs. 5462
= 15.5 months i.e. fifteen month and fifteen days.
Hence, total payback periods= 15.5 + 6= 21.5 months

We know, as mentioned in the capacitor bank specification the
life of capacitor bank is around 1,00,000 working hours.
Assuming the capacitor bank is to be connected to the load
throughout the day, the life period of the capacitor bank
= (1,00,000) / (365 x 24)
= 11.4 years
After the payback period, the remaining life of the capacitor
bank i.e. ( nine years approx.) will make only profit but the
maintenance charges for the capacitor bank will increase from
1 to 5%.
4.7 Economic Analysis

• Mathematically KVAR required is 69 KVAR while from the
NOMOGRAM the KVAR required is 68 KVAR.
• Annual Penalty paid in a year is Rs. 6,712 x 12 = Rs.

80,544.
• The cost Of KVAR Capacitor Bank = 4 x 15000= Rs.

60,000.
• The cost of the Automatic Capacitor Switch is Rs. 45,000.
• The cost of protection and mounting devices is Rs.

20,000.

• The cost involved in installation is Rs. 1,25,000.
• The total payback period is 21 months and 15 days

assuming 1% maintenance charge of installation cost after
6 months.
Chapter 5
CASE STUDY
5.1 Case Study 1
5.2 Case Study 2

5.1 Case Study 1

LOCATION: UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON
What elements constitute Industrial electricity bills?
Industrial electricity bills in Ghana comprise several billing
elements, namely:-
• Maximum demand in KVA,
• Electrical Energy Consumption in KWH,
• Power Factor surcharge,
• National Electrification Scheme (NES) Levy per KWH,
• Street Lighting Levy per kWh, and a Service Charge.
The industrial/commercial electricity user in Ghana can reduce

costs by:-
• Reducing the maximum demand.
• Reducing the electrical energy consumption.
• Improving power factor to avoid paying.
HOW IS POWER FACTOR SURCHARGE APPLIED?

Power Factor surcharges were introduced in January 1995
and consumers whose plant power factors are below a
threshold value of 0.90 are levied with a surcharge according to
the following formula:-
PFS = (0.90 - Pfactual) x MD x MDcharge

where,
MD is the Maximum Demand for the month in kVA,
MDcharge is the maximum demand charge per kVA set by
the PURC in the tariffs.
Pf actual is the actual power factor of the consumer’s
system, measured by the demand meters installed by the
utilities.

Unlike taxes or levies, the Power Factor Surcharge is

avoidable. It is therefore highly recommended for industrial
(including mining) and commercial consumers to avoid this
surcharge by improving plant power factor to 0.90 or above.
As part of measures adopted by government to reduce

recurrent expenditure, the Ministry of Energy is installing Power
Factor Correction equipment in five tertiary institutions. The
first of the five to benefit is the University of Ghana, Legon
where 26 capacitor banks were installed on transformers that
serve the various halls and academic facilities of the University.
The activity was implemented by the Energy Foundation

on behalf of the Ministry of Energy. The contract for the supply
and installation of equipment which was specified by the
Energy Foundation was executed by AB Management & Agency
Ltd, a local energy management firm and one of the few
contract energy managers in the country. Equipment
installation was completed in November 2005.
RESULTS:
The first results of the effect of the installation on the
electricity bills of the University appeared in December when
the bill for the first full month after the installation was
presented. Since then, energy consumption for January and
February 2006 has been collected for analysis. From the
preliminary analysis the following conclusions can be drawn.
The total cost of electricity to the University has reduced

from an average of ¢1.28 billion a month between October
2004 and November 2005, to a three-month average of
¢643million in December 2005 and January 2006. In December
2004 the University paid a total of ¢1.38billion on electricity.


The reduction has been mainly due to a reduction in

Maximum Demand from 4,659kVA in November 2005 to
2,175kVA in December and further to 1,627kVA in January
2006. As a result of the installation Power Factor has
improved from an average of 0.83 to 1. Power Factor
Surcharge which averaged ¢28.5million per month has been
totally eliminated.
A remarkable achievement is the reduction in energy use

and consequent cost. It is important to note that the University
is supplied power at 11kV and is metered at a bulk meter point
before power is distributed to the various transformers
scattered throughout the campus. The installation of the
capacitors has reduced cable losses, (I R) losses to such an
extent that actual electricity consumption has reduced. It is
important also to note that in December 2004, the University
consumed 1,525,130kWh of electricity as against 819,131kWh
in December 2005.
COST SAVING:
Compared to the electricity cost profile before the
installation, the University of Ghana is saving an average of
¢641.49million a month. This means that the cost reduction for

the University of Ghana alone is enough to pay for the

installations in all the five tertiary institutions in less than 4
months. The total cost of the installations in all the five
institutions namely University of Ghana, Legon, University
College of Education, Winneba, GIMPA, University of Cape Coast
and KNUST was ¢1.9billion.
5.2 Case Study 2

Power factor improvement in a plastic factory
Objective:
To evaluate the effect of installing power factor correction
capacitors on equipments in a factory producing plastic sacks
and containers. Also to assess the performance overtime and
the economics of project.
Potential users: All industries, large and small with low power
factor.
Investment cost: Rs. 1,31,200

Savings achieved: Rs .87,709

Pay-back period: 18 months
Introduction:
This project was carried out under the demonstration
programme of the Gridco DSM cell supported by technical
assistance from the UK department for international
development (DFID).
Gridco are aware that there are many small to medium
industrial units in Orissa operating at low power factor values
below the mandatory 0.9 level. As a result these consumers are
paying more for their electricity through penalty charges and
Gridco has to carry the increased reactive power loads. This in
term leads to voltage fluctuations and increased transmission
losses. For this reason Gridco DSM cell have launched a power
factor improvement programme.
Case study summary:

Jagnnath Plastics incurred regular high penalty charges for
low power factor so decided to improve it to Gridco’ s threshold
of 0.9 ( or better) by the installation of capacitors to various
items of equipment. It was expected that PF penalty charges
and maximum demand charges would decrease. The
installation was carried out, a 200 KVAR LT capacitor bank being
installed with the effect that penalty charges averaging Rs
5,900 per month were totally eliminated. Maximum demand fell
by 18 KVA to an average 122 KVA giving the company scope for
reducing their contract demand.
The overall cost for the design, purchase and installation
of the 8 capacitors with control gear, testing and
commissioning was Rs. 1,31,200 giving a simple payback for
the scheme of 1.5 years.
Equipment: Manufacturer / Supplier: LT power capacitors
Background of project:
Contract demand is 205 KVA. Maximum demand in 1996 –
97 was 152 KVA (July).The annual electricity bill (Sep 96- Aug
97) was Rs. 20,45,125 of which Rs. 70, 701 was the power
factor penalty charge. Power factor was a minimum of 0.74 but
had been as low as 0.64 in the previous years. The company

proceeded to have the equipment installed in March 1997. The

installation was completed over one day and disruption to
production was minimal.
Power Factor correction:

In many electrical industrial systems, a great part of the
load is due to electric motors. The coils or windings within the
motors have an inductive element that causes a reactive
current which does no useful work to flow in the circuit.
There are however, methods which can be used to correct

this negative, or lagging KVAR by introducing positive KVAR.
The most common method is to introduce capacitors, which are
devices with no moving parts and so have a very long and
maintenance free life. Introducing capacitor banks will allow the
plant to supply for more KVA.
Description of project:
Power factor correction equipment was installed on the
main incoming supply to the factory. There are 8 capacitors,
each of the ration 25 KVAR controlled automatically by a micro
controller which beings extra capacitance online as required.
Estimation of project cost:

Total investment cost for 8 capacitors and the control
equipment was Rs. 1,31,200.
Assessment of performance:
The power factor at the factory has been improved from a
previous average of 0.81 to an average of 0.92. The effect on
maximum demand has been reduced to an average of 140 to
122 KVA.
Economic Analysis:
• Annual power factor penalty charges for the 12 months
prior to equipment installation were Rs. 87, 709.
• Actual installation cost of power factor correction
equipment was Rs. 12,31,200.
• Power factor penalty charges following installation of
power factor correction equipment were nil.
• Simple pay back is calculated at 1.5 years.

Environmental Benefit:
The reactive current that flows in the circuit, but dose no
useful work, cause the size of the switch gear, fuse gear, cables
and transformers to be greater which means increased cost to
the consumer as well as T & D company.
Future potential:
Nineteen industrial sites located in Cuttack, Jagatpur,
Choudwar and Bhubaneswar areas have been studied by the
DSM cell. Power factor values were found varying from 0.64 to
0.88. Penalty charges were being incurred by most of these
consumers. These 19 companies represent 3% of the small to
medium sized industrial consumers in Orissa (load in access of
100 KW). There is therefore a potential for reducing peak
demand on the transmission and distribution system of Orissa
by an estimated 14 MVA by extrapolation, by power factor
improvement.

Chapter 6
CONCLUSION
CONLCUSION
T
he power factor of a power system is the major of its
economy. So, the design Engineers always attempts to
make this power factor as close as to unity. Power factor
decreases due to the increased usage of inductive loads as we
have discussed in Chapter 2. Therefore the power distribution
companies always sets up a mandatory minimum power factor
at the premises of consumers. In our state the mandatory
power factor is 0.9 described by the Central Electricity
Supply Utility of Orissa. The decrease in power factor below
this reference is compensated by the consumer based on their
maximum demand and the no. of units consumed.
College of Engineering & Technology, Bhubaneswar has

it’s transformers of different ratings and have various inductive
loads which is a major cause of lagging low power factor about
0.77. So, a penalty of Rs. 6,712 is charged on account of 13%
fall.
Hence, to compensate for this decrease in power factor

shunt capacitor method can be used as it’s advantages are
already described in Chapter 3. Proper analysis design and
implementation of this capacitor banks with appropriate
mounting and protecting devices will not only reduce the bill
charges but also make the profit on long term.
FUTURE TRENDS OF THE PROJECT:
The electricity consumption depends upon the

infrastructure, instruments and different loads. The CetB is
going to consume more loads in future after the completion of
main building, hostels, and staff quarters, thereby increasing
the load and also a hike in energy consumption and penalty
charges. The penalty charges in future will be around 4-5 times
after few years. If proper steps to improve the power factor
upto mandatory level will not be taken, then the college will
pay more penalties of around 30 to 40 thousands in a month.
Again, the tariff may increase in the coming years,
which will result in more profits to the college. So the
concerned authority is requested to implement this project in
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, BBSR.

APPENDIX
• Average load: Average of the load occurring on the

power station in a given period is known as average load.
• Capacity factor: It is the ratio of actual energy produced
to maximum possible energy that could have been
produced during a given period.
• Connected load: It is the sum of continuous rating of all
the equipment connected to supply system.
• Demand factor: It is the ratio of maximum demand on
power station to its connected load.
• Depreciation: The decrease in the value of the power
plant equipment and building due to constant use is
known as depreciation.
• Diversity factor: The ratio of sum of individual maximum
demands to the maximum demand on power station.
• Fixed cost: It is the cost which is independent of
maximum demand and unit generated.
• Interest: The cost of use of money is known as interest.
• Load curve: The curve showing the variation of the load
on the power station with reference to time is known as
load curve.
• Load factor: The ratio of average load to maximum
demand during a given period.
• Maximum demand: It is the greatest demand of load on
power station during a given period.
• Payback period: The time between which capital cost is
compensated from the day of installation is known as
payback period.
• Running cost: It is the cost which depends only upon the
number of unit generated.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
WEBSITE:
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_factor
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_factor_correction
• http://peswiki.com/energy/Directory:Power_Factor_Correcti
on
• http://www.elec-toolbox.com/usefulinfo/pfcorrection.htm
• http://www.energycentral.com/centers/calendar/event.cfm
?eid=17639
• http://ambercaps.com/lighting/power_factor_correction_co
ncepts.htm
• http://www.leonardo-energy.org/drupal/taxonomy/term/350
• http://whitepapers.silicon.com/0,39024759,60019660p,00.
htm
• http://powerfactorsolutions.eaton.com/
• http://www.powerfactorsolution.com/8
• http://whitepapers.silicon.com/0,39024759,60031583p,00.
htm?wp_user_rating=1
BOOKS:
• Wadhwa C.L, Power Systems.
• Elgerd Olle.L, An Introduction To Energy Systems, 2nd

edition.

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Project Report May 19, 2008

1.1 Introduction to Power System

1.2 CET and CESCO

1.3 Loads in CET

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 1

1.1 Introduction to Power System

Electric Energy is the most popular form of energy,

A Power System can be subdivided into four major parts:

Power is generated at generating stations, usually located

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 2

The modern distribution system begins as the primary

The most common type of primary is known as a wye

The other type of primary configuration is known as delta.

Transformers are sometimes used to step down from 7200

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 3

It often has circuit breakers and switches so that the

1.2 CET and CESCO

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 4

11-1998, under the license of GRIDCO, after notification by the

College of Engineering and

2. TRANSFORMER 2 (Academic Block)

3. TRANSFORMER 3 (Workshop & Laboratory)

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 5

Type of Vector Group: DY11

Loads of power systems are divided into industrial,

The various loads of CET come under the category of

1.3 Loads in CET

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 6

Syndicate Ceiling Fan(60watt) 2 120

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 7

The transformer 2 (Academic Block) 250 KVA supplies power to

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 8

C. Fluorescent Lamp(40W) 8 320 680

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 9

Toilet Fluorescent Lamp(40W) 8 320

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 10

Toilet Fluorescent Lamp(40W) 8 320

The transformer 3 (Workshop and Laboratory) 100 KVA supplies

Fluorescent Lamp(40W) 10 400

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 12

2.1 Real, Reactive & Apparent Power

2.2 Definition of Power Factor

2.3 What is Power Factor?

2.4 Measurement of Power Factor

2.5 Causes of low Power Factor

2.6 Disadvantages of low Power Factor

2.7 Present Scenario in CET

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 13

2.1 Real, Reactive & Apparent

As a rule, true power is a function of a circuit's dissipative

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 14

These three types of power -- true, reactive, and apparent

2.2 Definition Of Power Factor

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 15

If φ is the impedance phase angle between the current and

Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by

If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply,

2.3 What is Power Factor?

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 16

The angle of the horse’s pull is related to power factor,

2.4 Measurement of Power Factor

Power Factor Correction Of CET Page 17