2011-2012 Lecture 2.2 3.1 Functions Sequences Relations CH3

1
1
Algorithms and Data
Structures (ET3155)
Lecture 2
Functions, Sequence and Relations
(Chapter 3)
Said Hamdioui Carlo Galuzzi
Computer Engineering Lab
Delft University of Technology
2011-2012
S.Hamdioiui, CE, EWI , TUDelft ET3155 Algor it hms and Dat a St r uct ur es, 2011- 2012
2
Previous lecture
Met hods of proofs
Direct proof
Contradiction proof (Indirect proof)
Proof by contrapositive
Proof by cases
Proof by logical equivalence
Proof by induction
3
Goals
Funct ions
Explain t he concept of a funct ion and it s main charact erist ics
Prove if a funct ion has some propert ies ( e. g. , one- t o- one,
ont o, et c)
Sequences
Explain t he concept of a sequence and be able t o manipulat e
t hem
Relat ions
Explain t he concept of Relat ion and it s main propert ies
Prove if a relat ion has some propert ies
Prove t hat a relat ion is an equivalence relat ion
Use a mat rix t o describe a Relat ion and t o prove it s propert ies
2
4
Topics
Functions
Sequences and Strings
Relations
Matrices
5
Topics
Funct ions
Relations
6
Functions (1)
A function f from X to Y (in symbols f : X Y) assigns to each
member of X exactly one member of Y; i.e., if two pairs (x,y)
and (x,y) e f, then y = y
Domain of f = X
Range of f ={y| y=f(x) for some xeX} [Range is a subset of Y]
To visualize a function:
Graph
Arrow diagram
Example 1:
f={(a,3),(b,3),(c,5),(d,1)} is a function
Dom(f) = X = {a, b, c, d},
Rng(f) = {1, 3, 5}
f(a) = f(b) = 3, f(c) = 5, f(d) = 1
Ar r ow di agr am
3
7
Functions (2)
Domain of f = X
Range of f =
{ y | y = f(x) for some x eX}
A function f : X Y assigns to each x in
Dom(f) = X a unique element y in Rng(f)
_ Y.
Therefore, no two pairs in f have the
same first coordinate.
Examples:
X={a,b,c,d}
f1={(a,3), (b,5), (c,1), (a,2),(d,3)}. Is f1 a function?
f2={(a,3),(b,2),(c,5)}. Is f2 a function?
difference wit h relat ions
8
Functions: Example
Let x be a integer and y a positive integer
r = x mod y is the remainder when x is divided by y
Examples:
1 = 13 mod 3
6 = 234 mod 19
4 = 2002 mod 111
mod is called the modulus operator
Modulus operator play an important role in math
and computer science
9
Hash functions
Hashing: a technique that allows fast searching
Element n is stored at position h(n) of a table
h is called the hashing function
Example:
Table with N=11 locations 0, 1, , 10
N has to be a prime to allow probing all cells
h(n) = n mod 11
Insert 15, 558, 32, 132, 102, 5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
132 102 15 5 558 32
4
10
Collision Resolution
Suppose we want to insert 257
257 mod 11 = 4 but cell 4 is already occupied (with 15)
Collision has occurred
Need collision resolution policy
E.g.: find next highest unoccupied cell (0 succeeds 10)
(linear probing)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
132 102 15 5 558 32 257
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
132 102 15 5 558 32
11
Collision Resolution
Suppose we want to insert 257
257 mod 11 = 4 but cell 4 is already occupied (with 15)
Need collision resolution policy
E.g.: use secondary hash function h
2
. Probe sequence:
( h
1
(n) + j h
2
(n) ) mod N where
j=1, 2, N-1, (N is a prime)
Common choice:
h
2
(n) = (m - n mod m) where m<N; m is a prime
Example: [m=5 <N=11]
h1(257)=4; h2(257)= (5- 257 mod 5) = 5-2=3
(h1(257)+h2(257))mod 11 =(4+3) mod 11= 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
132 102 15 5 558 32 257
12
Exercise
For the hash function h(x) = x mod 17 and a table
with cells indexed 0 to 16, show how the table
looks like if the following data is inserted in the
following order:
714, 631, 26, 373, 775, 906, 509, 2032, 42, 4, 136,
1028
Using linear probing:
i.e., find next highest resolution policy
Using double hashing
Use h
2
(n) = (11 - n mod 11) as secondary hash function
Note that m=11 is a prime
5
13
One-to-one functions
A function f : X Y is one-to-one (or injective) if for each
y e Y, there exists at most one x e X with f(x) = y.
Alt ernat ive definit ion: f : X Y is one- t o- one if for each
pair of dist inct element s x
1
, x
2
e X,
if f( x
1
) = f( x
2
) t hen x
1
= x
2
.
Examples:
The funct ion f( x) = 2x+ 1 from t he set of real numbers t o
it self is one- t o- one
The funct ion f : R R defined by f( x) = x
2
is not one- t o-
one, since for every real number x, f( x) = f( - x) .
f: N N defined by f( n) = 2
n
n
2
is not one- t o- one since
f( 2) = f( 4) = 0.
f= { ( 1, a) , ( 2, b) , ( 3, a) } is . . ?
14
Onto functions
A function f : X Y is onto Y (or surjective) if
for each y e Y there exists at least one x e X with
f(x) = y, i.e. Rng(f) = Y. (each y has an x)
Examples
1
2
3
4
a
b
c
d
X
Y
f
1
2
3
4
a
b
c
d
X
Y
f
Ont o ( and one- t o- one)
Not ont o
( and one- t o- one)
15
Bijective functions
A function f : XY is bijective
f is one-to-one and onto
Examples:
A linear function f(x) = ax + b is a bijective function from the set
of real numbers to itself
The function f(x) = x
3
is bijective from the set of real numbers to
itself.
The funct ion f : R R defined by f( x) = x
2
is not bijective
because it is not one- t o- one ( for every real number x,
f( x) = f( - x) ) .
6
16
Inverse function
Given a function y = f(x), the inverse f
-1
is the set
{(y, x) | y = f(x)}.
Example: f={(1,a),(2,b),(3,c)} f
-1
={(a,1),(b,2),(c,3)}
The inverse f
-1
of f is not necessarily a function.
Example: if f(x) = x
2
, then f
-1
(4) = \4 = 2, not a unique
value and therefore f
-1
is not a function.
However, if f is a bijective function, it can be
shown that f
-1
is a function.
17
Exercises!!!
Exam Jan 08:
Given t he following funct ion: f( x) = 3
x
- 2
Define one- t o- one funct ion. Det ermine and proof
whet her t he funct ion f( x) is one- t o- one. The
domain is a set of real numbers
Define ont o funct ion. Det ermine if t he funct ion
f( x) is ont o funct ion.
18
Composition of functions
Given two functions g : X Y and f : Y Z, the
composition f g is defined as follows:
(f g)(x) = f(g(x)) for every x e X.
Example: g(x) = x
2
-1, f(x) = 3x + 5. Then
(f g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x
2
-1) = 3(x
2
-1) +5 = 3x
2
+2
Composition of functions is associative:
f (g h) = (f g) h,
But, in general, it is not commutative:
f g = g f.
7
19
Binary operators*
A binary operator on a set X is a function f that
associates a single element of X to every pair of
elements in X.
In other words:
f : X x X X and
f(x
1
, x
2
) e X for every pair of elements x
1
, x
2
.
Examples:
X={1,2,3,}; f(x,y)= x+y for x,y e X => f a binary operator
Binary operators are addition, subtraction and
multiplication of real numbers, taking unions or
intersections of sets, concatenation of two strings over a
set X, etc.
20
Unary operators*
A unary operator on a set X associates to each
single element of X one element of X.
In other words:
f : X X and
f(x) e X for every element x.
Example:
Let X = U be a universal set and P(U) the power set of U.
Define f : P(U) P(U) the function defined by f (A) = A
c
(i.e., the set complement of A in U) for every A _ U.
Then f defines a unary operator on P(U).
21
Summary (1)
Funct ions
Definit ion, present at ion ( arrow diagram, graph)
Hash funct ions
Collision resolut ion policies
One- t o- one funct ion
Ont o funct ion
Bij ect ive funct ion ( Bij ect ion)
I nverse of a funct ion
Composit ion of funct ions
Binary operat or versus unary operat or
8
22
Algorithms and Data
Structures (ET3155)
Lecture 3
Functions, Sequence and Relations
(Chapter 3)
Said Hamdioui
Computer Engineering Lab
Delft University of Technology
2010-2011
S.Hamdioiui, CE, EWI ,
TUDelft
ET3155 Algor it hms and Dat a St r uct ur es,
2011- 2012
23
Goals
Funct ions
Explain t he concept of a funct ion and it s main charact erist ics
Prove if a funct ion has some propert ies ( e. g. , one- t o- one,
ont o, et c)
Sequences
Explain t he concept of a sequence and be able t o manipulat e
t hem
Relat ions
Explain t he concept of Relat ion and it s main propert ies
Prove if a relat ion has some propert ies
Prove t hat a relat ion is an equivalence relat ion
Use a mat rix t o describe a Relat ion and t o prove it s propert ies
24
Topics
Functions
Relations
9
25
Sequences and strings
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers, usually
defined according to a formula: s
n
= f(n) for n = 1, 2, 3,...
E.g., C
n
=1+0.5(n-1) for n=1,2,3,4
If s is a sequence {s
n
| n = 1, 2, 3,},
s
1
denotes the first element,
s
2
the second element,
s
n
the nth element
{n} is called the indexing set/ domain of the sequence.
Usually the indexing set is N (natural numbers) or an
infinite subset of N.
n is the index of the sequence
26
Examples of sequences
Let s = {s
n
} be the sequence defined by
s
n
= 1/n , for n = 1, 2, 3,
First few elements are: 1, , 1/3, , 1/5,1/6,
Let s = {s
n
} be the sequence defined by
s
n
= n
2
+ 1, for n = 1, 2, 3,
First few elements are: 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, 37, 50,
Fibonacci sequence:
f
1
= 1, f
2
= 1, f
n
= f
n-1
+ f
n-2
for n = 2, 3, 4,
First few elements: f
1
= f
2
=1, f
3
= 2, f
4
= 3, f
5
= 5, f
6
= 8
Recurrence relation, more later
27
Increasing and decreasing
A sequence s = {s
n
} is said to be
(strictly) increasing if s
n
< s
n+1
nondecreasing if s
n
< s
n+1
(strictly) decreasing if s
n
> s
n+1
,
nonincreasing if s
n
> s
n+1
,
for every n = 1, 2, 3,
Examples:
S
n
= 4 2n, n = 1, 2, 3, is decreasing: {2, 0, -2, -4, -6,}
S
n
= 2n -1, n = 1, 2, 3, is increasing: {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, }
S
n
= n/2, n = 1, 2, 3, is nondecreasing: {0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, }
10
28
Subsequences
A subsequence of a sequence s = {s
n
} is a
sequence t = {t
n
} that consists of certain
elements of s retained in the original order they
had in s
Example:
let s = {s
n
= n | n = 1, 2, 3,}
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,
Let t = {t
n
= 2n | n = 1, 2, 3,}
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16,
t is a subsequence of s
Let m={4,3,2,1}
m is not a subsequent of s (order not maintained)
29
Sum notation
If {a
n
} is a sequence, then the sum
n
E a
i
= a
m
+ a
m+1
+ + a
n
i = m
This is called the sum or sigma notation,
where the Greek letter E indicates a sum of
terms from the sequence
i is called the index
m is the lower limit
n is the upper limit
30
Product notation
If {a
n
} is a sequence, then the product
n
H a
i
= a
m
- a
m+1
a
n
i=m
This is called the product notation, where the
Greek letter H (pi) indicates a product of
terms of the sequence
11
31
Strings
Let X be a nonempty set. A string over X is a
finite sequence of elements from X.
Example: if X = {a, b, c}
Then o = bbaccc is a string over X
Notation: bbaccc = b
2
ac
3
The length of a string o is the number of elements of
o and is denoted by |o|. If o = b
2
ac
3
then |o| = 6.
The null string is the string with no elements and
is denoted by the Greek letter . || = 0.
32
More on strings (1)
X* = {all strings over X including }
X
+
= X* - {}, the set of all non-null strings
E.g., X={a,b}
Some elements of X* are: , a, ab, abab, b
2
a
6
ba
Concatenation of two strings o and | is the
operation on strings consisting of writing o followed
by | to produce a new string o|
Example: o = bbaccc and | = caaba,
then o| = bbaccccaaba = b
2
ac
4
a
2
ba
|o|| = | o| + |||
33
More on strings (2)
Bit strings are strings over {0,1}
Substring of o: is obtained by selecting some of all
consecutive elements of o
Definition
A string | is a substring of the string o if there are strings o
and with o = o|
12
34
Exercises (Exam Jun 08)
Exam Jan 08
Given t he following sequence:
z
n
= ( 2+ n) . 3
n
; n > 0
Find a formula for z
n- 1
?
Find a formula for z
n- 2
?
Prove t hat { z
n
} sat isfies:
z
n
= 6 z
n- 1
9 z
n- 2
for n > 2
35
Topics
Functions
Relations
Equivalence relat ions
Mat rices and relat ions
Relat ional dat abase
36
Relations
Given two sets X and Y, the Cartesian product XxY
is the set of all ordered pairs (x,y) where xeX and
yeY
XxY = {(x, y) | xeX and yeY}
E.g., X={1,2}, Y={a,b}; XxY={(1,a), (1,b), (2,a), (2,b)}
A (binary) relation R from a set X to a set Y is a
subset of the Cartesian product XxY
If (x,y) e R, we write xRy (x is related to y)
Example: X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b}
R = {(1,a), (1,b), (2,b), (3,a)} is a relation from X to Y
13
37
Domain and range
Given a relation R from X to Y,
The domain of R is the set
Dom(R) = { xeX | (x, y) eR for some yeY}
The range of R is the set
Rng(R) = { yeY | (x, y) eR for some x eX}
Example:
if X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b, c}
R = {(1,a), (1,b), (2,b)}
Then: Dom(R)= {1, 2}, Rng(R) = {a, b}
38
Example of a relation
Let X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b, c, d}.
Define R = {(1,a), (1,d), (2,a), (2,b), (2,c)}
The relation can be pictured by a graph
What is the domain?
What is the range?
39
Properties of relations (1)
Let R be a relation on a set X (i.e. R is a subset of XxX)
R is reflexive if (x,x) eR for every xeX
Examples
- R={(a,a), (b,c), (c,b), (d,d)} on X={a,b,c,d} is not reflexive
- R on X={1,2,3,4} defined by (x,y) eR if x < y is reflexive
R is symmetric if for all x, y eX, if (x,y)eR then (y,x) eR
Examples
- R={(a,a), (b,c), (c,b), (d,d)} on X={a,b,c,d} is symmetric
- R on X={1,2,3,4} defined by (x,y) eR if x < y is not
symmetric
14
40
Properties of relations (2)
Let R be a relation on a set X (i.e. R is a subset of XxX)
R is antisymmetric
if for all x,yeX, if (x,y)eR and (y,x)eR, then x=y.
Examples
- R={(a,a), (b,c), (c,b), (d,d)} on X={a,b,c,d} is not antisymmetric
- R on X={1,2,3,4} defined by (x,y) eR if x < y is antisymmetric
R is transitive
if (x,y) eR and (y,z) eR imply (x,z)eR
Examples
- R={(a,a), (b,c), (c,b), (d,d)} is not transitive
- R on X={1,2,3,4} defined by (x,y) eR if x < y is transitive
41
Examples of relations
x divides y is a relation on lN
{(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),,
(2,2),(2,4),(2,6),,
(3,3),(3,6),(3,9),}
- Reflexive? Symmetric? Transitive?
x < y is a relation on lN
{(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),,
(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),,
(3,3),(3,4),(3,5),}
- Reflexive? Symmetric? Transitive?
42
Order relations
Let X be a set and R a relation on X
R is a partial order on X if R is reflexive,
antisymmetric and transitive.
Suppose R is partial order, let x,yeX
If (x,y) or (y,x) are in R, then x and y are comparable
If (x,y) eR and (y,x) eR then x and y are incomparable
If every pair of elements in X are comparable, then
R is a total order on X
x divides y
has some
incomp. el.
eit her
x< y or
y< x
are t rue
15
43
Partial Order
I s s on nat ural numbers a part ial order?
s is reflexive because n s n
s is t ransit ive because if l s n and n s m t hen lsm
s is ant isymmet r ic if m s n and n s m t hen n= m
is s a t ot al order?
yes, because for every n and m: n s m or m s n
I s < on nat ural numbers part ial order?
No because it is not reflexive : n< n is not t rue
Ex am pl e
44
Exercises
Is the relation R = {(x,y) 3 divides x-y} on lN
reflexive
symmetric
antisymmetric
transitive
a partial order?
45
Inverse of a relation
Given a relation R from X to Y, its inverse R
-1
is
the relation from Y to X defined by
R
-1
= { (y,x) | (x,y) e R }
Example: if R = {(1,a), (1,d), (2,a), (2,b), (2,c)}, then
R
-1
= {(a,1), (d,1), (a,2), (b,2), (c,2)}
16
46
Equivalence relations
Let X be a set and R a relation on X
R is an equivalence relation on X if R is
reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Example:
R={(1,1),(1,3),(1,5),(2,2),(2,4),(3,1),(3,3),(3,5),
(4,2),(4,4),(5,1),(5,3),(5,5)} on {1,2,3,4,5}
R is reflexive because (1,1)(2,2) etc. are in R
R is symmetric because both (x,y) and (y,x) are in R
R is transitive because when (x,y) and (y,z) are in R
then (x,z) is also in R
R is an equivalence relation
Note: directed graphs can be used
47
Equivalence relation
Ex am pl es:
I s = on nat ural numbers an equivalence
relat ion ?
= is reflexive : n= n
= is symmet ric : if m= n t hen n= m
= is t ransit ive : if m= n and n= l t hen m= l
R is neit her reflexive nor t ransit ive
I s R= { ( a, a) , ( b, c) , ( c, b) , ( d, d) } on
X= { a, b, c, d} an equivalent relat ion?
48
Partitions
A partition S on a set X is a collection {A
1
, A
2
,, A
n
}
of subsets of X, such that
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
n
= X
A
j
A
k
= C for every j, k with j = k, 1 < j, k < n.
Example:
if X = {integers}, E = {even integers) and O = {odd integers}
then S = {E, O} is a partition of X.
I f X= { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} , t hen
S = { { 1, 4, 5} , { 2, 6} , { 3, 7} , { 8} } is a part it ion of X
S = { { 1, 2, 4, 5} , { 2, 3, 6} , { 7} , { 8} } is NOT a part it ion of X
17
49
Partitions and equivalence relations
Theorem: Let S be a partition on a set X.
Define a relation R on X by xRy to mean that for some subset
T e S both x, y belongs to T.
Then: R is an equivalence relation on X.
an equivalence relation on a set X corresponds to a
partition of X and conversely.
Proof:
By definition of partition, x belongs to T; thus xRx (reflexive)
Suppose xRy. Then both x and y belong to same subset T. So
do y and x, yRx (symmetric).
Suppose xRy and yRz. x and y belong to same subset A and
y and z belong to same subset T. Since y belongs to exactly
one member S, we must have T=A. Hence xRz (transitive).
50
Consider par t i t i on S= { { 1,3,5} , { 2, 6} , { 4} } of
X= { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Consider t he relat ion R on X defined by xRy if x, y
belongs to the same subset TeS (theorem of the previous
slide)
R = { ( 1, 1) ( 1, 3) ( 1, 5) ( 3, 1) ( 3, 3) ( 3, 5) ( 5, 1) ( 5, 3) ( 5, 5) }
is an equi v al ence r el at i on
because { 1,3,5} is in S.
The complet e relat ion is :
{ ( 1, 1) ( 1, 3) ( 1, 5) ( 3, 1) ( 3, 3) ( 3, 5) ( 5, 1) ( 5, 3) ( 5, 5)
( 2, 2) ( 2, 6) ( 6, 2) ( 6, 6)
( 4, 4) }
51
Equivalence classes
Let X be a set and let R be an equivalence relation on X.
Let a e X.
Define [a] ={ xeX | xRa }
(i.e., the set of all elements in X that are related to a)
Let S = { [a] | a e X }
( i.e., a collection of subset of [a])
Theorem: S is a partition on X. [proof: see the book]
The sets [a] are called equivalence classes of X given by
the relation R.
Given a, b e X, then [a] = [b] or [a][b] = C
18
52
Consider t he equi v al ence r el at i on R on
X= { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} defined as:
R= { ( 1, 1) ( 1, 3) ( 1, 5) ( 3, 1) ( 3, 3) ( 3, 5) ( 5, 1) ( 5, 3) ( 5, 5)
( 2, 2) ( 2, 6) ( 6, 2) ( 6, 6)
( 4, 4)
}
Equivalence class [ 1] consist s of all x such t hat ( x, 1) eR:
[1]={1,3,5}=[3]=[5]
The other equivalence classes are :
[2]=[6]={2,6}
[4]={4}
Hence S = { [ a] | aeX} [ Theorem previous slide]
= { { 1, 3, 5} , { 2, 6} , { 4} } is a par t i t i on
53
Example:
let X= { 1, 2, . . . , 10} . xRy means 3 divides x- y; R
is an equivalence relat ion
members of equivalence classes :
equivalence=has same remainder when divided by 3
[ 1] = { x eX| 3 divides x-1}= { xeX | xR1} {1,4,7,10}
[2]={2,5,8}
[3]={3,6,9}
[1]=[4]=[7]=[10]
[2]=[5]=[8]
[3]=[6]=[9]
Therefore S = { [ a] | aeX} = { { 1, 4, 7, 10} , { 8, 5, 2} { 3, 6, 9} }
is a part it ion
54
Exercises
Exercise 1:
How many equivalence relat ions are t here on t he set { 1, 2, 3} } ?
Exercise 2:
Let X= { 1, 2, , 10}
Define a relat ion R on XxX by ( a, b) R( c, d) if a+ d= b+ c
I s R an equivalence relat ion on XxX?
Exercise 3: Exam Jan 10
19
55
Matrices of Relations
Let X, Y be sets and R a relation from X to Y
Matrix of the relation R (say A = (a
ij
) ) is
defined as follows:
Rows of A = elements of X
Columns of A = elements of Y
Element a
i,j
= 0 if the element of X in row i and
the element of Y in column j are not related
Element a
i,j
= 1 if the element of X in row i and
the element of Y in column j are related
56
The matrix of a relation (1)
Example:
Let X = {1, 2, 3}, Y = {a, b, c, d}
Let R = {(1,a), (1,d), (2,a), (2,b), (2,c)}
The matrix A of the relation R is
Obviously the matrix depends on the ordering of X and Y
a b c d
1 1 0 0 1
2 1 1 1 0
3 0 0 0 0
A =
X
Y
57
The matrix of a relation (2)
If R is a relation from a set X to itself and A is the
matrix of R then A is a square matrix.
Example: Let X = {a, b, c, d} and R = {(a,a), (b,b),
(c,c), (d,d), b,c), (c,b)}. Then
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 0 1
d
c
b
a
A
20
58
The matrix of a relation on a set X
Let A be the square matrix of a relation R from X
to itself. Let A
2
= the matrix product AA.
R is reflexive All terms a
ii
in the main
diagonal of A are 1
R is symmetric a
ij
= a
ji
for all i and j,
i.e. R is a symmetric relation on X if A is a symmetric
matrix
R is transitive whenever c
ij
in C = A
2
is
nonzero then entry a
ij
in A is also nonzero.
59
Example
R = {(a,a),(b,b},{b,c},(c,b),(c,c),(d,d)}
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1 0 0 0
0 2 2 0
0 2 2 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 0 1
2
A
A
R is symmetric
R is reflexive
R is transitive
R is an equivalence relation
60
Relational databases
A binary relation R is a relation among two
sets X and Y, already defined as R _ X x Y.
An n-ary relation R is a relation among n sets
X
1
, X
2
,, X
n
, i.e. a subset of the Cartesian
product, R _ X
1
x X
2
xx X
n
.
Thus, R is a set of n-tuples (x
1
, x
2
,, x
n
) where x
k
e
X
k
, 1 < k < n.
21
61
Databases
A database is a collection of records that are
manipulated by a computer. They can be
considered as n sets X
1
through X
n
, each of which
contains a list of items with information.
Database management systems are programs
that help access and manipulate information
stored in databases.
62
Relational database model
Columns of an n-ary relation are called attributes
E.g., Attribute Age with a domain: all positive integers less
than 100
An attribute is a key if no two entries have the same
value
e.g. ID is a key but Age is NOT (ID is unique but age is not)
A query is a request for information from the database
E.g. find all persons with age 50
Employee
I D Name Age
22 Jan 22
71 Mark 50
101 Pet er 50
63
Operators
The selection operator chooses n-tuples from a relation by
giving conditions on the attributes
E.g., Employee [Age=50] will select (71,Mark,50) and (101,Peter,50)
The projection operator chooses two or more columns and
eliminates duplicates
E.g., Employee [ID, Name] will select (22,Jan), (71,Mark) and (101, Peter)
The join operator manipulates two relations
form the Cartesian product of two relations and select those tuples
satisfying a certain condition
E.g., merge each two rows of two
different tables when a certain
condition is satisfied
Employee
I D Name Age
22 Jan 22
71 Mark 50
101 Pet er 50
22
64
SQL - Structured Query Language*
SELECT
SELECT Name, Age
FROM Employee
WHERE Age> = 60
JOI N
SELECT employees. name
FROM employees
JOI N invoices
ON employees. I D= invoices. employeeI D
SQL t ut orial can be found at
ht t p: / / www. t izag. com/ sqlTut or ial
65
Summary (2)
Definit ion of a sequence and a st ring
Subsequence versus subst ring
I ncreasing versus decreasing sequences
Nonincreasing versus nondecreasing sequences
Sum/ Sigma not at ion versus product not at ion
Null st ring
Let X be a nonempt y finit e set
X
*
: the set of all strings over X, including the null string
X
+
: the set of all nonnull strings over X
Concat enat ion of st rings
66
Summary (3)
Binary relat ions, domain, range
Relat ion propert ies
Reflexive, Symmet ric, Ant isymmet ric, Transit ive, Part ial order
I nverse relat ion
Equivalence relat ions and part it ions
Equivalence classes
Mat rix of a relat ion
Reflexive, symmet ric and t ransit ive
Binary relat ion versus n- ary relat ion
Relat ional dat abase ( at t ribut e, key, query)
Operat ors ( select ion, proj ect ion, j oin)
23
67
Suggested Exercises
From Chapt er 3 Self- t est
1, 4, 9, 14, 17

2011-2012 Lecture 2.2 3.1 Functions Sequences Relations CH3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2011-2012 Lecture 2.2 3.1 Functions Sequences Relations CH3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

You might also like